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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
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https://archive.org/details/landbook03thom 


. 


DIMESHK  ESH  SHAM-DAMASCUS  OF  SYRIA. 


€ht  ICraiit  anlt  tljp  8M 


OR 


BIBLICAL  ILL  USTRATIONS  BRA  WN FROM  THE  MANNERS 
AND  CUSTOMS,  THE  SCENES  AND  SCENERY,  OF 

THE  HOLY  LAND 


LEBANON,  DAMASCUS 

AND 

BEYOND  JORDAN 


WILLIAM  M,  ‘THOMSON,  D,  D. 

FORTY-FIVE  YEARS  A  MISSIONARY  IN  SYRIA  AND  PALESTINE 


147  ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  MAPS 


N  E W  YORK 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS 

FRANKLIN  SQUARE 

i  886 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1885,  by 
HARPER  &  BROTHERS, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


All  rights  reserved. 


PREFACE. 


The  previous  volumes  of  this  work — “Southern  Palestine 
and  Jerusalem”  and  “Central  Palestine  and  Phoenicia” — were 
mainly  devoted  to  the  Promised  Land  west  of  the  Jordan. 
The  present  volume — the  third  and  last — relates  to  the  Leb¬ 
anon,  Coelesyria,  Anti- Lebanon,  Damascus,  Bashan,  Gilead, 
and  the  regions  “beyond  Jordan  eastward.”  Though  not 
originally  included  in  the  Land  of  Promise,  those  adjacent 
districts  were  closely  connected  with  it.  Some  of  them 
were  the  first  that  were  occupied  by  the  patriarchs  of  old, 
others  were  the  first  taken  possession  of  by  the  Hebrew 
nation,  and  all  of  them  were  most  intimately  associated 
with  the  children  of  Israel  in  their  social,  civil,  and  re¬ 
ligious  institutions,  and  in  their  secular  history.  In  trav¬ 
ersing  those  regions,  therefore,  we  are  still  in  the  land  of 
the  Bible,  and  drawing  our  Biblical  illustrations  from  the 
manners  and  customs,  the  scenes  and  the  scenery  of  the 
Holy  Land. 

The  tours  and  the  excursions  described  in  this  volume 
take  a  much  wider  range  than  those  in  the  preceding  por¬ 
tions  of  this  work,  and  they  lead  to  and  through  various 
regions  rarely  visited  by  the  ordinary  traveller,  but  which 


IV 


PREFACE. 


are  invested  with  peculiar  and  surprising  interest.  Leb¬ 
anon,  little  more  to  the  average  reader  of  the  Bible  than 
a  vague  geographical  expression,  is  not  a  single  mount,  but 
a  long  and  lofty  mountain  range,  abounding  in  picturesque 
and  magnificent  scenery,  from  which  the  inspired  prophets 
and  poets  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  have  derived  some  of 
their  most  exalted  and  impressive  imagery.  And  the  an¬ 
cient  cities  in  the  regions  beyond  and  east  of  the  Jordan, 
whose  prostrate  temples,  theatres,  colonnades,  and  public 
and  private  buildings  amaze  and  astonish  the  modern  trav¬ 
eller,  are  not  mere  names,  but  impressive  realities. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  volume  the  author  has  availed 
himself  of  the  valuable  archaeological  researches  of  the 
American  Palestine  Exploration  Society  and  the  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund  of  England;  and  he  has  also  incorporated 
into  it  many  important  and  interesting  observations  derived 
from  the  publications  of  eminent  writers  and  travellers  who 
have  recently  visited  the  regions  east  of  the  Jordan. 

The  pictorial  illustrations  of  manners  and  customs  have 
been  designed  from  photographs  of  living  subjects,  and  the 
scenic  views  were  composed  from  photographs  taken  by  the 
author  and  by  the  exploration  societies  of  England  and 
America ;  and  all  of  them  have  been  drawn  and  engraved 
in  London,  Paris,  and  New  York. 

Great  attention  has  been  bestowed  upon  the  spelling  of 
proper  names,  and  all  who  have  any  knowledge  of  the  sub¬ 
ject  will  appreciate  its  importance.  The  system  adopted  for 
this  work  is  that  of  Dr.  Edward  Robinson,  drawn  up  by 
himself  and  his  fellow-traveller,  Dr.  Eli  Smith,  and  submitted 
to  the  general  meeting  of  the  Syrian  Mission.  After  care- 


PREFACE. 


V 


ful  examination,  in  which  the  author  participated,  it  was 
adopted  by  the  mission ;  and  it  has  gradually  grown  in 
public  favor — has  been  accepted  by  the  Palestine  Explo¬ 
ration  Fund  of  England,  by  the  American  Exploration  So¬ 
ciety,  by  recent  writers,  and  in  guide-books  to  the  Holy 
* 

Land.  In  addition  to  the  ancient  names  of  places  which 
occur  in  our  English  Bible,  the  present  Arabic  names  are 
added  in  all  important  cases  —  a  feature,  in  this  work,  of 
much  importance. 

This  volume  of  the  Land  and  the  Book  is  supplied  with 
two  carefully  prepared  indexes — one  of  texts,  and  the  other 
of  names  and  subjects — and  the  attention  of  the  reader  is 
directed  to  them,  as  they  will  facilitate  reference  to  those 
parts  of  the  work  where  the  Scripture  passages  illustrated, 
and  the  subjects  treated  of,  are  to  be  found. 

The  present  inhabitants  of  the  Lebanon  and  of  the  re¬ 
gions  beyond  Jordan  eastward  are  divided  into  many  sects 
and  tribes,  differing  in  appearance  and  in  manners  and  cus¬ 
toms,  and  professing  various  antagonistic  creeds  and  re¬ 
ligions.  We  shall  meet  in  our  travels  the  courteous  and 
warlike  Druse,  the  industrious  but  superstitious  Maronite, 
the  orthodox  Greek  and  the  energetic  Greek  Catholic,  the 
fanatical  Muhammedan,  the  heretical  Mutawaly,  the  heathen 
Nusaireh,  the  crafty  Israelite,  and  the  roving  son  of  Ishmael ; 
and  the  enervated  and  indolent  Osmanli  Turk  is  the  lord  of 
the  land,  dreaded  but  not  respected  by  all  his  subjects,  whose 
united  prayer  is,  “  O  Lord,  how  long !” 


W.  M.  T. 


' 


'  1 

' 


■ 


■ 


CONTENTS 


i. 

SIDON  TO  BEIRUT. 

Sidon  from  the  North. — Ancient  Wall. — Boats  drawn  up  on  the  Shore. — The  Gardens  of 
Sidon. — The  Banana-tree. — Na’urah,  or  Water-wheel. — The  Aqueduct. — El  Auwaly, 
the  Bostrenus. — The  Bridge. — Bridges  not  Mentioned  in  the  Bible. — Bridges  in  the 
Time  of  the  Romans. — The  Khan. — Migration  of  an  Arab  Tribe. — A  Winter  Storm. 
— An  Officer  of  Sa’id  Beg. — Personal  Experience. — A  Bridal-party. — The  Road  from 
Sidon  to  Beirut. — Dahar  June,  the  Residence  of  Lady  Hester  Stanhope. — The  Burial 
of  Lady  Hester. — Eccentricities  of  Lady  Hester. — Neby  Yunas,  Tomb  of  Jonah. — The 
Mother  of  Samuel. — “  Horned  Ladies.” — Biblical  Allusions  to  Horns. — The  Story  of 
Jonah  and  the  Whale. — Berja. — El  Jiyeh,  Porphyreon. — Arabs  at  a  Well. — Tattooing. 
— The  Hebrews  Forbidden  to  print  Marks  upon  themselves. — Along  the  Sandy  Beach, 
and  over  the  Rocky  Headlands. — Nukkar  es  Sa’diat. — Defeat  of  Ptolemy’s  Army  by 
Antiochus. — The  Shepherd  and  the  Sheep. — Ed  Damur,  the  Tamyras. — The  Mulberry 
Gardens  of  Mu’allakah. — Sugar  and  the  Sugar-cane. — The  Sweet  Cane  of  the  Bible. — 
“The  Burnings  of  Lime.” — Lime  Mentioned  Twice  in  the  Bible. — El  Bellan,  Thorn 
Bush. — Biblical  Allusions  to  Thorns. — Raw  or  Burnt. — Pots  and  Plots. — “  The  Crack¬ 
ling  of  Thorns  under  a  Pot.” — Khan  Khulda,  Heldua. — Ghufr  en  Na’imeh. — One  of 
St.  Helena’s  Towers. — Broken  Sarcophagi. — Esh  Shuweifat. — Olive-grove. — Beauty 
of  the  Olive-tree. — “  Oil  out  of  the  Flinty  Rock.” — Oil-presses. — Grafting. — “  A  Wild 
Olive-tree.” — The  Flower  of  the  Olive. — “  The  Labor  of  the  Olive.” — “  The  Shaking 
of  an  Olive-tree.” — The  Gleaning  of  the  Olive. — “Thy  Children  shall  be  like  Olive- 
plants  round  about  thy  Table.” — Dukkan  el  Kusis. — “A  Sea  of  Sand.” — El  Ghiidir. 
— El  Kalabat. — Ibrahim  Pasha  and  the  Emir  of  Shuweifat. — The  Goodly  Lebanon. — 
Picturesque  Villages. — The  Pines. — Arrival  at  Beirut . Page  5 

II. 

BEIRUT. 

Beirut  and  its  Surroundings. — The  Plain  of  Beirut. — Goodly  Lebanon. — Beirut  from  the 
Sea. — Beirut  not  a  Biblical  City. — History  of  Beirut. — Colonia  Augusta  Felix  Julia, 
Berytus. — Herod  the  Great. — Agrippa. — Titus. — Law  School. — Earthquake. — Theo- 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


prosopon. — The  Crusaders. — The  Saracens. — Miracle  of  the  Holy  Cross. — Palace  and 
Gardens  of  Fakhr  ed  Din. — The  Saraya. — Muhammed  ’Aly. — Bombardment  of  Bei¬ 
rut. —  Population  of  Beirut. —  Railroad. —  Antiquities  about  Beirut. — Ancient  Aque¬ 
duct. — Tunnel. — The  Wife  of  Haroun  er  Raschid. — Ruined  Temple  at  Deir  el  Kii- 
l’ah. —  “The  Smell  of  Lebanon.” — Magnificent  Prospect. —  Roofs  with  Battlements. 
— The  Holy  Land  and  the  Holy  Book. — House-tops. —  Samuel  and  Saul. —  David’s 
Palace. — The  Inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  upon  the  House-tops. —  Proclamations  from 
the  House-tops. — The  Year  of  Jubilee. — Peter  Praying  upon  the  House-top. — House¬ 
tops  in  the  Time  of  Christ. — The  Sparrow  upon  the  House-top. — In  the  Streets  of 
Beirut. —  Coffee  and  Coffee  -  shops. —  Shopkeepers. —  Pipe  -  stems.  —  Cigarettes. —  The 
Letter- writer. — Writing  and  Writing  Materials. — The  Open  Letter. — Seal  Rings. — 
The  Call  to  Prayer. — Moslems  Praying  in  the  Mosk. — Hypocrisy. — The  Pilgrimage  to 
Mecca. — Praying  Seven  Times  a  Day. — The  Sanctimonious  Judge. — Praying  towards 
Mecca  and  Jerusalem. — Shops  and  Streets. — The  Crowded  Street. — Hewers  of  Wood 
and  Drawers  of  Water. — The  Gibeonites. — Shaving  the  Head. — Paul  at  Cenchrea. — 
Barbers’  Shops. — Street  of  the  Auctioneers. — No  Provision  for  Lighting  the  Streets. 
—  Bidding  the  Guests  to  the  Supper. —  Dining  amongst  the  Orientals.  —  Sitting  at 
Meat. — Rice,  Stews,  and  Meats. — Etiquette  at  Meals. — Washing  the  Hands. — Elijah 
and  Elisha. — Ceremonial  Etiquette. —  Pipes,  Nargilehs,  and  Coffee-cups. — Talking  to 
be  Heard.  —  Garments,  Ancient  and  Modern.  —  Elijah’s  Mantle. — Joseph’s  Coat  of 
Many  Colors. — Rending  the  Clothes. — Linen,  Woollen,  Cotton,  and  Silk. — Manners 
and  Customs. — Boots  and  Shoes. — Putting  off  the  Shoes. — The  Head  and  the  Feet. — 
Costume  of  the  Women. —  Domestic  Relations. — The  Harem. — Naming  the  Father 
after  his  Eldest  Son.  —  Significant  Names,  Ancient  and  Modern. — Sleeping  without 
Change  of  Garments. —  Co-operative  House-keeping. — “  Saving  your  Reverence.” — 
Matrimony. — Sons  and  Daughters. — Marriage  with  Slaves . Page  43 

III. 

THE  DOG  RIVER,  AND  THE  SUBURBS  OF  BEIRUT. 

Excursion  to  the  Dog  River. — Eastern  Suburbs  of  Beirut. — The  View  from  Mar  Mitr. — 
The  Reservoirs. — Chapel  of  St.  George. — St.  George  and  the  Dragon. — The  Quaran¬ 
tine. — The  Beirut  River. — Jebel  Keniseh  and  Sunnin. — Bridge  over  Nahr  Beirut. — 
Emir  Fakhr  ed  Din. — The  Mulberry  Gardens. — St.  George’s  Bay. — Ride  along  the 
Beach. — The  River  of  Death. — Ant  Elias. — Narrow  Plain. — Fountain  and  River  of  Ant 
Elias. — Beirut  Water-works. — The  Tunnel. — The  Promontory  of  Nahr  el  Kelb. — The 
Ancient  Road. — View  from  the  Summit  of  the  Pass. — A  Roman  Mile-stone. — Sculptured 
Tablets. — Egyptian  Tablets  Described  by  Wilkinson. — Layard’s  Opinion  of  the  Assyrian 
Tablets. — Dr.  Robinson’s  Observations  on  the  Antiquity  of  the  Tablets. — Greek  Inscrip¬ 
tions. — Professor  J.  A.  Paine. — Cuneiform  Inscription. — Napoleon  III. — The  Dog,  and 
the  Rock  in  the  Sea. — Inscription  of  Marcus  Antoninus. — The  Greek  “Wolf”  and 
the  Arab  “Dog.” — Inscription  of  Sultan  Salim. — Scenery  at  Nahr  el  Kelb. — A  Wild 
Cabbage. — Bone  and  Flint  Deposits. — Canon  Tristram. — Mr.  Dawkins. — Fossil  Teeth 
and  Arrow-heads. —  Prehistoric  Savages. — Lebanon  abounds  in  Caverns,  Fossils,  and 
Minerals. — Visit  to  the  Caverns  of  Nahr  el  Kelb  in  1S36. — The  Caverns  Explored  by 


1 


CONTENTS.  ix 

Mr.  Maxwell  and  Mr.  Huxley  in  1873. — Description  of  the  Caverns  of  the  Dog  River. 
— The  Screen. — Professor  Robertson’s  Account. — The  Cathedral. — Maxwell’s  Column. 
— The  Hermit’s  Pillar. — The  Gallery. —  The  Dome. — Willow  Point  and  Light-house.. 
— The  Elephant’s  Cave. — Bliss’s  Straits. — The  Draperies. — The  Pantheon. — Clayton's- 
Passage. — The  Styx. — Rustum  Pasha’s  Chandelier. — Chaos. — Huxley  and  Brigstocke’s> 
Rapids. — Personal  Incident. — Attempt  to  Explore  the  Caverns  above  the  Rapids  De¬ 
scribed  by  Professor  Robertson. — Temperature  of  the  Air  and  Water  in  the  Caverns. 
— Depth  of  the  Water. —  The  Caves  of  Nahr  el  Kelb  compared  with  Celebrated 
Caverns  in  other  Countries. —  Ride  up  the  River  Gorge. —  The  Aqueduct. —  Grand 
and  Picturesque  Scenery. — The  Weir. — The  Road  over  the  Tunnel  and  to  the  Sea. 
— Ride  around  the  Western  Suburbs  of  Beirut. — The  Barracks  and  Hospital. — The 
Capuchin  Monastery  and  Church. — Institute  of  the  Deaconesses. — German  Church. 
— Khan  Antun  Beg. — Ottoman  Bank. — Consulates. — Post-offices. — Moslem  Cemetery. 
— Hotels. — Remains  of  Ancient  Baths. — Modem  Bathing-houses. — Minat  el  Husn.. — 
Sponge  Divers. —  Petroleum  Warehouses. —  Ship-building  Yard. —  Potteries  and  Tan¬ 
neries. — -Inhabited  Well.  —  The  Hospital  of  St.John. —  The  Medical  Hall. —  Syrian 
Protestant  College. — Lee  Observatory. — Unequalled  Site  and  Magnificent  Prospect. — 
Jackals  and  Hyenas. — The  Light-house. — Extended  Outlook. — French  Company. — 
Numerous  Inlets. — Deep  Caverns. — Seals  or  Sea-cows. — The  Rousha. — Perpendicular 
Cliffs. — Ibrahim  Pasha. — The  Conscription. — Refugees. — Fugitives  in  the  Caves  and 
on  the  Rousha. — The  Rousha  in  a  Winter  Storm. — Petrified  Echini  in  the  Rocks. — 
The  Sand  Sea. — Gardens  and  Houses  Overwhelmed  by  the  Sand. — Woe-begone  Don¬ 
keys. — The  Quarries. — Narrow  Lanes. — Prickly-pear  Hedges. — Fruit  of  the  Prickly- 
pear. —  Pine-groves. —  Sowing  the  Pine. — Venerable  Pine-trees  Planted  by  Fukhr  ed 
Din. — The  Sycamore. — Zaccheus. — Sycamore  Figs. — Gatherers  of  Sycamore  Fruit. — 
The  Power  of  Faith  Illustrated  by  the  Sycamore. — The  Black  Mulberry. — The  Syca¬ 
more  in  Egypt. —  Biblical  References  to  the  Sycamore. — ’Assur. —  The  Cemetery. — 
The  Press. — The  Bible  Warehouse. — Anglo-American  Church. — Female  Seminary. — 
Mecca  Pilgrims. — Fanatical  Moslem  Dervishes  and  the  Priest  of  Baal. — The  Douseh. 
— Riding  over  Prostrate  Men  and  Boys . Page  91 


IV. 

BEIRUT  TO  SHEMLAN. 

A  Mountain  House. — Moving  to  the  Mountains. — Modern  Summer  Residences. — Leba¬ 
non  a  Favorite  Summer  Retreat. — Dames  de  Nazareth. — The  Sisters  of  Charity. — 
Silk  Factory. — Cocoons. — Export  of  Silk. — The  Pines. — The  Damascus  Road. — No 
Trace  of  an  Ancient  Highway  over  Lebanon. — ’Areiya. — El  Mugheiteh. — Jebel  el 
Keniseh. — El  Buka’a. — Shtora. — Mejdel  ’Anjar. — Anti-Lebanon. — Diligences. — Bag- 
gage-wagons. — The  Carriage-drive. — 'Canals. — Rustem  Pasha’s  Bridge. — Khan  el  Has- 
miyeh. — The  Plain. — The  Palm-tree. — Phoenicia. — Hebrew  Women  Named  after  the 
Palm-tree. — Biblical  Allusions  to  the  Palm-tree. — Palm-branches  an  Emblem  of  Re¬ 
joicing. —  Bethany,  the  House  of  Dates. —  Clusters  of  Dates. — El  Pladeth. —  Shehab 
Emirs. — As’ad  esh  Shediak. — History  of  Lebanon. — B’abda. — Geodes  of  Quartz. — 
Blind  Beggar  by  the  Way-side. — The  Carob-tree. — St.John’s  Bread. — “The  Husks.” 


J 


X 


CONTENTS. 


— Syrup. — Dukkan  el  Wurwar. — Nahr  el  Ghudir. — Wady  Shahrur. — Kefr  Shima. — 
Terraced  Hill-sides. — Sarcophagi. — Protestant  Chapel. — Soap. — Ascent  of  the  Moun¬ 
tain. — Deir  el  Kurkufeh. — Anemones  and  Cyclamens. — Pine-grove. — Sandstone  For¬ 
mation.  -r-Road  to  Aitath. — ’Ain  Bsaba. — Mountain  Scenery. — ’Ain  ’Anoub. — Village 
Fountain. — Road  to  Shemlan. — Summer  Eve  on  Lebanon. — Shemlan. — Lebanon  a 
Range  of  Mountains. — Dean  Stanley. — “The  White  Mountain.” — Rains  and  Snows 
on  Lebanon. — Geological  Characteristics  of  Lebanon. — Conspicuous  Summits  of  Leb¬ 
anon. — The  Rivers  of  Lebanon. — The  Natural  Bridge. — Temple  of  Venus. — Birth¬ 
place  of  Adonis. — Cedar-groves. —  Convent  of  Kanobin. — Orthosia.  —  The  Seaward 
Face  of  Lebanon. — The  Orontes. — The  Eastern  Side  of  Lebanon. — El  Berduny. — 
Fountains  at  Meshghurah. — Villages  on  Lebanon. — Biblical  Allusions  to  Lebanon. — 
Moses,  David,  Solomon,  Isaiah. — Goodly  Lebanon. — The  Province  of  Tripoli  and  that 
of  Sidon. — Districts  of  Lebanon. — Emir  Beshir  Shebah. — Ibrahim  Pasha. — The  Allied 
Powers. — Civil  Wars  and  Massacres. — The  Present  Form  of  Government. — Population 
of  Lebanon. — The  Muhammedans  and  Metawileh. — The  Greeks  and  Greek  Catholics. 
— The  Maronites  and  Druses . Page  12 1 


V. 

TOUR  THROUGH  SOUTHERN  LEBANON. 

Southern  Lebanon. — The  Bells  of  the  Mules,  and  the  Song  of  the  Muleteers. — Wander¬ 
ing  about  the  Mountains. — ’Ainab. — Natural  Tells. — Perpendicular  Strata. — Dukkan 
’Ainab. — Beit  Tulhuk. — Original  Inhabitants  of  Lebanon. — The  Phoenicians. — Rock- 
cut  Tombs. — ’Ain  Kesur. — The  Wady  below  ’Abeih. — ’Abeih. — Old  Palaces. — Burn¬ 
ing  of  ’Abeih  in  1845. — Escape  of  the  Christians  in  i860. — Mutaiyar  ’Abeih. — Mag¬ 
nificent  Prospect. — Kefr  Metta. — Villages  and  Houses  on  Lebanon. — Beit  el  Kady. 
— El  Fuzur. — Traces  of  Glacial  Action. — Tropical  Climate  and  Fruits. — Cloud-bursts. 
— Jisr  el  Kady. — Mills. — Nahr  el  Gabun  and  Nahr  el  Kady. — Villages  Inhabited  by 
Druses  and  Maronites. — Bridges,  Ancient  and  Modern. — Adventure  with  a  Panther. 
—  Wild  Beasts  in  the  Holy  Land  in  Bible  Times.  —  Bshetfin.  —  Stagnation  of  the 
Druses  and  Enterprise  of  the  Christians. — Luxuriant  and  Fertile  Fields. — Deir  el 
Kamar. — The  Massacres  of  i860. — A  Border  Land  of  Antagonistic  Tribes. — Revenge¬ 
ful  Spirit  of  the  Maronites. — Beit  Abu  Nakad. — Bteddin. — The  Emir  Beshir. — Beit 
Shehab. — Palace  at  Bteddin. — B’aklin. — Simekaniyeh. — Battle-field  of  the  Druses. — 
Esh  Shuf. — Civil  Wars. — Description  of  the  Scenery  and  Geology  of  Lebanon  by  Dr. 
Anderson. — El  Judeideh. — Beit  Jumblat. — Sheikh  Beshir. — Palaces  at  Mukhtarah. — 
Vicissitudes  of  Fortune. —  Sa’icl  Beg  Jumblat. — ’Ammatur. —  Gray  Squirrels. —  Oak- 
grove  and  Fountain  of  Bathir. — Fountains  and  Cliffs  between  Bathir  and  Jezzin. — 
The  Auwaly. — Merj  Bisry. — Ruins  of  an  Ancient  Temple. — Emir  Fakhr  ed  Din  Be¬ 
sieged  and  Captured  in  a  Cavern. — Cascade  below  Jezzin. — The  Ambassador  and  his 
Family. — Jeba’ah. — Neby  Safy. — Jerju’a. — Neby  Sijud. — Jermiik. — Jebel  er  Riham. 
— Globular  Iron-ore. — High-places,  Ancient  and  Modern. — Jezzin. — Hunting-ground 
of  the  Shehab  Emirs. — Taumat  Niha. — Ancient  Highway  from  Sidon  to  Damascus. 
— Kefr  Huneh. — Smuggling  Tobacco. — Circular  Lake. — Descent  to  the  Litany. — Jisr 
Burghuz. —  Magnificent  Prospects. —  Meshghurah. — Villages  upon  the  South-eastern 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


Slopes  of  Lebanon. — Rapid  Restoration  to  Prosperity  after  Civil  Wars. — Schools. — 
Jisr  Kur’un. — Geodes. — The  Buka’a  originally  a  Lake. — Kamid  el  Lauz. — Luz. — 
Sughbm. — Jisr  Jubb  Jenin. — Geodes  of  Chalcedony  and  Agate. — Vineyards. — Ascent 
of  Lebanon.  —  View  over  the  Buka’a.  —  Manna.  —  The  Cedars  of  el  Baruk  and  el 
Ma’asir. — Hiram  and  Solomon. — Fountains  of  el  Baruk. — Aqueduct  of  Sheikh  Be- 
shir. — Description  of  Wady  el  Fureidis  and  Wady  ’Ain  Zahalteh  by  Dr.  Anderson. 
— Scenery  around  ’Ain  Zahalteh. — Fountains  of  Nahr  el  Kady. — Avalanche  at  Kefr 
Nebrakh. — Burj  el  ’Amad. — Beit  el  ’Amad. — Sheikh  Khuttar. — Cedars  at  ’Ain  Za¬ 
halteh. — Sources  of  the  Damur  and  the  Auwaly. — Problem  of  Fountains. — Sandstone 
Formation  and  Pine-groves. — Btathir. — Beit  ’Abd  el  Melek. — Silk  Factories. — Bham- 
dun  during  the  Civil  Wars. — Wady  el  Ghabun. — Bhauwarah,  the  Residence  of  Colonel 
Churchill. — Churchill’s  History  of  Lebanon. — A  Glorious  Prospect  .  .  .  Page  141 

VI. 

SHEMLAN  TO  THE  NATURAL  BRIDGE, 

Summer  Resorts  on  Lebanon. — ’Aitath. — Beit  Tulhuk. — Suk  el  Ghiirb. — Ancient  Church. 
—  The  Sweating  Picture. —  Convent  of  St.  George. —  Monks. — Wady  Shahrur. — In¬ 
habited  Tree. — ’Aleih.- -Tragedies  in  the  Old  Palace. — Ibrahim  Pasha. — Tragedy  of 
the  Three  Brothers. — Decline  of  Feudal  Princes. — Wady  Hummana. — Coal  Mine. — 
Muhammed  Aly. — Petrified  Pine-cones. — District  of  el  Metn. — The  Emirs  of  Beit  el 
Lema. — Brummana. — The  Damascus  Road. — El  Mugheiteh. — Snow  Blockade. — Jebel 
Keniseh. — Summit  Level. — Khan  Murad. — Cold  Winds  and  Malignant  Fevers. — A 
Glorious  Prospect. — El  Buka’a. — Anti-Lebanon. — Eastern  Side  of  Lebanon. — Shtora. 
— The  Road  to  Damascus. — Temple  at  Mejdel  ’Anjar. — Neb’a  ’Anjar. — Intermitting 
Fountain. — Deir  el  Ghuzal. — Kubb  Elias. — Mekseh. — Extensive  Views  over  Coelesyria. 
— Zahleh. — El  Berduny. — “Vine  and  Fig-tree.” — El  Mu’allakah. — Burning  of  Zah- 
leh. — Prosperity  of  Zahleh. — Iverak  Nuh. — Ascent  of  Lebanon. — Bituminous  Shale. — 
Globular  Iron  Ore.— Limestone  Pinnacles. — Neb’a  Sunnin. — Temples  on  Lebanon. — 
Temple  near  ’Anturah. — Husn  Niha. — Tomb  of  Noah. — Tomb  of  Seth. — Origin  of 
Primitive  Sanctuaries. — Rock-cut  Tombs. — The  Druses  and  their  Religion. — Druse 
Funerals. — Feudal  Families  of  the  Druses. — Lex  talionis,  or  Blood  Revenge. — Moses 
and  the  Hebrews. — Matrimonial  Alliances. — Abraham  and  Jacob. — Betrothal. — Noc¬ 
turnal  Incident. — Bears  and  Wolves.— Ascent  of  Sunnin.— Outlook  from  the  Sum¬ 
mit  of  Lebanon. — Sirocco. — Descent  of  Lebanon. — Druse  War-song. — Bringing  Grain 
to  the  Mill. — Grinding  at  the  Mill. — Baking  Bread  in  the  Tannur. — Native  Bread. — 
The  Use  of  Leven.— The  Staff  of  Life. — Cone-shaped  Oven. — City  Ovens. — Ovens 
in  the  Time  of  the  Hebrews.— Baking  upon  the  Saj. — Wady  Biskinta. — Griffin  Vul¬ 
tures. —  Eagles.— Pinnacles  of  Limestone. —  Casts  of  Fossil  Shells. — Dr.  Anderson’s 
Description  of  the  Fossils  of  Syria. — Kul’at  el  Fukra. — Tiberius  Claudius. — The  Tem¬ 
ple  in  the  Midst  of  Rocky  Pinnacles  Described  by  Dr.  Robinson.  —  Remains  of  a 
Tomb.  —  Road  from  the  Dog  River  to  the  Natural  Bridge.  —  ’Ajeltun.  —  Fantastic 
Rock  Scenery. — Wady  es  Salib. — Canal  from  Nahr  el  Leben. — Irrigation. — Sowing 
Wheat  in  Autumn.  —  Neb’a  el  Leben.  —  Milk  and  Honey. — The  Natural  Bridge. — 
District  of  el  Kesrawan. — The  Maronites. — Feudal  Families. — Monastery  Bells  .  188 


Xll 


CONTENTS. 


VII. 

THE  NATURAL  BRIDGE  TO  THE  CEDARS. 

Bird’s-eye  View  of  the  Kesrawan. — Picturesque  Hamlets  and  Flourishing  Villages. — Con¬ 
vents  Isolated  in  Winter. — Nahr  es  Salib. — Flooded  Fields  and  Ploughed-up  Roads. — 
Cascade. — Neb’a  el  ’Asal. — Wady  Shebruh. — Volcanic  Action  and  Fields  of  Trap- 
rock. — Energy  and  Industry  of  the  People. — Products  of  the  Soil. — Lebanon  Wine. — 
Zuk  Musbah. — ’Arak. — Sacramental  Wine  used  by  Papists  and  Greeks. — The  Juice 
of  the  Grape. — The  Wine  Used  at  the  Last  Supper  and  the  Feasts  of  the  Jews. — 
“Unfermented  Wine.” — Wine,  Ancient  and  Modern. — The  Wine  of  the  Bible. — The 
Hebrew  Debash  and  Arabic  Dibs. — Winter  on  Lebanon. — Monotonous  Life  of  the 
Natives. — Mountain  Houses. — Miscellaneous  Company. — Animals,  Smoke,  and  Fleas. 
— Smoking  and  Sleeping. — The  Return  of  Spring. — Biblical  Allusions  to  Manners 
and  Customs. — Ancient  and  Modern  Habitations. — Reminiscences  of  a  Former  Tour. 
— Lost  in  a  Fog. — Magnificent  Prospect. — The  Lebanon  Range. — Descent  to  ’Afka. 
— Walnut  and  Sycamore  Trees. — Venus  and  Adonis. —  Goats  in  the  Clefts  of  the 
Rock. — A  Tremendous  Cliff. —  Scene  from  the  Bridge. —  Mugharat  ’Afka. —  Source 
of  the  Adonis. — Three  Cascades. — Temple  of  Venus. — Syenite  Columns. — The  Wor¬ 
ship  of  Adonis. — Destruction  of  the  Temple  by  Constantine. — Retrospective. — The 
Damsels  of  Phoenicia. — “Women  Weeping  for  Tammuz.” — The  Poetry  of  Milton, 
and  the  Vision  of  Ezekiel. — “  Smooth  Adonis  ran  purple  to  the  Sea.” — Ancient  and 
Modern  ’Afka. — Metawileh. — The  Valley  of  Nahr  Ibrahim. — Bridge. — Emir  Ibrahim. 
— Mar  Maron. — Burj  Fatrah. — Ancient  Aqueduct. — Plateau. — Wady  el  Muneitirah. — 
Wady  el  Mugheiyireh. — Eagles  and  Ravens. — Natural  Bridge. — Grotto  at  el  ’Aukurah. 
— Wine-vats. —  El  ’Aukurah. — Trap -rock.  —  Burckhardt. —  Native  Hospitality. — The 
Avenger  of  Blood. — Lofty  Plateau. — Arab  Encampment. — Transportation  of  Sheep 
to  Egypt. — Pasture-lands  of  the  Kurds. — Funnel-shaped  Pits. — Jebel  Jaj. — El  Mesh- 
nakah. — Burr  el  Haithy. — “Timber  of  Cedar.” — Wady  Fedar. — M.  Renan’s  De¬ 
scription  of  the  Ruins  at  el  Meshnakah.  —  Rock-cut  Tombs. — “Baal  a  la  tete 
Rayonee.” — Figures  Carved  in  the  Rock  at  el  Ghineh. — “The  Image  of  Venus.” — 
Aid  ’Akluk. —  Hid  Treasure. —  Inscriptions  on  the  Rocks. —  Dr.  De  Forest.  —  M. 
Renan. — The  Emperor  Adrian. — Tannurin  el  Foka. — Fog  in  Autumn. — Fossil  Fish. 
— Hakil. — Duma. — Iron  Ore. — Wady  Tannurin. — Ard  Tannurin. — Wady  ed  Duweir. 
— Wady  el  Jauzeh. — Jebel  en  Nuriyeh. — Theoprosopon. — Nahr  el  Jauzeh. — Kul’at  el 
Museilihah. — Black-mail. — Cedar-grove. — The  Emir  Beshir  and  the  British  Fleet. — 
Manufacture  of  Pitch. — Trees  Cut  Down  will  often  Sprout  Again. — Ruins  of  a  Con¬ 
vent. — Amyun. — El  Kurah. — El  Hadith. — Wady  el  Kadisha. — The  Holy  River. — Deir 
Kanobin. — Maundrell’s  Visit  to  Kanobin. — As’ad  esh  Shidiak. — Hasrun. — Convers¬ 
ing  Across  the  Chasm. — Exceptional  Cultivation. — Gorge  of  the  Kadisha  Described 
by  Dr.  Robinson. — “The  Beauty  and  the  Grandeur  of  Lebanon.” — Bsherreh. — 
Bridge  over  the  Holy  River. — Productiveness  of  the  Soil. — The  Cedars  of  God. — 
A  Sabbath  of  Rest  among  the  Cedars  of  Lebanon. — The  Cedar  pre-eminently  the 
Biblical  Tree. — El  Arz. — Biblical  Allusions  to  the  Cedar. — Cedar  Wood. — The  Palaces 
of  David  and  Solomon  and  the  Temple  of  the  Lord. — The  Temples  of  Zerubbabel 


CONTENTS. 


Xlll 


and  Herod  and  the  Graven  Images  of  a  God. — Fragments  of  Cedar  among  the  Ruins 
of  Nineveh. — Cedar  not  Mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. — Juniper. — Pine. — The 
Thistle  and  the  Cedars  of  Lebanon. — The  Destruction  of  the  Ancient  and  Modern 
Cedar. — Sunday-school  under  the  Cedars. — The  Cedar-tree  of  the  Bible. — The  Lo¬ 
cality  of  the  Cedars  Described  by  Dr.  Robinson. — Dean  Stanley. — Canon  Tristram. — 
Glacial  Moraines. — The  present  Cedar-grove. — Age  of  the  Cedars. — The  Glory  of 
Lebanon. — Four  Cedar-trees  Intertwined  and  Growing  together.  —  Dean  Stanley’s 
Description  of  Old  and  Young  Trees  supporting  one  another. — Graceful  Form  and 
Shape  of  the  Cedar. — Vain  Effort  to  Protect  the  Young  Cedars. — Lebanon  could  be 
Covered  with  Cedars.  —  Cedars  in  the  Parks  and  Gardens  of  Europe.  —  “Full  of 
Sap.” — The  Cedar  not  Used  for  Building  Purposes. — Feast  of  the  Cedars. — Modern 
Chapel. — Decline  of  Religious  Zeal . Page  232 

VIII. 

THE  CEDARS  TO  HURMUL  AND  BA’ALBEK. 

The  Summit-level  of  the  Lebanon  Range. — The  Cedar  Mountain. — Jebel  Mukhmal.- — 
Pass  over  Lebanon  Described  by  Dr.  Buchanan. — Ehden. — Paradisus. — Yusuf  Karam. 
—  Pass  around  the  West  End  of  Lebanon. —  Tripolis. —  El  Mina.  —  Small  Islands 

I 

North-west  of  Tripoli. — The  Castle  of  Tripoli. — Library  at  Tripoli  Burnt  during  the 
Crusades.  —  Burckhardt.  —  Tarablus  esh  Sham.  —  Terminus  of  the  Euphrates  Valley 
Railroad. — Ruwad,  Arvad. — Cyclopean  Wall. — Alexander  the  Great. — Tartus,  T01- 
tosa. — Castle  and  Church  at  Tartus. — Bombardment  of  Tartus. — Antaridus. — Ancient 
Quarries. — Idol-temple. — Remains  near  ’Ain  el  Haiyeh. — Sepulchral  Monuments. — 
M.  Renan. — Marathus. — Area. — Tell  ’Arka. — Temple  of  Alexander. — The  Emperor 
Severus. — The  Holy  Lance. — Ruins  of  Area. — Tunnel. — Fossil  Shells. — Exuberant 
Verdure  and  Grand  Scenery. — Nahr  el  Barid. — Orthosia. — Ruined  Temple  on  Harf 
es  Sphiry. — Dining  with  the  Beg  at  Sir. — The  Man  of  Uz. — The  Sabbatical  River. 
— Fauwar  ed  Deir. — Intermitting  Fountains. —  Gray  Squirrels  and  Walnut-trees. — 
Fountain  and  Overhanging  Cliff. — View  from  the  Pass  above  Sir. — Cloud-burst. — 
Homer. — Tydens.  —  Dislocated  Strata. — Wheat  and  Snow.  —  Sheepfolds.  —  ’Ain  el 
Beida. — Natives  Making  Tar. — A  Mountain  Meadow. — Et  Tubban. — Water-shed. — 
Wady  Farah. — “Boundless  Contiguity  of  Shade.” — ’Ain  el  Ayun. — Dahar  el  Kudhib. 
— A  Camp-fire  on  Lebanon. — Personal  Incident  at  Hurmul. — Local  Rebellion. — 
Hurmul. — Woodland  Scenery  on  Lebanon  Described  by  Van  de  Velde.  —  “  The  En¬ 
trance  of  Hamath.” — Dr.  Robinson. — Ribleh. — Pharaoh  and  Josiah. — Nebuchadnezzar 
and  Zedekiah. — A  Dreadful  Massacre. — The  Camping-ground  of  Fierce  Conquerors. 
— The  Hittites. — The  Kheta. —  Egyptian  Inscriptions. — Rameses  II. —  M.  Ebers. — 
Battle  near  Kadesh  between  the  Egyptians  and  the  Kheta. — The  “Right  Arm”  of 
Rameses  II. — Pentaur. — The  Iliad  of  the  Egyptians. — “  I  was  alone.” — Rameses  II. 
Fighting  the  Kheta,  with  Two  Lions  at  his  Side. — A  Warlike  and  Powerful  People. — 
The  Report  of  the  Spies  sent  by  Moses. — Frequent  Communication  between  Egypt 
and  Syria  in  Patriarchal  Times. — Egyptian  Influence  in  Syria. — Site  of  Ketesh. — 
Kedes. — Laodicea. — Tell  Neby  Mindau. — Lake  of  Hums  or  Kedes. — Stone  Dam. — 
Abulfeda. — Canal  to  Hums. — Rivulets  and  Corn-fields. — The  Fountains  of  the  Oron- 


XIV 


CONTENTS. 


tes  Described  by  Van  de  Velde. — Neb’a  el  ’Asy. — The  Orontes. — The  Monk’s  Cavern. 
— Kamu’a  el  Hurmul. — Hunting  Scenes  Delineated  on  the  Kamua. — Outlook  over 
the  Plain  from  the  Kamu’a. — The  Canal  from  ’Ain  Lebweh  to  Ka’a. — Perpendicular 
Banks  above  Neb’a  el  ’Asy. — Ras  Ba’albek. — Conna. — Wady  Fikeh. — El  ’Ain. — 
Ain. — The  Water-shed. — A  Night  in  a  Bedawin  Encampment. — Lebweh. — Lybo. — 
Saracen  and  Crusader. — Neb’a  Lebweh. — An  Oasis  in  the  Desert. — Lake  Yemmuneh. 
— Disappearance  of  the  Water  of  the  Lake. — Ruined  Temple  at  Yemmuneh. — Vil¬ 
lages  on  the  Hill-sides,  not  in  the  Plain. — Lone  Column  in  the  Buka’a. — Ancient 
Temple  and  Rock-cut  Tombs  at  Nahleh . Page  270 


'  IX. 

BAALBEK  TO  DAMASCUS.. 

Ba’albek  and  el  Buka’a. — Approach  to  Ba’albek  from  the  Cedars,  and  from  Zahleh. — 
Personal  Experience. — The  Cardinal  Points. — Position  of  Ba’albek. — The  Ancient 
City. — The  Old  Wall. — Doric  Column. — Remains  of  the  Old  Town. — Statues. — The 
Modern  Town. — The  Acropolis. — Artificial  Platform  of  the  Great  Temple. — Stairway 
Leading  to  the  Platform. — The  Portico. — Latin  Inscription. — Antoninus  Pius  and  Julia 
Domna. — Massive  Square  Towers. — Large  Stones. — Vaults.  —  Main  Entrance. — The 
Hexagonal  Court. — The  Triple  Gate. —  The  Great  Court. —  Niches,  Recesses,  and 
Chambers. — The  Eastern,  Northern,  and  Western  Sides  of  the  Court. — Raised  Plat¬ 
form. — The  Temple  of  the  Sun. — The  Peristyle. — The  Six  Columns. — The  Walls  of 
the  Temple  Platform. — Cyclopean  Stones  and  Walls. — Trilithon. — The  Three  Great 
Stones. — Seven  Stones  in  the  West  Wall. — Nine  Stones  Parallel  to  the  North  Wall. — 
Vaults  and  Galleries  under  the  Platform. — Temple  of  Jupiter. — The  Pantheon  at 
Athens. — Platform  of  the  Temple. — The  Portico. — The  Peristyle. — The  Vestibule. — 
The  Portal. — Mr.  David  Roberts. — The  Hanging  Keystone. — The  Assyrian  Eagle. — 
Stairway  to  the  Top  of  the  Temple. — The  Nave  of  the  Temple. — Fluted  Columns  and 
Sculptured  Niches.  —  The  Sanctum. —  Sacrificial  Procession. — Vaulted  Chambers. — 
Moslem  Iconoclasts. — Nine  Columns  on  the  North  Side  of  the  Peristyle. — Entablature 
and  Roof  of  the  Peristyle. — Lieutenant  Conder. — Three  Columns  on  the  West  Side 
of  the  Temple. — The  Leaning  Column  on  the  South  Wall  of  the  Temple. — Four 
Standing  Columns. — Fluted  Columns  of  the  Portico. — Saracenic  Tower. — The  Octag¬ 
onal  Temple.  —  Columns,  Niches,  and  Festoons.  —  Ionic  and  Corinthian  Columns 
around  the  Interior  Walls.  —  A  Christian  Church.  —  Ras  el  ’Ain.  —  Coelesyria.  —  El 
Buka’a. — The  Orontes  and  the  Leontes. — El  Berduny  and  Nahr  ’Anjar. — The  Grave 
of  Noah  and  the  Tomb  of  Seth. — Toi  and  David. — The  Hittites  and  the  Egyptians. 
— The  History  of  Ba’albek. — Baal-gad. — The  Plain  of  Aven. — Heliopolis. — Julia, 
Augusta  Felix.  —  The  Emperor  Trajan. — John  of  Antioch. — Antoninus  Pius  and 
Septimus  Severus. — Julia  Domna  and  Heliogabalus. — Venus  Worshipped  at  Ba’al¬ 
bek. —  The  Emperor  Constantine.  —  Muhammedan  Vandalism. —  Kul’at  Ba’albek. — 
The  Quarries. — The  Great  Stone  in  the  Quarry. — Ivubbet  Duris. — The  Road  to 
Damascus.  —  Emirs  of  Beit  Harfush. — Bereitan.  —  Kliuraibeh. — A  Donkey  Fallen 
under  its  Load. — The  Humane  Laws  of  Moses. — Nahr  Yahfufeh. — A  Roman  Bridge. 


CONTENTS. 


XV 


— Surghaya. — Volcanic  Plain. —  The  Water- shed. —  ’Ain  Hawar. —  Ez  Zebedany. — 
The  Plain,  the  Gardens,  and  the  Vineyards.  —  The  Source  of  the  Barada.  —  The 
Lofty  Range  of  Anti-Lebanon. — Bludan. — Wild  and  Romantic  Scenery  in  Side  Wady 
Barada. — The  Pass. — The  Bridge. — Ancient  Roadway  Cut  in  the  Rock. — Latin  In¬ 
scriptions. — “  Abila  of  Lysanias.” — Rock-hewn  Aqueduct  and  Rock-cut  Tombs. — 
Ancient  Quarries. — The  Tomb  of  Abel. — Ruins  of  a  Small  Temple. — Plain  and  Vil¬ 
lage  of  Side  Wady  Barada. — A  Devout  Hermit. — Gibbon. — Ivefr  el  ’Awamid. — An¬ 
cient  Temple. — Ride  along  the  Canal. — A  Succession  of  Surprises. — ’Ain  el  Fijeh. 
— The  most  Copious  Source  of  the  Barada. — Massive  Remains  of  Platforms  and  Tem¬ 
ples. — Fever  and  Ague. — ’Ain  el  Khudra. — Grand  Scenery  and  Execrable  Road. — 
Tunnel  through  the  Cliff. —  Zenobia  and  Palmyra. —  Bessima. —  Es  Sahra. — French 
Carriage-road. — Dummar. — Ivubbet  en  Niisr. — First  and  Finest  View  of  Damascus. — 
Description  of  the  Scene  by  Lieutenant  Van  de  Velde  and  Mr.  Addison. — The  Barada 
Described  by  Dean  Stanley. — The  Canals  and  Streams  from  the  Barada. — The  Main 
Stream. — The  Paradise  of  the  Prophet. — The  Mountains  and  the  Plain. — Hermon. 
— Nahr  el  A’waj,  the  Pharpar. — Jebel  Kasyun. — Adam  and  Abraham. — Cain  and 
Abel. — Es  Salahiyeh. — Broad  Paved  Road. — The  Tent  and  the  Hotel  .  Page  317 


X. 

DAMASCUS. 

Damascus  and  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  East. — One  of  the  Oldest  Cities  in  the 
World. — Thebes  and  Memphis,  Babylon  and  Nineveh. — Damascus  the  Capital  of 
Syria. — Biblical  History  of  Damascus. — Abraham  and  Chedorlaomer. — Hobah. — Dam- 
mesek,  Dimeshk. — Esh  Sham. — Damascus  Founded  by  the  Great  Grandson  of  Noah. 
— Josephus  and  Nicolaus. — Abraham  Reigned  at  Damascus. — Eliezer  of  Damascus. — 
Abraham’s  Place  of  Adoration. — Burzeh. — The  Site  of  Hobah. — David. — The  Tribes 
of  Naphtali  and  Manasseh. — “  David  put  Garrisons  in  Damascus.” — Hadad. — Solo¬ 
mon. — Rezon. — Abijam  King  of  Judah  ;  Tabrimon  of  Syria  ;  and  Baasha  of  Israel. — 
Asa  Sends  Presents  of  Silver  and  Gold. — Invasions  of  Ben-hadacl  I.,  King  of  Damas¬ 
cus. — “Streets  in  Samaria.” — Ben-hadad  II. — Ahab. — Invasions  of  Ben-hadad  II. — 
Aphek. —  Flight  of  Ben-hadad  II. — “Streets  in  Damascus.” — Death  of  Ahab. — 
Jehoram. — Naaman  the  Syrian  Leper. — “A  Little  Captive  Maid.” — Jehoram  Rends 
his  Clothes. — Elisha,  “a  Prophet  in  Israel.” — The  Jordan  and  the  “  Rivers  of  Damas¬ 
cus.” — The  “Blessing”  of  Naaman. — Two  Mules’  Burden  of  Earth. — An  Altar  to 
Jehovah  in  Damascus. — Ben-hadad’s  Attempt  to  Capture  Elisha. — Siege  of  Samaria. 
— “A  Great  Famine.” — Flight  of  the  Syrian  Army. — The  Hittite  Confederacy. — 
Elijah  and  Elisha. — Visit  of  Elisha  to  Damascus. — Death  of  Ben-hadad. — Hazael 
King  over  Syria.  —  “Joash  Beat  Ben-hadad  [III.]  three  times.” — Jeroboam  II.  Re¬ 
covers  Damascus. — Pekah. — Tiglath-pileser  Captures  Damascus. — Pattern  of  an  Altai- 
sent  to  Urijah  by  Ahaz. — Sennacherib,  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  Darius. —  Amos  and 
Isaiah. — Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel. — Zechariah. — Macedonian,  Greek,  and  Roman  Con¬ 
quests. — Parmenio. — Alexander  the  Great. — Pompey  Receives  the  Ambassadors  from 
Syria,  Judaea,  and  Egypt  in  Damascus. — 'Sextus  Caesar. — Herod  the  Great. — Saul, 


XVI 


CONTENTS. 


called  Paul. — Spread  of  Christianity  in  Damascus. — John  the  Baptist. — Muhammedan 
Conquest  of  Syria. — Siege  of  Damascus. — Gibbon. — Massacre  of  Christians  by  the 
“Sword  of  God.” — Damascus  the  Capital  of  the  Muhammedan  Empire. — Baneful 
Influence  of  Islam. — Decline  of  Damascus. — Descendants  of  Ishmael. — A  Hebrew  of 
the  Hebrews. —  Garments  Ancient  and  Modern. — Hotel  at  Damascus. —  Citron  and 
Lemon,  Roses  and  Jessamine. — Court  of  the  Khalifs  of  Islam. — The  King  and  Queen 
of  the  “Arabian  Nights.” — The  Streets  and  Bazaars  of  Damascus. — The  Horse-market. 
— The  Hangman’s  Tree. — Saddlers  Street. — Street  of  the  Coppersmiths. — Castle  of 
Damascus. — Ancient  Bows  and  Arrows. — The  Fosse. — Street  of  the  Auctioneers. — 
Suk  el  Arwam. —  Oriental  Bargains. —  Given  Away  for  Nothing.  —  Intricacy  of  the 
Streets  in  Eastern  Cities. —  Donkeys  and  Camels. —  Khan  As’ad  Pasha. —  Caravans 
from  Bagdad  and  Elsewhere. — Importunate  Christians. —  Intense  Fanaticism. — A  Mos¬ 
lem  Shopkeeper. —  Fate,  or  God’s  Decree.  —  The  Wiles  of  Satan.  —  Sanctimonious 
Moslems. — Bazaar  of  the  Goldsmiths. — Manufacture  of  Gold  and  Silver  Filigree. — 
South  Side  of  the  Great  Mosk. — Ancient  Remains. — Triple  Gate. — Greek  Inscription. 
— “  Thy  Kingdom,  O  Christ.” — Book  Bazaar. — Copies  of  the  Koran. — Manuscript 
Books. — Arch  and  Pediment  of  an  Ancient  Gateway. —  Bab  el  Barid. —  Slippers. — 
“The  House  of  Rimmon.” — Greek  and  Roman  Temple. — Church  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist. — A  Basilica. — Dimensions  of  the  Great  Mosk. — -Rows  of  Columns. — Triple 
Roof. — Central  Dome. — Stained-glass  Windows. — Texts  from  the  Koran. — Praying 
Rugs. — Lamps  and  Chandeliers. — Praying  Niches. — The  Head  of  John  the  Baptist. — 
Court  of  the  Great  Mosk. — Colonnades. — Ornamented  Piers  and  Arches. — Corinthian 
Columns. — Saracenic  Fountain  and  Pavilion. — Domes  of  the  Hour,  and  of  the  Treas¬ 
ure. — Visit  to  the  Great  Mosk  by  a  Party  of  Ladies  and  Gentlemen. — Photographs. — 
Minarets  of  the  Great  Mosk. — View  from  the  Gallery  of  Madinet  el  ’Arus. — Rim¬ 
mon. — Baal. — Tombs  of  Saladin  and  the  Mameluke  Sultan  of  Egypt. — Public  Baths. 
— Baths  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible. — “Pools.” — Hot  and  Cold  Water  Baths  Intro¬ 
duced  by  Herod  the  Great. — Baths  the  Resort  of  Evil  Spirits. — Street  Calls  and  Cries. 
— “Drink,  O  Thirsty!” — The  Colporteur  in  Damascus. — “The  Bread  and  Water  of 
Everlasting  Life.” — Private  Houses  in  Damascus. — The  Entrance. — The  Court. — The 
Marble  Fountain. — El  Lewan. — Reception-rooms. — Panels  in  the  Roofs  and  Window- 
shutters  Inlaid  with  Mother-of-pearl. — The  Harem. — Coffee-shops  along  the  Banks 
of  the  Barada. — Oriental  Music  and  Singing. — The  Orchestra. — Musical  Instruments. 
— Greek  and  Albanian  Music. — Biblical  Music. — Music  in  the  Time  of  the  Prophets. 
— Samuel  and  Saul. — Saul  among  the  Prophets. — Elisha  and  the  Minstrel. — David 
and  Saul. — The  Harp  and  Viol,  the  Tabret  and  Pipe. — Ride  through  the  Suburbs  of 
Damascus. — The  Gardens. — Canon  Tristram. — Flowing  Streams  and  Golden  Fruit. — 
Camping  in  a  Garden. — Canal  of  et  Taurah. — Es  Salihiyeh. — Villa  of  the  British 
Consul. — Exuberant  Vegetation. — The  Myrtle. — Fountains  and  Streams  in  the  Gar¬ 
dens,  and  in  the  Courts  of  Public  and  Private  Buildings. — Making  Kaif  under  the 
Trees. — Nahr  el  Yezid. — Jebel  Kasyun. — The  Barada,  the  Abana. — The  A’waj,  the 
Pharpar. —  Bardines. — The  Golden  -  flowing  River. —  Chasm  of  the  Barada. —  Dams 
and  Canals. — Net-work  of  Watercourses. — The  Main  Stream  of  the  Barada. — Lake 
’Ataibeh. — Cufic  Inscription. — Carriage -road. — Mud  Walls. — Sun-dried  Bricks. — El 
Merj,  the  Meadow. — Speeding  the  Departing,  and  Welcoming  the  Coming. — Cara- 


CONTENTS. 


XVII 


vans  and  Pilgrims. — The  Haj. — Et  Teluyeh. — Hospital  for  Poor  Pilgrims. — Mosk  of 
Sultan  Selim. — Muhammedan  Burying -ground. —  Graves  of  Muhammed’s  Wives. — 
Fatimeh. — The  Myrtle  and  the  Palm. — Funeral  Mourning. — Mary  at  the  Grave. — 
Hired  Mourners. — Biblical  References  to  Mourning. — Esau  and  Job. — David  and 
Jeremiah. — Floods  of  Tears. — “Jesus  Wept.” — Tear  Bottles. — Smiting  the  Thigh. — 
El  Meidan. — Labyrinth  of  Crooked  Lanes. — Bab  es  Saghir. — Moslem  Funeral  Pro¬ 
cession. —  “That  Eternal  Truth  and  Necessary  Fiction.”  —  Ancient  Stones  in  the 
City  Wall.  —  Bab  Kisan. — Traditional  Place  of  Paul’s  Escape.  —  Christian  Cemete¬ 
ries.  —  Spot  where  Paul  was  Converted.  —  Bab  esh  Shurky.  —  Extensive  View  from 
the  Top  of  a  Mound. — Throwing  Dust  in  the  Eyes  of  European  Commissioners. — 
Leper  Hospital. —  House  of  Naaman  the  Leper. —  Leprosy  in  Damascus. —  Roman 
Triple  Gate. — Saracenic  Tower. — Gates  of  Damascus. — “The  Street  called  Straight.” 
— Double  Colonnade  Described  by  Dr.  Porter. — Christian  Quarter. — Armenian  Con¬ 
vent. —  Syrian  and  Greek  Catholic  Churches. —  House  of  Ananias. — The  Jews  in 
Damascus,  Ancient  and  Modern. — The  Jewish  Synagogue. — Paul  Preached  in  the 
Synagogues  at  Damascus. — The  Orthodox  Greek  Church. — Massacre  of  the  Christians 
in  i860. — The  Moslem  Quarter. — Damascus  Blades  and  Damask  Silks. — Population 
of  Damascus. — House  of  Judas. — Locks  and  Keys. — Key  on  the  Shoulder. — Locks 
and  Keys  in  the  Time  of  David  and  Solomon. — Suk  el  ’Attarin. — Attar  of  Roses. — 
Dr.  Beke. — Rev.  J.  Crawford. — Extent  of  the  Damascus  Gardens  Eastward. — The 
Eastern  Plain  Destitute  of  Trees. — Licorice  Plant. — Villages  on  the  Plain. — The 
Barada. — Harran  el  ’Awamid. — The  Southern  Lake. — Bedawin. — Columns  of  Basalt. 
— Remains  of  an  Ancient  Temple. — Greek  Inscription. — The  Biblical  Haran. — Pur¬ 
suit  of  Jacob  by  Laban. — Harran  el  ’Awamid  and  Mount  Gilead. — Tradition  of  the 
Jews. — Return  to  Damascus . Page  361 

XI. 

DAMASCUS  TO  EL  MUSMEIH. 

Damascus  the  Capital  City  of  Islam. — The  Religion  Established  by  Muhammed. — Life 
and  Character  of  the  Arabian  Prophet. — The  Caaba. — Khadija. — Muhammed  Asserts 
his  Prophetic  Mission. — El  Hegira. — The  Crescent  and  the  Star. — Conversion  of  the 
Inhabitants  of  Yathreb. — Jewish  Colonies. — Inconsistencies  in  the  Character  of  Mu¬ 
hammed  Described  by  Mr.  Muir. — “Weeping  with  them  that  Wept,”  yet  taking 
Pleasure  in  cruel  Assassination  and  Massacre. — Death  of  Muhammed  in  Medina,  and 
his  Burial  in  the  House  of  ’Ayesha. — El  Haram. — “The  Illiterate  Prophet.” — The 
Koran  Revealed  by  the  Angel  Gabriel  and  Transcribed  upon  the  Shoulder-blades  of 
Camels  and  Goats. — Compilation  and  Revision  of  the  Koran. — Muhammedan  Rever¬ 
ence  for  the  Koran. — The  Death  Penalty. — The  Pentateuch,  the  Psalms,  and  the 
Gospels  of  Jesus. — The  Patriarchs  Inspired  Messengers. — Jesus  Mentioned  with  Re¬ 
spect  in  the  Koran. — Muhammed  the  Last  and  Best  of  God’s  Prophets. — Moslems 
are  Unitarians  and  Fatalists. — Apostasy  Imperils  Life. — The  Attributes  of  God. — 
Spiritual  Beings. — Worship  of  Saints. — The  Resurrection  of  the  Body. — Judgment 
at  the  Last  Day. — Paradise. — Wine  Prohibited. — Prayer. — Ablutions. — Friday,  the 
Assembly. — Alms -giving. — Bread  Thrown  to  Dogs. — Alms  Forbidden  to  Christians 

b 


CONTENTS. 


xviii 

and  Jews. — Rigid  Fast  during  Ramadan. — Necessary  Preparations  for  a  Tour  through 
Bashan  and  Gilead. — Pilgrimage  to  Mecca. — El  Haj. — Damascus  the  Starting-place 
of  the  Syrian  Pilgrims. — Emir  el  Haj. — Departure  of  the  Pilgrims  from  Damascus. — 
The  Mahmel. — Escort  of  Bedawin  Mounted  on  Camels. — Pilgrims  on  Camels,  Horses, 
and  Mules. — Return  of  the  Haj  from  Mecca. — Forlorn  and  Woe-begone  Appearance 
of  the  Pilgrims. — Bab  Allah. — “Bab  el  Maut,  the  Gate  of  Death.” — Burckhardt. — 
Pilgrims  that  now  Pass  through  the  Suez  Canal. — Mr.  Muir’s  Estimate  of  the  Benefits 
Conferred  upon  the  World  by  Islam. — The  Continuation  of  Derb  el  Haj. — The  Ghfi- 
tah. — Abulfeda. — One  of  the  Four  Paradises  of  the  Earth. — Moslem  Legend. — The 
Plain  of  Damascus  Crowded  with  Villages.  —  Absence  of  Important  Ruins.  —  The 
Merj. — Jebel  el  Aswad. — Quarries  of  Basalt. — The  Pharpar. — El  Ivesweh. — El  ’Awaj. 
— The  Sabirany. — Wady  Barbar. — ’Ain  Menbej,  an  Intermitting  Fountain. — Roman 
Road. — Jebel  Mani’a. — Villages.  —  Jebel  esh  Sheikh. — Aklim  el  Bellan.  —  Kiil’at 
Jendal. — Ascent  of  Hermon. — Wady  el  ’Ajam. —  Moslem  Villages. —  Bedawin  and 
Kurds. — Cold  Winds. — S’as’a. — Ancient  Road. — El  Kuneitirah. — Paul’s  Journey  to 
Damascus. — Juneh. — Deir  ’Aly. — Frogs. — Greek  Inscriptions. — Leboda. — Marcion. — 
The  Marcionites. — El  Jeidur. — Jetur. — The  Hagarites. — The  Half  Tribe  of  Manas- 
seh. — The  Captivity. —  Alexander  the  Great.  —  Seleucidse.  —  Iturea.  —  Aristobulus. — 
Philip,  Tetrarch  of  Iturea. — John  the  Baptist. — El  Jaulan. — Golan,  a  City  of  Refuge. 
— Gaulanites. — Elevated  Lava  Plateaus. — Wuld  ’Aly  Bedawin. — No  Inhabited  Vil¬ 
lages. — Lava  Bowlders. — Robbers. —  Ruins  of  Old  Towns  and  Deserted  Villages. — 
Ez  Zughbar. — A  World  once  on  Fire. — El  Merjany. — Good  Water. — Basaltic  Soil. — 
Burckhardt. — Column  of  the  Morning. — .Small  Temple. — Subterraneous  Aqueduct. — 
Private  Habitations  at  El  Burak  Described  by  Dr.  Porter. — Stone  Walls,  Doors,  Win¬ 
dows,  and  Roofs.' — Stone  Gate. — Saltpetre  Manufactories. — El  Liwa. — Wady  Liwa. 
— Arabs  of  the  Lejah. — Villages  and  Towns  in  Ruins. — Cultivation  and  Winter  Tor¬ 
rents. — Um  ez  Zeitun. —  Druses. — Hid  Treasure.  —  Aid  el  Bathanyeh. —  Batanis. — 
M.  Waddington.  —  Inscriptions.  —  The  Ancient  Names  of  Places  still  Preserved. — 
Jebel  Hauran. — Ard  el  Bathanyeh  Described  by  Dr.  Porter. — Ibrahim  Pasha. — El 
Harrah. — Mr.  Cyril  C.  Graham’s  Adventurous  Tour  in  the  Harrah. — A  Desert  Waste. 
— Ancient  Wells. — Deserted  Places. — Rock  Inscriptions. — Himyritic  Writing. — Kings 
of  the  Himyri. — Dr.  J.  G.  Wetzstein. — The  Safah. — Volcanic  Soil. — Arabs  of  the  Le¬ 
jah. — Nomadic  Tribes  of  the  Desert. — The  Apostle  Paul. — Early  Christian  Churches 
East  of  the  Jordan. — Origin. — “The  Region  of  Argob.” — Trachonitis. — Zenodorus. 
—  Robbers’  Caverns.  —  Caesar,  Herod,  Philip,  Agrippa.  —  El  Lejah,  an  Asylum. — 
Dr.  Porter’s  Description  of  the  Lejah . . Page  418 


XII. 

EL  MUSMEIH  TO  EDHRA’  AND  KUNAWAT. 

Howling  Jackals  and  Barking  Dogs.  —  El  Musmeih,  Phaeno.  —  Rock -cut  Road.  —  Cis¬ 
terns.  - — Roman  Legions.  —  An  Episcopal  City.  —  Temple  at  el  Musmeih.  —  Shell¬ 
shaped  Roof. — Columns  with  Wreaths  or  Bands. — Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  and 
Lucius  Aurelius  Verus. — Greek  Inscription. — Trachonitis,  el  Lejah. — Governor’s  Pal¬ 
ace  and  Bishop’s  Residence. — Ruins  of  Private  Houses. — Influence  of  External  Nature 


CONTENTS. 


XIX 


upon  Human  Character. — The  Border  of  the  Lejah. — Rocky  Labyrinths. — Fountains 
and  Streams. — The  Egyptian  Army  driven  out  of  the  Lejah. — Regular  Troops  of  no 
Avail  in  the  Volcanic  Clefts  and  Chasms  of  the  Lejah. — Sha’arali. — Tower,  Temple, 
and  Inscription. — Manufacture  of  Saltpetre. — The  Outer  and  the  Inner  Lejah. — Oozy 
Black  Mud. — Stream  from  Tibny. — Scarcity  of  Water. — “Deceitful  Brooks”  and  Job’s 
“Miserable  Comforters.”  —  The  Guides  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Caravans  “Con¬ 
founded  and  Ashamed.” — Personal  Experience  in  the  Wilderness  of  Wandering. — 
Deserted  Villages  and  Partially  Cultivated  Plain. — Es  Sunamein,  the  Two  Idols. — 
Mecca  Pilgrims. — Aere. — Stone  Walls,  Doors,  Windows,  and  Roofs. — Towers,  Tem¬ 
ples,  and  Inscriptions. — Fortuna,  the  Goddess  of  Luck. — Tell  Kusweh. — Khubab. — 
Ox  Ploughing  and  Taxation. — Manufacture  of  Lava  Millstones. — A  Century  Old. — 
Boys’  School. — Desire  for  Education. — Manners  and  Customs,  Dress  and  Appearance 
of  the  People  in  the  Lejah. — Interments  in  Open  Pens  of  Lava  Fragments. — Shiik- 
rah. — Muddy  Causeway. — Melihat  Hazkin. — Ruined  and  Deserted  Towers. — Saints’ 
Tomb. — Gray  Wolf. — Tibny.— A  French  Monk. — A  Mass  of  Prostrate  Buildings. — 
Wheat  Concealed  in  Cisterns. — Bedawin  Robbers. — Storehouses  of  Joseph  in  Egypt. 
— Luhf  el  Lejah. — Plain  of  the  Hauran. — Ruins  of  Ancient  Cities. — Ancient  Fire¬ 
proof  Houses. — Houses  Burned  Down  on  Lebanon. — Healthy  Climate  and  Extensive 
Prospects. — El  Hauran. — En  Nukrah,  el  Lejah,  and  el  Jebel. — Dr.  Eli  Smith’s  List 
of  Two  Hundred  and  Thirty-nine  Sites  of  Towns  and  Villages. — Moslems,  Druses, 
and  Christians. — Greeks  and  Greek  Catholics. — Sites  of  Seventy-five  Villages  and  An¬ 
cient  Towns  within  and  around  the  Lejah. — “Threescore  Cities  Fenced  with  High 
Walls.” — “The  Kingdom  of  Og  in  Bashan.” — Approach  to  Edhra’  through  Lava  De¬ 
files  and  along  a  Rock-cut  Road. — Site  of  Edhra’. — Exploits  of  the  Hebrews  in  the 
Time  of  Moses. — M.  Waddington. — Edrei. — Zorava. — Der’a. — The  Conflict  Between 
Og,  King  of  Bashan,  and  the  Hebrews. — Edhra’  identical  with  the  City  mentioned  by 
Moses.  —  Extensive  Ruins.  —  Subterranean  Residences.  —  Description  of  the  Stone 
Roofs  and  the  Supporting  Arches. — Ancient  Architects. — Window-shutters  and  Doors 
made  of  Lava  Slabs. — The  Church  of  St.  Elias. — Greek  Inscriptions. — The  Church  of 
St.  George  Described  by  M.  Waddington.  —  Quadrangular  Structure  Described  by 
Burckhardt. — Square  Tower. — Columns  of  Green  Micaceous  Marble. — Ruined  Vaults 
and  Prostrate  Columns.  —  Excursion  into  the  Lejah. —  Air-bubbles  of  Hard  Rock. — 
Masses  of  Lava,  and  Petrified  Waves.  —  Shivered  Hills  and  Funnel-shaped  Pits. — 
Flocks  of  Sheep  and  Goats.  —  Bedawin  Shepherds  Professional  Robbers.  —  “All 
Thieves.” — Scarcity  of  Pasture. — Deterioration  of  the  Lejah. — No  Wild  Animals  and 
but  few  Birds. — Reservoirs  in  Caverns. — Native  Traditions. — Few  Springs  and  no 
Never-failing  Fountains. — Caverns  mentioned  by  Josephus. — Subterranean  Dwellings, 
Pools  of  Water  and  Corn  in  Granaries. — Herod  the  Great. — Robbers  of  Trachonitis 
and  the  Bedawin  of  the  Lejah. — Greek,  Cufic,  and  Nabathean  Inscriptions. — M.  Wad¬ 
dington. — Harran. — Blood  Feuds. — Law  of  Revenge. — Burckhardt’s  Visit  to  Dama. — 
Rock-cut  Cisterns. — Encampment  of  Medlej  Bedawin. — Tents  Concealed  in  the  Crev¬ 
ices  and  Fissures  of  the  Rocks. — Modern  Villages  and  Ancient  Sites. — Remarkable 
Preservation  of  Ruined  Towns  and  Cities. — Pompeii. — Houses  Constructed  of  Imper¬ 
ishable  Lava. — Temples  and  Public  Edifices  in  the  Lejah  erected  before  the  Christian 
Era. —  Ruins  at  Nejran. — Church  with  Two  Towers.  —  Blood-money. — Terebinth-oil 


XX 


CONTENTS. 


used  instead  of  Olive-oil. — Disappearance  of  the  old  Earthen  Lamp.  —  Petroleum 
from  Pennsylvania. — “The  Smoking  Flax  and  the  Bruised  Reed.” — The  Servant  of 
the  Lord. — Fire  out  of  the  Heel,  and  Ink  out  of  the  Mouth. — The  Stream  in  Wady 
Kunawat. — Shuhba  Described  by  Dr.  Porter. — A  Roman  City. —  Streets  and  Gates, 
Temples,  Baths,  and  Public  Buildings. — Theatre  at  Shuhba. — M.  Waddington  and  the 
Count  De  Vogue. — The  Emperor  Philip. —  Philippopolis. —  Shuhba  and  the  Shehab 
Emirs.  —  Nur  ed  Din  and  Saladin.  —  The  Crusaders.  —  The  Monguls.  —  The  Emir 
Beshir. — Muhammed  Aly. — Civil  Wars  and  the  Massacres  of  i860. — A  Long  Pedigree, 
from  “the  Beginning”  to  the  Present  Hour. — Temple  at  Suleim. — Neapolis. — Cav¬ 
ernous  Cistern. — Ruins  of  an  Old  Town. — The  Village  School  and  Native  Teacher. — 
Desire  for  Education. — Moments  lengthened  into  Hours. — Proverbial  Hospitality. — 
Groeco-Roman  Population  East  of  the  Jordan. — A  Succession  of  Temples  and  Public 
Buildings. — More  Greek  Inscriptions  than  in  all  Syria  and  Palestine. — Cities  of  the 
Decapolis. — “Jesus  went  through  the  Borders  of  the  Decapolis.” — Roman  Road. — 
Oak  Woods. — Approach  to  Kunawat. — River  of  Kunawat. — Theatre  in  Wady  Kuna¬ 
wat. —  Outlook  over  the  Plain  of  the  Hauran  to  distant  Hermon.  —  Nymphoeum,  or 
Public  Bath. —  Round  Tower. —  Cyclopean  Walls. —  Oldest  Ruins  of  Kenath. —  Main 
Street. — Houses  with  Sculptured  Doors. — A  Natural  Fortification. — The  City  Wall. — 
Paved  Area. — Es  Serai,  or  Convent  of  Job. — Beautiful  Door-way. — Sculptured  Figures 
and  Clusters  of  Grapes. — Colonnades. — Heathen  Edifices  and  Christian  Churches. — 
Large  Vaulted  Cisterns. — Roman  Prostyle  Temple. — Colossal  Head  in  High- relief. 
— Heads  of  Baal  and  Ashtoreth. — American  Palestine  Exploration  Society. — Worship 
of  Ashtoreth. — Syria  Dea. — Ashtoreth  Karnaim. — Peripteral  Temple. — Dedicated  to 
Helios  or  the  Sun.  —  Biblical  History  of  Kenath. — Jair,  Nobah,  Gideon.  —  Josephus 
and  Herod  the  Great. — Ptolemy  and  Pliny. — Eusebius  and  the  Peutinger  Table. — 
Kunawat  the  Biblical  Kenath  or  Nobah.  —  M.  Waddington.  —  Greek  Inscriptions. — 
King  Agrippa. — Statue  of  Herod  the  Great. — Si’a. — Streams  at  Kunawat. — No  Water 
even  for  Money. — The  Population  of  the  Hauran  Increasing.  —  Primitive  School 
and  Venerable  School  -  master.  —  Boards  instead  of  Books.  —  Remarkable  Zeal  for 
Instruction . Page  447 

XIII. 

KUNAWAT  TO  EL  BUSRAH. 

The  Druses  in  the  Hauran. — Bedawin  Incursions. — Moslem  and  Christian  Villages. — 
Desire  for  Education. — Local  Feuds. — Oak  Woods. — ’Atil. — Temple. — Bilingual  In¬ 
scription. — Athila.  —  Greek  Inscription.  —  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius. — Zenodorus. — 
Equestrian  Statue.  —  Head  of  Baal.  —  Astarte. —  Iconoclastic  Vandalism. — El  Kusr, 
Ruined  Temple. — Impure  Water. — Ague. — Column  at  ’Atil. — Roman  Road. — Oak 
Grove.  —  Mud  and  Dust. — Palmyrene  Inscription. — Tomb  of  Chamrate.  —  Ode- 
nathus. — Count  de  Vogue.  —  M.  Waddington.  —  Roman  Bridge. — Flour- mills. — Es 
Suweideh. — Large  Reservoirs. — Mecca  Pilgrims. — Temple. — Triumphal  Arch. — Nym- 
phoeum. — Emperor  Trajan. — Aqueduct. — Mosk  and  Temple. — Greek  Inscriptions. — 
Ancient  Trading  Companies. — A  Temple  of  Minerva.  —  Church  and  Monastery. — 
Donkeys  Floundering  in  the  Mud.  —  Theatre. — William  of  Tyre.  —  Bildad  the 


CONTENTS. 


XXI 


Shuhite.  —  Job.  —  Greek  Inscriptions.  —  M.  Waddington.  —  Soada. — Dionysias. — The 
Capital  of  Jebel  ed  Druse. — Square  Tower. — Roman  Road. — An  Agricultural  Region. 
— Megeidel  and  er  Resas. — Nahr  ’Ary.  —  Flour -mills. — Kuleib  Hauran. —  Extinct 
Volcano. — Burckhardt. — El  ’Afmeh. — Hebran. — Ancient  Aqueduct. — Roman  Road. 
— Heavy  Rains  and  Lively  Streams. — El  Kureiyeh. — Kerioth. — ’Ary,  Ariath. — Isma’il 
el  Atrash. — Burckhardt  and  Shibly  Ibn  Hamdan. — Druse  Hospitality. — Mujeimir  and 
Wetr. — Deir  Zubeir. — Roman  Road. — Roman  Bridge. — Mosk  of  el  Mebruk. — El 
Koran. — The  Instinct  of  the  Camel. — Incident  in  the  Career  of  Muhammed. — Ruins 
at  Um  el  Jemal  Described  by  Dr.  Merrill. — Bedawin  Encampment. — Hundreds  of 
Camels.  —  Heavy  Robbery. — The  Perpetual  Desert. — Scores  of  Ruined  Towns. — 
Swallows  and  Gazelles. — Ruins  at  Um  el  Jemal. — City  Gate. — Streets  and  Avenues. 
— Private  Houses. — Churches  and  Crosses. — Greek,  Latin,  and  Nabathean  Inscrip¬ 
tions. — Ninth  Dalmatian  Horse. — Vexillarii. — Square  Tower.  —  Uriel,  Gabriel,  and 
Emmanuel. — Genii  of  the  Cardinal  Points. — The  God  Dusares. — Camels  laden  with 
Stones  from  the  Ruins  at  Um  el  Jemal. — Deserted  for  Centuries. — Fragments  of 
Black  Pottery. — Beth-gamul. — Plan  of  the  City  of  Bozrah. — The  Castle. — Cisterns. — 
Subterranean  Vaults. — Theatre  within  the  Castle. — Outlook  from  the  Seats  in  the 
Theatre. — Dr.  Porter’s  Description  of  the  View  from  the  Keep  of  the  Castle. — Roman 
Highways. — Towns  and  Villages  on  the  Plain. — “Without  Inhabitant  and  without 
Man.” — Corinthian  Columns  near  the  Centre  of  the  City. — Colonnade  or  Temple. — 
Ruins  of  a  Bath. — Triumphal  Arch. — Julius,  Prefect  of  the  Parthian  Legion. — 
Deserted  Bazaar. — The  Khalif  ’Omar. — Mosk  at  el  Busrah. — House  of  the  Jew. — Col¬ 
umns  of  Green  Micaceous  Marble. — Cufic  and  Arabic  Inscriptions. — Convent  and 
House  of  Boheira. — Burckhardt’s  Account  of  the  Monk  Boheira. — The  Instructor  of 
Muhammed. — Stifling  Sirocco. — Bedawin  Shepherds  and  their  Flocks. — Cathedral  at 
Busrah. — Sergius,  Bacchus,  and  Leontius. — Archbishop  Julianus. — Job. — Leper  Hos¬ 
pital. — The  Emperor  Justinian.  —  Beautiful  Cufic  Inscription. — Triumphal  Arch. — 
Palace  of  the  Yellow  King. — Bab  el  Hawa. — Roman  Guard-house. — ’Aiyun  el  Merj. 
— Temple. — Antonia  Fortuna,  Wife  of  Caesar.  —  Springs  and  Fountains. — Large 
Reservoirs. — Mercantile  Caravans. — Masons’  Marks. — Aramaic  Letters. — History  of 
el  Busrah. — Bozrah  of  Edom. — El  Busaireh. — Tophel. — The  Judgments  of  Jeremiah. 
— “The  Line  of  Confusion  and  the  Stones  of  Emptiness.” — Judas  Maccabeus  slew 
all  the  Males  of  Bosora. — The  City  Burned. — Carnaim. — A.  Cornelius  Palma. — Nova 
Trajana  Bostra. — A  Military  Colony. — Roman  Highways. — The  Euphrates  and  the 
Persian  Gulf. — The  Bostrian  Era. — Philip  the  Arabian. — Roman  Emperor. — Early 
Introduction  of  Christianity  into  Bozrah. — Origen. — Bishop  Beryllus. — Ecclesiastical 
Councils  held  at  Bozrah. — Trading  Caravans. — Visits  of  Muhammed  to  el  Busrah. — 
Abu  Talib. — The  Monk  Boheira. — Khadija. — Capture  of  el  Busrah  by  the  Moslems. 
— Khalid,  the  Sword  of  God. — Treachery  of  Romanus. — Baneful  Rule  of  Islam. — 
Sulkhad. — Salcah. — Moses,  Joshua. — Og  reigned  in  Salcah. — The  Castle  at  Sulkhad 
Described  by  Dr.  Merrill. — The  Crater. — Interior  of  the  Castle. — Inscriptions. — 
Masons’  Marks. — Busts  of  Animals. — Lions  and  Palm-tree. — A  Frontier  Fortress. — 
The  Ancient  Town  at  Sulkhad. — Druses  from  the  Lebanon. — Sulkhad  Visited  by  Dr. 
Porter.  —  Deserted  Houses  and  Streets.  —  View  from  the  Castle.  —  Bashan,  Moab, 
Arabia.  —  Thirty  Deserted  Towns.  —  “Judgment  upon  the  Plain  and  the  Cities  of 


CONTENTS. 


XXII 

Moab,  far  and  near.”  —  El  Kureiyeh,  Iverioth. — Biblical  and  Secular  History  of 
Kerioth. — Ruins  at  el  Ivureiyeh. — Triple  Colonnade. — Greek  Inscriptions. —  Seat  of 
a  Bishop. — Burckhardt. — Dr.  Porter. — Isma’il  el  Atrash. — Druse  Families  .  Page  492 


XIV. 

EL  BUSRAH  TO  DER’A  AND  JERASH. 

The  Country  between  el  Busrah  and  Jerash. — Plain  of  el  Hauran. — Roman  Road. — 
Boundary  Line  between  Gilead  and  Bashan.  —  Few  Villages.  —  Volcanic  Waste. — 
Waving  Wheat  and  Barley. — Broken  Lava. — Remarkable  History  of  the  Hauran. — 
Migration  of  Abraham. — The  Region  West  and  East  of  the  Jordan. — A  Fierce  Race. 
— The  Rephaims,  Zuzims,  Emims,  Horites. — The  Invasions  of  Chedorlaomer. — March 
around  the  South  End  of  the  Dead  Sea. — En-misphat. — Amalekites,  Amorites. — Defeat 
of  the  Five  Kings. — Capture  of  Sodom. — Lot  carried  away  Captive. — Pursuit  of  Chedor¬ 
laomer  by  Abraham. — Night  Attack. — Recovery  of  Lot  and  Restoration  of  the  other 
Captives. — Melchizedek. — Salem,  Jerusalem. — A  March  of  about  two  thousand  Miles. 
— Arrival  of  the  Hebrews  led  by  Moses. —  Moabites,  Ammonites,  Amorites. —  Sihon 
and  Og. — Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  Half  Tribe  of  Manasseh. — Captives  in  Mesopotamia. 
— Assyrians,  Babylonians,  and  Persians. — Alexander  the  Great. — The  Ptolemies  and 
the  Seleucidas. — The  Romans. — Byzantines  and  Muhammedans. — Illustration  of  the 
Sacred  Record  by  the  Physical  Features  of  the  Country  and  the  Manners  and  Customs 
of  the  People. — Ishmael. — The  Promise  to  Hagar  wonderfully  fulfilled. — Ishmaelites. 
— Muhammedanism. — Ishmael  the  Ancestor  of  the  Moslems. — Divine  Predictions  con¬ 
cerning  the  Descendants  of  Abraham. —  The  River  Zeidy. — Ghusam. — Central  Parts 
of  Plains  destitute  of  Villages. — Agricultural  Plamlets.  —  Various  Native  Races. — 
Nebaioth,  Nabatheans. — Caravan  Trade  between  Arabia,  India,  and  Africa. — Petra, 
Sellah. — The  Nabatheans  unconquered  by  the  Persians,  Greeks,  or  Romans. — Expedi¬ 
tion  of  ZElius  Gallus. — Ruin  of  the  Nabatheans  by  the  Abandonment  of  the  Arabian 
Caravan  Lines. — Aretas.  —  Paul.  —  Herod  Antipas. — John  the  Baptist. — The  Ghas- 
sanide. — Palmyra. — Zenobia. — Indigenous  Tribes. — Roman  Bridge  over  the  Zeidy. — 
Traces  of  Chariot-wheels. — Et  Taiyibeh. — Large  Tower. — Um  el  Meiyadin. — Volcanic 
Rock  and  Cretaceous  Limestone. — Hill-sides  aglow  with  red  Anemones. — Villages. — 
Ghurs. — Camels  carrying  Wheat  to  Acre. — Caravan  Route. — Company  of  Ishmaelites. 
— Balm  of  Gilead. — Joseph  sold  into  Egypt. — Fanatical  Moslems. — Turkish  Firman. — 
M.  Waddington. — The  Capital  City  of  Og. — The  Hebrew  Invasion  and  the  Conquest 
of  Bashan. — Edhr’a,  Edrei. — Der’a,  Adara. —  The  Onomasticon  and  the  Pentinger 
Table. — Eusebius. — Muhammedan  Conquest. — Situation  of  the  Ancient  Town  and  the 
Modern  Village  of  Der’a. —  Extensive  Cemetery. —  Prospect  from  Tell  Kerak. — El 
Jaulan,  Lake  Huleh,  and  Mount  Hennon. — Tell  ’Ashtarah. — Ashteroth  Karnaim. — 
The  principal  Divinity  of  the  Phoenicians. — Temple  at  Carnaim. — The  Maccabees. — 
Atargatis. — Twenty-five  Thousand  slain  at  Carnaim. — Josephus. — The  Onomasticon. 
— Eusebius. — Dr.  Merrill’s  Description  of  Tell  ’Ashtarah. — A  strongly  fortified  Place. 
— Cyclopean  Remains. — Massive  Entrance. — Timotheus’s  defeated  Army. — Large  rock- 
cut  Reservoir. — Roman  Baths. — Aqueduct. — Mosk  and  square  Tower. — Sarcophagus 


CONTENTS. 


XXlll 


with  Lion’s  Head. —  Church  and  Monastery. — Remains  of  an  ancient  Structure. — 
Masons’  Marks. — Three  Cities,  one  beneath  the  other. — Dr.  Wetzstein’s  Subterranean 
Residence  of  Og. — Crusaders  at  Der’a. — Ragged  Arab  Tents. — Bedawin,  Gypsies,  and 
Vagabonds.  —  Fortune  -  telling. —  Burning  Straw.  —  Romping  Children.  —  Abundant 
Harvests. — Blasted  Plain. — Luxuriant  Grass,  waving  Wheat,  and  brilliant  Flowers. — 
Mountainous  and  wooded  Region. — Cities  of  the  Decapolis. — The  Zeidy. — Cascades 
and  Rapids.  —  Country  east  of  the  Jordan  dotted  with  Villages,  abandoned  to  the 
Bedawin. — Dr.  Merrill’s  Search  for  the  ancient  Golan. — Wady  or  Nahr  ’Allan. — Beit 
er  Ras,  Capitolias. — Roman  Road. — Ruins  of  Public  Buildings  and  great  Arches. — 
Corinthian  and  Ionic  Columns. — Ornamental  Work  and  fine  Eagles. — Inscriptions. — 
Underground  City. — Subterranean  Dwellings. — Irbid. — Cyclopean  Walls  described  by 
Dr.  Merrill. — Substructures  of  strong  Towers. — Arbela. — Beth-arbel. — Eidun,  Dion. 
— Haj  Road. — Pilgrim  Caravan  to  Mecca. — Burckhardt  at  Remtheh. — Last  inhabited 
Village  of  the  Hauran. — Cavernous  Habitations  at  Remtheh. — Dr.  Merrill’s  Experi¬ 
ence  at  Remtheh. — No  Water  for  Ten  Hours. — Migration  of  the  Wulid  ’Aly. — “  One 
hundred  thousand  Camels.” — Contrivance  for  the  Comfort  of  the  Sheikhs’  Wives. — 
The  Ship  of  the  Desert. — Bedawin  Migrations  and  Hebrew  Invasions. — Distress  of 
Moab. — Pasture  and  Provender  for  the  Camels  and  Caravans  of  the  Bedawin. — Life 
of  the  wandering  Ishmaelites. —  Contempt  for  the  Fellahin. — The  Denizens  of  the 
Desert  number  Hundreds  of  Thousands. — Wooded  Hills. — Hawarah. — Beautiful  and 
Productive  Region. — Tell  Husn. — Ruined  Castle. — Church  and  Columns. — Rock-cut 
Tombs.  —  El  Husn. —  No  Fountains. —  Dry  Cisterns.  —  Greeks,  Muhammedans,  and 
Protestants. — No  Distinction  in  Dress  and  Manners  between  the  different  Sects. — 
Freedom  of  Speech  and  Action. — Extensive  Forest. — Mahneh. — Canon  Tristram. — 
Biblical  References  to  Mahanaim. — A  Levitical  City. — The  Capital  of  Ish-bosheth. — 
The  Refuge  of  David. — The  Chamber  over  the  Gate  at  Mahanaim. — David’s  Grief 
at  the  Death  of  Absalom. — A  Station  of  Solomon’s  Purveyors. — Josephus. — Site  of 
Mahanaim  described  by  Modern  Writers.  —  Beisan.  —  Suggestion  of  Dr.  Porter  and 
Conclusion  of  Dr.  Merrill. — Jegar-sahadutha  and  Mizpah. — Galeed  or  Watch-tower. — 
Josephus. — The  Land  of  Gilead. — Covenant  between  Laban  and  Jacob. — False  Gods 
in  the  Family  of  Jacob. — The  Call  of  Abraham. — Jacob  at  Mahanaim. — Jacob  hideth 
the  Strange  Gods. — Worship  of  the  True  God  at  Beth-el. — Oppressive  Heat. — Birket 
ed  Deir. — Thousands  of  Flowers. — Cultivated  Region. — Forest  of  Oak,  Pine,  Tere¬ 
binth,  and  Hawthorn. — Um  el  Ivhanzir. — Shepherds,  Milk,  and  fine  Flocks. — Ride 
through  the  Forest  in  the  Land  of  Gilead.  —  Pine-trees. — Forest  Fires. — Wheat 
amongst  Blackened  Stumps. — Wady  ed  Deir. — Camp  amongst  Olive-trees. — Village 
of  es  Suf. — Jerash  Deserted  and  Unsafe . Page  531 


XV. 

JERASH  TO  ’AJLUN,  AND  ES  SALT. 

The  Sheikh  of  Suf. — Experience  of  Canon  Tristram  and  his  Party. — The  ’Adwan  levy  a 
Fine  on  the  Sheikh  of  Suf. — Remains  of  Antiquity  at  Suf. — Stream  in  Wady  ed  Deir. 
— Olive-trees  and  Woods  of  Oak  and  Pine. — Muzar  Abu  Bekr. — Old  Coins  for  Sale. — 


XXIV 


CONTENTS. 


Broken  Sarcophagi. — Cemetery  of  Ancient  Gerasa. — Entering  Jerash  through  a  Breach 
in  the  Wall. — General  Survey  of  the  City. — Seil  Jerash. — The  Site  and  the  City  of 
Jerash. — Remains  of  Private  Houses  and  Public  Buildings  beyond  the  City  Gate. — The 
Triumphal  Arch. — The  Emperor  Trajan. — The  Stadium. — Naval  Combats. — The  City 
Gate. — Ruins  of  a  beautiful  Temple. — Remains  of  a  large  Theatre. — Grand  Colonnade 
of  the  Forum. — Fifty-five  Columns  still  standing. — The  Main  Street  lined  with  Col¬ 
umns. — The  Pavement  and  the  Ruts  made  by  Chariot- wheels. — Side  Street,  Gate  in 
the  West  Wall,  Bridge  across  the  Stream. — Pedestals  for  Colossal  Statues. — Sections  of 
the  Colonnade  along  the  Main  Street. — The  Apse  of  a  Beautiful  Building. — Marcus 
Aurelius  Antoninus. — Side  Street  and  Bridge. — The  Propyloeum. — Antoninus  Pius. — 
Temple  of  Jupiter  or  of  the  Sun. — Earthquake  Shocks. — Burckhardt. — The  City  Wall, 
small  Temple,  and  Church. — Rows  of  Prostrate  Columns  and  others  still  standing  with 
their  Entablatures. — Square  Pedestals  covered  with  a  low  Dome. — Portico  of  a  Theatre. 
— Ruined  Theatre  designed  for  Gladiatorial  Combats. — Northern  Gate  of  the  City. — 
Guard-house. — Street  Pavement. — Groups  of  Columns  with  Ionic  Capitals. — Ruins  of 
a  Bath  with  Columns  in  Front. — Aqueduct. — ’Ain  Jerwan. — Original  Site  of  Jerash. — 
Great  Clumps  of  Oleander. — Ruins  on  the  Eastern  Side  of  the  Stream. — Temple  and 
Church. — Spring  and  Aqueduct. — Bridge  and  Bath. — Jerash  a  City  of  Columns. — Not 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  and  almost  unknown  to  History. — Dr.  Porter. — Mahanaim. — 1 
Dr.  Merrill. — Ramoth-gilead.  —  Gerasa. — Josephus. — Alexander  Jannasus. — A  City  of 
the  Decapolis.  —  Gerasa  burnt  by  the  Jews  and  captured  by  Vespasian.  —  Gerasa  a 
flourishing  City  for  half  a  Century. — The  Seat  of  a  Bishop. — No  Trace  of  Muhammedan 
Work  or  Worship. — William  of  Tyre. — The  Crusaders. — Jerash  deserted  in  the  Thir¬ 
teenth  Century. — Trading  Caravans  and  Mercantile  Stations. — Ezion-geber. — Petra. — 
Palmyra. — A  Store-city  of  Solomon. — The  Nabatheans. — Superior  Skill  and  Enterprise 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. — Western  Civilization  and  Classic  Taste. — The  stately 
Forum  and  the  luxuriant  Bath.  —  Decline  of  Commerce  and  Abandonment  of  the 
Graeco-Roman  Cities  East  of  the  Jordan.  —  Prophecy  translated  into  History.  —  The 
Lord’s  Sacrifice  in  Bozrah. — Fulfilment  of  Prophecy. — The  Olive  Groves  of  Suf  and 
the  Oak  Woods  of  Jebel  ’Ajlun.  —  Dr.  Eli  Smith.  —  Luxuriant  Pasture  and  brilliant 
Wild  Flowers. — ’Ain  Jenneh. — The  Walnut  and  Olive. — Great  Variety  of  Fruit-trees. 
— Large  Fountains  and  Abundance  of  Water. — Evening  Ride  through  venerable  Oak 
Forests. — Jebel  ’Ajlun. — “The  Land  of  Gilead.” — Jacob  and  Laban.  —  Mizpah  and 
Galeed. — Mahanaim. — Shechem  and  the  Damieh  Ford. — Wady  ’Ajlun  and  the  Jordan 
Valley. — A  Present  of  Sheep  and  Goats,  Camels  and  Cattle  for  Esau. — Meeting  between 
Esau  and  Jacob. — Interview  between  Joseph  and  his  Brethren. —  Peniel. —  City  and 
Tower  at  Penuel. —  Gideon. — Jeroboam  built  a  Palace  at  Penuel. — Josephus. —  Dr. 
Merrill  locates  Penuel  at  Tellid  edh  Dhahab. — The  Hills  of  Gold. — Canaan’s  Ford. — 
The  Wood  of  Ephraim. — “A  Great  Oak”  with  “Thick  Boughs.” — The  Death  of 
Absalom  and  the  Biblical  Narrative  of  the  Battle. — Kul’at  er  Riibud. — Outlook  from 
the  Fortress. — From  Hermon  to  Hebron,  and  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee  to  the  Dead  Sea, 
while  Jordan  rolls  between.  —  Famous  Historical  Events. — From  Chedorlaomer  to 
David. — Elijah  and  Elisha. — From  Judas  Maccabeus  to  Herod  the  Great. — The  Baptist 
and  the  Redeemer. — The  Moat  and  Foundations  of  Kul’at  er  Riibud. — Indications  of 
a  more  ancient  Fortress. — The  present  Castle. — Saladin. — The  Crusaders. — Abulfeda. 


CONTENTS. 


XXV 


— A  singular  Transposition  of  Names. — The  Village  of  ’Ajlun. — Modern  Chapel  and 
Old  Mosk. — Unsafe  Region  between  ’Ajlun  and  es  Salt. — Villages  on  the  Plain  of 
the  Ghor  and  upon  the  Hills  of  Samaria. — Sunken  Channel  of  the  Jordan. — Kefrenjy. 
— The  Course  of  the  Jabbok  through  the  Plain  to  the  Jordan. — Dr.  Merrill. — Succoth 
and  Tell  Deir  ’Alla. — Jacob  encamped  in  Wady  Fari’a. —  ’Ain  Thaluth.  —  Khirbet 
Thaluth. — Indications  of  former  Cultivation. — ’Ain  Um  el  Jalud. — El  Khudr,  St.  George. 
— Dibbin,  et  Tekitty,  and  Reimun. — Um  el  Jauzeh. — Limestone  Strata. — Dense  Oak 
Woods.  —  Kusr  Nejdeh.  —  Captain  Warren.  —  Tropical  Climate.  —  Fruit-trees  and 
Flowers. — Burmeh. — Olive  Groves. — Sandstone  Formation. — The  Zerka  in  Spring  and 
Summer. — Luxuriant  Wild  Oats  and  thriving  Clover. — Impenetrable  Thickets  of  tall 
Oleander. — The  Ford  of  the  Christian  Woman. — Visit  from  the  Sheikh  of  a  Bedawin 
Encampment. — Bulls  of  Bashan. — Bedawin  Boys  and  Girls. — Bakhshish. — Gorge  of  the 
Zerka. — El  Belka  and  Jebel  ’Ajlun. — Sihon  and  Og. — The  Zerka  or  Blue  River. — 
Wooded  Heights  and  Fertile  Plain  of  the  Belka. — Waving  Wheat  and  Barley,  and 
Wild  Flowers  bright  and  gay. — Clumps  of  Oak  and  Pine  trees. — Many  Birds  and  large 
Coveys  of  Partridges. — ’Ain  ’Allan. — Green  Fig-trees.  —  Khirbet  ’Allan. — Sihan. — 
Khirbet  ez  Zi. — Neby  Osh’a. — Pilgrims  and  Votive  Offerings. — Sacrifice  and  Feast¬ 
ing. — Annual  Fair. — Es  Salt  a  Commercial  Centre. — The  Prophet  Hosea. — Elijah 
and  Joshua. — Outlook  from  Jebel  Osh’a  described  by  Dr.  Merrill. — From  Mount 
Hermon  to  the  Dead  Sea. — Jebel  Osh’a  and  Mount  Nebo. — The  Spot  where  Moses 
stood . Page  557 

XVI. 

ES  SALT  TO  ’AMMAN. 

Es  Salt. — Situation  of  the  Town. — Capital  of  the  Belka  and  only  Inhabited  Place  in  that 
District. — Population  of  es  Salt. — Warlike  and  Independent. — Protestant  Church  and 
Schools. — Subterranean  Bath. — Es  Salt  overthrown  by  Wars  and  Earthquakes. — Na¬ 
tive  Houses. — Shops. — The  People  of  es  Salt  resemble  the  Arabs  of  the  Desert. — 
Vineyards  and  Olive-groves. — Fruit-trees  and  Vegetable  Gardens. — Wheat  and  Barley. 
— Products  of  the  Flocks  purchased  from  the  Bedawin. — The  Castle  of  es  Salt. — Daher 
el  ’Omar. — Turkish  Garrison. — Abundance  of  Water. — ’Ain  Jeidur. — Ramoth-gilead. 
— Cities  of  Refuge. — Levitical  City. — One  of  Solomon’s  Purveyors. — Gilead  and  the 
Region  of  Argob. — Ahab,  Jehoshaphat,  and  Ben-hadad. — Ahaziah,  Joram,  and  Hazael. 
— Jehu. — Elisha.  —  “Watchman  on  the  Tower  of  Jezreel.” — “The  Driving  of  Jehu.” 
— Region  around  es  Salt  not  Adapted  to  the  Use  of  Chariots. — Ramoth-gilead  north 
of  the  Jabbok. — Gerasa,  Jerash. — Dr.  Merrill. — Jerash  opposite  to  Shechem. — No  Mar¬ 
kets  south  of  es  Salt. — ’Adwan  Guards  and  Guides. — Scarcity  of  Water. — Wady  Jeidur. 
— Prospect  over  the  Land  of  Gilead. — Rolling  Plain,  deep  Valleys,  and  Oak  Woods. — 
Fertile  Fields  and  Abundant  Harvests. — ’Amman  to  ’Arak  el  Emir. — Roman  Bridge. — 
Large  Pool,  Source  of  the  Jabbok.  —  High,  rolling  Plateau.  —  Bedawin  Battle-ground. 
— Khirbet  Sar. — Ancient  Jazer. — Wady  es  Seir. — Oak  Forest. — Rock-tomb  or  Dwell¬ 
ing. — Captain  Warren. — Rock-hewn  Chambers  at  Petra. — Bedawin  Robbers. — Rock- 
bound  Amphitheatre. — ’Arak  el  Emir. — Castle  of  Hyrcanus  described  by  Josephus. — 


XXVI 


CONTENTS. 


Ruins  of  the  Castle. — “A  Lovely  Landscape.” — Rev.  A.  E.  Northey. — Canon  Tris¬ 
tram. — Great  Stones. — Colossal  Lions. — Ionic  Cornices  and  Egyptian  Capitals. — Rock 
Dwellings  and  Stables  excavated  in  the  Limestone  Cliffs. — Cisterns,  Caves,  and  Up¬ 
right  Stones,  with  Checker  Pattern. — Ruins  of  Public  Buildings  and  Private  Dwellings. 
— Aqueduct  and  Large  Reservoir. — Fossils  and  Curious  Petrifactions. — Oleanders  over 
Thirty  Feet  high. — The  Dead  Sea. — Wady  Sha’ib. —  Bedawin  Encampments. —  The 
Stolen  Pitchfork  and  the  Christian  Guide. — Mukam  of  Neby  Sha’ib. — Votive  Offer¬ 
ings. — Resentful  Wrath  of  a  Moslem  Saint. — Abundance  of  Water  and  Luxuriant  Vege¬ 
tation. —  Golden  Daisies  and  Wild  Lupins.  —  Heavy  Crops  of  Wheat  and  Barley. — 
Flour -mills. — Plain  of  el  Buk’ah. — Favorite  Camping -ground  of  the  Bedawin. — El 
Buk’ah  described  by  Captain  Warren. — Flocks  of  Sheep  and  Goats. — Khirbet  el  Basha. 
— Khirbet  es  Safut. — The  Gate  of  ’Amman. — Ard  el  Hemar. — A  Rough  and  Unculti¬ 
vated  Region. — From  Kul’at  ez  Zerka  to  Yajuz. — Permanent  Fountains  of  the  Zerka. 
— The  Jabbok. — The  Strong  Border  of  Ammon. — Kul’at  ez  Zerka. — The  Haj. — En¬ 
campment  of  Bedawin. — Migration  in  Search  of  Pasture. — Bedawin  Women  moving 
Camp. — Biblical  References  to  taking  down  and  setting  up  Tents  and  Tabernacles. — 
An  Uncultivated  Region.  —  Storks  and  Partridges. — Fine  old  Oaks. — Extensive  Pros¬ 
pect. — Hermon,  Sulkhad,  and  Kuleib  Hauran. — Shouting  Shepherds  and  Barking  Dogs. 
— Bedawin  Encampment. — Forests  of  Oak  and  Terebinth  Trees. — Yajuz. — Exuberant 
Pasture. — Fountains  and  Flocks. — Small  Roman  Temple. — Great  Terebinths. — Large 
Stone  in  the  Trunk  of  a  Tree. — Open  Enclosures  with  Massive  Walls. — Bedawin  Ceme¬ 
tery. — The  Grave  of  Nimr  el  ’Adwan. — Ruins  at  Yajuz. — Large  Disc  or  Millstone. — 
Extensive  Quarries. — Female  Statue  broken  by  the  ’Adwan. — The  Moabite  Stone. — 
Sculptured  Eagle^  and  Lions. — Gadda. — El  Jebeiha,  Jogbehah. — Outlook  over  Reu¬ 
ben,  Gad,  and  Manasseh. — Hermon,  Jerash,  and  el  Buk’ah. — Ruins  buried  beneath  the 
Surface  at  el  Jebeiha. — Highly  Cultivated  and  Densely  Populated  Region. — Curious 
Rock  Strata. — Wady  el  Haddadeh.  —  Noisy  Torrent. — Total  Desolation  and  Utter 
Loneliness  at  ’Amman. — Rabbath  Ammon  and  the  Graeco-Roman  City  of  Philadelphia. 
— The  Site  of  a  Great  Capital. — Situation  of  the  City. — Overthrown  by  Earthquakes. 
— Corinthian  Temple  or  Tomb. — Large  Caravansary,  Church,  and  Mosk. — The  Basilica. 
— Imposing  Structure. — Roman  Bridge. — Banks  of  the  Stream  lined  with  Masonry. — 
Full  of  Fish. — Primitive  Fishing  by  the  Bedawin. — Ruins  of  an  Old  Mill. — The  Great 
Theatre. — Seats  for  Eight  Thousand  Spectators. — The  Forum. — Colonnade  of  over 
Fifty  Corinthian  Columns. — Odeon. — Northern  Wall  of  the  City. — Gate-way  of  the 
City. — Remarkable  Rock-cut  Tomb. — Large  Temple. — Main  Street  lined  with  Col¬ 
umns. — Ruined  Houses  upon  the  Steep  Declivity  of  the  Hill. — “The  Line  of  Confu¬ 
sion,  and  the  Stones  of  Emptiness.” — The  Citadel-hill. — Square  Watch-tower. — Pe¬ 
ripteral  Temple  within  the  Citadel. — Greek  Inscription  in  Large  Letters. — Beautiful 
Church  or  Mosk  within  the  Citadel  described  by  Canon  Tristram  and  Captain  Conder. 
— Massive  Walls  of  the  Citadel. — Large  and  Deep  Cisterns. — Underground  Reservoir. 
— Concealed  Passage. — Antiochus  the  Great. — Biblical  Interest  in  Rabbath  Ammon. — 
The  Iron  Bedstead  of  Og. — Captain  Conder’s  Suggestion  regarding  Og’s  Throne. — In¬ 
dependence  of  Rabbath  Ammon. — The  Siege  of  Rabbath  by  Joab. — Duration  of  the 
Siege. — Capture  of  the  City  of  Waters. — Joab’s  Message  to  David. — The  Citadel  taken 
by  David. — Remarkable  Fulfilment  of  Prophetic  Denunciations. — Droves  of  Camels, 


CONTENTS. 


XXVll 


and  Numerous  Flocks. — Ammon  denounced  by  the  Prophets. — Nothing  but  Ruins  at 
Rabbath,  and  Ammon  a  Perpetual  Desolation. — Ptolemy  of  Egypt. — Philadelphia  men¬ 
tioned  by  Greek  and  Roman  Writers  and  Josephus. — The  Citadel  Besieged  and  Cap¬ 
tured  by  Antiochus  and  Herod  the  Great. — A  City  of  the  Decapolis. — Seat  of  a  Bishop. 
—  Sunday  amongst  the  Ruins  at  ’Amman. — Reproduction  of  Patriarchal  Times. — The 
Solemn  Storks. —  Three  Sabbaths  at  ’Amman. —  Old  Woman  and  her  Daughter. — 
Grain  preserved  in  the  Theatre. — Absence  of  Trees. — A  Plough  for  Firewood. — Nat¬ 
ural  Phenomena. — Disappearance  and  Re-appearance  of  the  Stream  between  ’Amman 
and  Kul’at  ez  Zerka . Page  589 


XVII. 

’AMMAN  TO  ’AYUN  MUSA. 

Noisy  Rooks. — Solemn  Storks. — Ascent  to  the  Plain  south  of  ’Amman. — No  Roads  and 
no  Fences. — The  Land  of  the  Ammonites. — Jephthah’s  Victorious  Campaign. — Aroer 
to  Minnith. — Tyre  supplied  with  Wheat  from  Minnith. — No  Inhabited  Place  upon  the 
Belka. — Abu  Nugla. — Excursion  to  Mushatta. — The  sterile  Desert. — Luxuriant  Wheat. 
— Camps  of  the  Beni  Sakhr. — Commotion  in  the  Camp. — Uneasy  Guides. — Rualla  Bed- 
awin. — Blood  Feud. — Haj  Road  to  Mecca. — Route  of  the  Egyptian  Plaj. — En  Nukhl. — 
“  The  Wilderness  of  the  Wanderings.” — Khan  Mushatta. — Massive  Enclosing  Wall  de¬ 
fended  by  Twenty-five  Towers. — Octagonal  Towers. — The  Fa9ade. — Elegant  Sculpture, 
unparalleled  by  that  of  any  Age  or  Nation. — Twenty-two  Animals  and  fifty-five  Birds 
carved  in  Stone. — Entrance  Gate-way. — The  Middle  Division  of  the  Enclosure. — Cham¬ 
bers  for  the  Guard  and  Garrison. — Court. — Triple  Gate  of  the  Palace. — Court. — Entrance 
Gate-way  to  the  Audience-chamber. — The  Audience-chamber. — Side  Chambers. — Walls, 
Vaults,  and  Domes  constructed  of  Brick. — Large  Size  and  Extraordinary  Number  of  the 
Bricks. — Bedawm  Tribal  Marks. — Rude  Arabic  Characters. — Desolate  and  Lonely  Site. 
— Material  and  Workmen  transported  from  a  Distance. — The  wonderful  Palace  of  Mush¬ 
atta  discovered  by  Canon  Tristram. — Mr.  James  Fergusson. — Chosroes  II. — Shahr  Barz. 
— Dr.  Merrill. — Mushatta,  a  Church  and  Convent. — Mushatta  never  finished. —  Its  Origin 
and  Purpose  unknown. — The  Wintering  Place. — But  little  Debris  and  less  Destruction. 
— Dread  of  the  Rualla  Bedawm. — The  Haj  Road  and  the  Advance  of  the  Hebrews 
along  the  Eastern  Frontiers  of  Edom  and  Moab. — Entrance  into  the  Territory  of  Sihon. 
— The  Amorites  and  Moabites. — Reuben  and  Gad. — The  Boundaries  of  Moab  and  of 
the  Amorites. — A  rolling  Country. — Green  Wheat-fields. — Quails  and  Gazelles. — The 
Jackal  and  the  Fox. — Temple  and  Church  at  Madeba. — A  large  Reservoir. — Ziza. — 
Tanks  and  Cisterns. — Ruined  Houses. — Remains  of  Temples  and  Public  Buildings. — 
Roman  Suburb  at  Madeba. —  Colonnade. — Biblical  History  of  Medeba. — “The  Plain 
of  Medeba.” — Great  Battle  in  the  Time  of  David. — Thirty-two  thousand  Chariots. — 
Joab  and  Abishai  defeat  the  Amorites  and  Syrians. — Medeba  taken  by  Sihon. — Capt¬ 
ured  and  re-captured  by  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites. — Secular  History  of  Medeba. — 
The  Nabatheans. — Slaughter  of  a  Wedding-party  near  Medeba. — John  Maccabeus. — 
Ilyrcanus  I.  besieged  Medeba. — A  History  of  Conquest,  Bloodshed,  and  Sieges. — Me¬ 
deba  the  Seat  of  a  Bishop. — The  Besom  of  Destruction. —  Devastating  Bedawin. — 


XXV111 


CONTENTS. 


Traces  of  old  Roads. — Ancient  Names  of  Persons  and  Places  well  known  by  the  roam¬ 
ing  Denizens  of  the  Desert. —  Monuments  of  Remote  Antiquity. — The  Dolmens. — 
Pillars  of  Witness  and  Votive  Monuments. — Stone  Circles,  Menhirs,  Disc-stones,  and 
rock-cut  Tombs. — Menhirs  alluded  to  in  the  Bible. — Disc-stones. — Agricultural  Capa¬ 
bility  of  the  Belka. — The  Region  between  Madeba  and  Abu  Nugla. — The  Beni  Sakhr. 
— Thousands  of  Camels. — The  numberless  Camels  of  the  Midianites. — Fifty  thousand 
Camels  taken  from  the  Hagarites. — Golden  Ear-rings  of  the  Ishmaelites. — The  Bed- 
awin  Lineal  Descendants  of  the  Hagarites. — Ornaments  and  Garments  similar  to  those 
of  the  Midianites. — The  Wheat  in  the  Valleys  more  luxuriant  than  on  the  Plain. — 
Cretaceous  Limestone  Ridges. — A  double  Supply  of  Rain-water. — Arabic  Proverbs 
and  Biblical  Utterances. — A  high  Appreciation  of  Water. — Surprising  Number  of 
Cisterns  excavated  in  the  Cretaceous  Rock. — The  ’Adwan  and  the  Broken  Cisterns.^ 
Extensive  View  over  Ancient  Moab. — Kerak. —  Dibon. — The  Moabite  Stone. — King 
Mesha. — Two  hundred  thousand  Lambs  and  Rams. — Baal-meon. — Ruins  at  Ma’in 
described  by  Canon  Tristram. — Beth-meon. — Biblical  History  of  Beth-meon. — One  of 
the  High-places  of  Baal. —  Balak  and  Balaam. — The  Birthplace  of  Elisha. —  Ma’in  a 
shapeless  Mass  of  Ruins. — Threshing-floors. — Bedawin  taking  Wheat  out  of  a  deep 
Cistern. — Grain  concealed  from  hostile  Tribes. — Entrance  to  a  deep  Pool  of  Water 
reluctantly  disclosed. — No  Wood  to  boil  the  Kettle. — The  Zerka  Ma’in. — Excursion 
to  Callirrhoe. — Bedawin  Encampment. — Camels  and  Flocks  of  Sheep  and  Goats. — 
Fresh  Cheese. — “  Houses  of  Hair.” — A  pretty  Pastoral  Scene. — A  magnificent  View 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  —  Changeable  Color  of  the  Water. — A  hopeless  Wilderness. — Tre¬ 
mendous  Gorge  of  the  Zerka  Ma’in. — Lieutenant  Conder’s  Description  of  the  Gorge 
and  the  Hot  Springs  of  Callirrhoe. — “  The  Black  Grackle.” — The  Hot  Sulphur  Springs 
of  Callirrhoe. — The  Stream  from  the  Zerka  Ma’in.  —  Pools  full  of  Fish. — Tunnel 
through  Tufaceous  Sulphur. — A  thermal  Bath  at  140°  Fahrenheit. — The  Mules  found 
by  Anah  in  the  Wilderness. — Anah  discovers  Callirrhoe. — Visit  of  Herod  the  Great 
to  Callirrhoe. — Baaras. — Fountains  of  Hot  Water  described  by  Josephus. — Medicinal, 
and  good  for  Strengthening  the  Nerves. — “  Mines  of  Sulphur  and  Alum.” — John  the 
Baptist  beheaded  in  the  Castle  of  Machserus. — Herod’s  Supper,  and  the  Dancing  of 
Herodias’s  Daughter. — “  The  Head  of  John  the  Baptist  in  a  Charger.” — War  between 
Aretas  and  Herod. — “  The  Destruction  of  Herod’s  Army  a  Punishment  from  God.” — 
Vain  Attempt  to  reach  the  Shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  from  the  Sulphur  Springs  of  Callir¬ 
rhoe. — The  Ibex. — Stupendous  Cliff  of  Columnar  Basalt. — A  gigantic  Organ. — Kufeir 
Abu  Bedd. — Disc-stones  in  Moab. — Mensef  Abu  Zeid. — Two  large  Wolves. — Shefa 
Neba,  the  Crest  of  Nebo.  —  Sahl  Neba. — Jebel  Neba,  “the  Mountain  of  Nebo.” — 
Elevated  Plateau  of  the  Belka,  and  great  Depression  of  the  Shittim  Plain. — Preserva¬ 
tion  of  ancient  Biblical  Names. — The  unchanged  Name  of  Nebo. — View  from  Jebel 
Neba. — El  Muslubiyeh. — The  grassy  Ravine  between  Jebel  Neba  and  Jebel  Siaghah. 
— Ruined  Temple  on  Jebel  Siaghah. — The  City  of  Nebo. — View  from  the  Ruins  on 
Jebel  Siaghah. — The  Headland  or  Ras  of  Siaghah. — “  The  Mountain  of  Nebo,  and 
the  Top  of  Pisgah.” — Here  Moses  must  have  stood. — The  View  of  the  Promised  Land. 
— The  Outlook  from  Ras  Siaghah. — The  Names  Neba  and  Siaghah,  and  Nebo  and 
Pisgah. — Siaghah  an  Arabic  Form  of  the  Hebrew  Pisgah. — Descent  to  ’Ayun  Musa. — 
Approach  of  the  Hebrews  to  the  Land  of  Promise. — “The  Mountains  of  Abarim.” — 


CONTENTS. 


XXIX 


Descent  of  the  Israelites  to  “the  Plains  of  Moab.” — Balak  and  Balaam. — Balaam’s 
Sublime  Conceptions  regarding  the  God  of  Israel. — Thrice  seven  Altars  and  twice  as 
many  Sacrifices. — Jebel  Neba  the  first  Station. — Balaam’s  Parable. — “The  Field  of 
Zophim.” — The  Grassy  Vale  between  Jebel  Neba  and  Jebel  Siaghah. — The  Parable 
of  Balaam. — “The  Top  of  Peor.” — The  Summit  of  Siaghah. — Balaam’s  Parable. — 
Wrath  of  Balak,  and  Flight  of  Balaam. — What  “the  Son  of  Beor  saw  and  said.” — 
Balaam  an  Unprincipled  Man. —  Slain  in  Battle  fighting  against  Israel. —  Obstinate 
and  Puzzling  Questions  . . Page  625 


XVIII. 

THE  FOUNTAINS  OF  MOSES  TO  THE  FORD  OF  THE  JORDAN  NEAR 

JERICHO. 

The  Fountains  of  Moses. — The  Stream  from  the  Fountains.  —  Ashdoth-pisgah. — Tul’at 
es  Sufa  and  the  Field  of  Zophim. — Ascent  of  Nebo. — The  Servant  of  the  Lord  and 
the  Land  of  Promise. — Khurbet  Barzeleh. — Grave  of  Neby  ’Abd  Allah.  —  “From  the 
Ancient  Times.” — Rude  Sketches  on  the  Tomb  of  a  Prophet. — A  Sanctuary. — The 
Plain  of  the  Belka  and  the  Plains  of  Moab. — Heshbon. — Fine  Pavement. — Singular 
Edifice. — Jewish,  Roman,  and  Saracenic  Architecture.  —  Cisterns. —  Reservoir. —  Fish- 
pools  in  Heshbon. — Ruined  Cities  of  Moab. — Prophecy  and  History. — “  The  Cry  of 
Heshbon.”  —  Biblical  History  of  Heshbon.  —  Captured  by  Alexander  Jannseus. — 
Elealeh. — “The  Height.” — View  from  el  ’A1  over  the  Plain  of  Moab. — “The  Pride 
of  Moab.” — Descent  to  ’Ain  Hesban. — Road  to  Hesban. — The  Turkish  Government 
and  the  Survey  of  Moab.  —  “The  Land  of  Giants.” — Rephaims  and  Emims. — The 
Children  of  Lot,  Moab  and  Ammon. — The  Amorites. — The  Hebrews. — The  roving 
Bedawin. — Ancient  Biblical  Names  remaining  Unchanged. —  Kubalan  el  Fadil. — A 
Bedawin  Sheikh  described  by  Captain  Conder. — The  Black  Tents  of  an  Arab  Encamp¬ 
ment. — A  Noisy  Welcome. — Sheikh  ’Ali  Diab. — A  Patriarchal  Scene. — ’Ain  Hesban. 
— Luxuriant  Wheat  and  Barley. — Flour-mills. — The  Stream  from  the  Fountain. — Fish- 
pools. — The  Eyes  of  the  Prince’s  Daughter. — Captain  Conder. — “The  Gate  in  Beth- 
rabbim.” — Road  from  ’Ain  Hesban  to  the  Jericho  Ford. — Canon  Tristram. — Northern 
and  Southern  Sides  of  Wady  Hesban. — Circle  of  Dolmens. — The  Region  between  the 
Mountains  and  the  Plain  in  the  Time  of  the  Hebrews  and  at  the  Present  Day. — View 
over  the  Plain  of  Abel-shittim. — Valleys  and  Streams  and  principal  Hills  around  and 
upon  the  Plain. — Beth- jeshimoth. — The  little  City  Zoar. — Beth-haran. — Herod  the 
Great  and  the  Warm  Baths  at  Tell  el  Hammam. — Tell  Kefrein,  Abel-shittim. — Tell 
Nimrtn,  Beth-minrah. — Tell  el  Hammam. — M’hadhar  or  Um  Hathir. —  Hubbisa. — • 
Warm  Sulphur  Springs,  Baths,  and  Aqueduct  at  Tell  el  Hammam. — Clumps  of  Scraggy 
Trees. — Apple  of  Sodom. — Tell  Ektanu  and  Tell  er  Rameh.  —  Betharamphtha. — 
Julius  or  Livias. — The  Streams  in  the  Wadies. — Group  of  Dolmens. — Large  Disc-stone. 
— “The  Dish  of  Abu  Zeid.” — Flooded  Wheat-fields. — Plain  of  Abel-shittim  and  the 
Acacia-trees. — Tell  Kefrein  and  Kirjathaim. — Abel-shittim. — Completion  of  Deuter¬ 
onomy  and  the  Last  Address  of  the  Hebrew  Law-giver. — “  The  Favor  of  God.” — The 
Spies  sent  to  Jericho. — Deserted  Condition  of  the  Plain,  and  Bustling  Activity  of  the 


XXX 


CONTENTS. 


Hebrew  Encampment. — The  Goodly  Tents  of  Israel. — The  Plain  of  Abel-shittim  and 
the  Camp  of  the  Hebrew  Nation. — “  From  Beth-jesimoth  unto  Abel-shittim.” — Ample 
Space  for  the  Tribes  to  Encamp. — Route  of  the  Israelites  from  the  Red  Sea. — Expe¬ 
ditions  for  the  Subjugation  of  Gilead  and  Bashan.  —  “  Seeing  is  Believing.” — Testimony 
of  the  Land  to  the  Truth  of  the  Book. — Passage  of  the  Children  of  Israel  into  the 
Land  of  Canaan. — High  Bluffs  on  the  Banks  of  the  Jordan. — Dividing  of  the  Waters, 
and  the  Passing  Over  of  the  People. — The  Command  of  the  Lord  to  Joshua. — Return 
of  the  Waters  of  the  Jordan. — The  Camp  at  Gilgal  near  Jericho. —  Under  the  Palm 
Groves. — “Jerusalem  the  Mother  of  us  All.” — The  Land  of  the  Book  .  .  Page  657 


FULL-PAGE  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Damascus  of  Syria— Dimeshk  esh  Sham . 

SlDON  FROM  THE  NORTH — SAIDA . 

Druse  Princesses  from  Mount  Lebanon . 

Beirut — Berytus — Mount  Lebanon — Jebel  Sunnin 
Street  of  the  Auctioneers — Suk  ed  DellalIn  .  . 

Syrian  Gentlemen  of  various  Sects . 

Syrian  Ladies . 

The  Weir  across  Nahr  el  Kelb . 

Fountain  and  Village  of  el  Baruk . 

Zahleh  .  . 

Casts  of  Fossil-shells  collected  on  Lebanon  .  .  . 

Source  of  the  Adonis — Mugharat  ’Afka . 

The  Cedars — El  Arz . 

Tripoli — Tarabulus . 

Ba’albek  and  Lebanon . 

Temple  of  Jupiter . 

Court  and  Lewan  of  a  Private  House  in  Damascus 

Muhammedan  Funeral  Procession . 

Palace  or  Convent  of  Job — Es  Serai  or  Deir  Eyub 

Ruined  Temples  or  Public  Edifices . 

Forum  at  Jerash . 


Frontispiece 


FACES  PAGE  5 


<  < 


20 


46 

74 

84 

88 


<  < 


<  < 


106 

182 

200 

223 

242 

264 

276 

320 

330 

39° 

404 

484 

5i6 

564 


XXX11 


FULL-PAGE  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Temple  of  Jupiter  or  of  the  Sun . faces  page  568 

Octagonal  Tower  at  Mushatta . .  .  “  632 


MAP  OF  THE  LEBANON,  CCELESYRIA,  ANTI-LEBANON,  AND 

THE  REGION  ABOUT  DAMASCUS . faces  page  5 

MAP  OF  THE  REGION  EAST  OF  THE  JORDAN,  OR  BASHAN, 

GILEAD,  AND  MOAB . between  pages  422,  423 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 


PAGE 


Boats  drawn  up  on  the  Beach  . 

,  . 

6 

Sidon  and  its  Gardens  .  .  .  . 

7 

The  Banana — El  Mouz  . 

•  1 

s 

The  Water-wheel — En  Na’urah  . 

.  J 

The  Bostrenus — El  Auwaly 

• 

10 

Residence  of  Lady  Hester  Stanh 

ope — 

Dahar  June . 

14 

Grave  of  Lady  Hester  Stanhope  . 

. 

15 

Tomb  of  Jonah — Neby  Yunas  . 

• 

18 

Tattooed  Egyptian  Woman 

•  l 

2a 

Specimens  of  Tattooing  .  .  .  . 

.  f 

The  Tamyras — Ed  Damur  . 

• 

25 

One  of  St.  Helena’s  Towers  near 

Tyre. 

3i 

Ancient  Sarcophagi . 

32 

Olive-branch . 

36 

Old  Olive-tree . 

40 

Ancient  Aqueduct  over  the  Beirut 

River. 

50 

House-tops,  showing  Roofs  and  Battle- 

ments . 

53 

Terrace  covered  with  Vines 

. 

58 

The  Sparrow . 

59 

The  Letter-writer . 

61 

Writing  and  Writing  Materials 

• 

62 

Modern  Arab  Ink-horn  .  .  .  . 

63 

The  Call  to  Prayer — El  Muezzin  . 

. 

64 

The  Mosk — El  Jami’a  .  .  .  . 

. 

65 

Moslems  at  Prayer . 

66 

The  Street — Es  Suk . 

• 

70 

Shaving  the  Head . 

72 

Barber-shop — Auctioneer 

. 

73 

Sitting  at  Meat — Party  at  Dinner 

. 

76 

Stool  and  Tray — Pitcher  and  Basin  . 

77 

Washing  the  Hands . 

78 

Pipes,  Nargilehs,  Coffee-cups,  and 

Tray. 

80 

c 


PAGE 


Head-dress  of  a  Syrian  Lady  .... 
Assyrian  Tablet,  with  Cuneiform  In¬ 
scription  . 

Egyptian  Tablet,  with  Supposed  > 

Hieroglyphics . 

Hieroglyphics  and  Figures  ... 
Map  of  the  Grottoes  at  Nahr  el  Kelb  ) 

The  Screen . f 

Maxwell’s  Column . ) 

The  Pantheon . > 

Chaos . . 

Pigeon  Island — Er  Rouslia  .... 

The  Pines — El  Hursh  . . 

The  Sycamore — El  Jimais  .  ...  \ 

Sycamore  Figs  ) 

Seller  of  Sycamore  Fruit . 

Anglo-American  Church  ..... 
The  Treading — Ed  Douseh  .... 
The  Silk-worm,  Cocoon,  Butterfly,  and 

Chrysalis . 

The  Palm — En  Nukhl . 

Dates — Thamr . 

The  Carob — El  Kharnub . 

Carob  Pods — The  Husks . 

The  Fountain — El  ’Ain . 

Durzy  and  Durzieh . 

Palace  at  Bteddin . 

The  Palace  of  Sa’id  Beg  Jumblat  at  el 

Mukhtarah . 

Water-fall  below  Jezzin . 

Saint’s  Tomb — El  Mukam  .  .  .  . 

The  Cedar — El  Arz . 

Ruined  Temple  near  Kul’at  el  Fukra  . 
The  Natural  Bridge — Jisr  el  Hajr  . 


87 


95 


100 

102 

103 
109 
1 1 2. 

1 14 

115 
1 17 
119 

124 

127 

129 

130 

131 

134 

152 

158' 

162 

165 

170 

180 

225 

22S 


XXXIV 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT. 


PAGE 


Kul’at  el  Museilihah . 255 

An  Aged  Cedar  of  Lebanon  ....  267 
Intermitting  Fountain . 289 


Monument  Commemorative  of  the  Chase 

— Kamu’a  el  Htirmul . 307 

Figures  on  the  East  Side  .  ...  \ 

Figures  on  the  North  Side  .  .  .  >•  308 

Figures  on  the  West  Side  .  ) 

Figures  on  the  South  Side  ....  309 
Lake  on  Lebanon  —  Birket  el  Yem- 


muneh . 314 

Plan  of  the  Courts  and  Temples  at 

Ba’albek . 322 

Shell -shaped  and  Rectangular  Niches 
and  Semicircular  Recess  around  the 

Great  Court . 324 

The  Six  Columns  on  the  South  Side  of 

the  Peristyle . 326 

The  Three  Great  Stones  in  the  West 
Wall . 327 


Portal  and  Key-stone  of  the  Temple  of 

Jupiter . 

Interior  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  . 
The  Leaning  Column  on  South  Wall  of 

the  Temple . 

Ruins  of  the  Portico  of  the  Temple  of 

Jupiter . 

The  Octagonal  Temple . 

The  Great  Stone  in  the  Quarry  . 

Kubbet  Duris . 

Falls  of  the  Barada — The  River  Abana 
The  Barada  and  the  Fijeh — The  Meet¬ 
ing  of  the  Waters . 

Diamond,  Pearl,  and  Gold  Ear-rings — 

Diamond  Necklace . 

Arch  and  Pediment  of  an  Ancient  Gate¬ 
way  . 

Church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist — Jami’a 

es  Seiyed  Yehya . 

Tomb  of  St.  John  the  Baptist — Mukam 

es  Seiyed  Yehya . 

Ornamented  Piers  and  Arches  in  the 
Court  of  the  Great  Mosk  . 
Specimens  of  Tessellated  Pavement  . 
Specimens  of  Wood  Panel-work  . 

Mode  of  Playing  the  Kanun  . 

Mode  of  Playing  the  Kamanjeh  . 


Tambourine — Deff . ) 

Castanets . ) 


331 

332 

334 

335 
337 

342 

343 
349 

353 

376 

378 

380 


383 

385 

389 

391 

392 

393 


Derbekkeh . 

Inner  Court  of  a  House  at  Salihiyeh 
Mosk  of  Sultan  Selim  in  the  Tekiyeh  . 
Women  Weeping  at  the  Grave  . 
Lachrymatories,  or  Tear-bottles  . 

South  Wall  of  Damascus — Where  Paul 

was  let  down . 

The  East  Gate — Bab  esh  Shurky 
14  The  Street  called  Straight” 

Lock  and  Key . 

Remains  of  a  Temple  at  Harran  el 

’Awamid . 

Temple  at  el  Musmeih — Phsena  . 

Temple  at  Suleim . 

Temple  at  Kunawat . 

Antique  Head  at  Kunawat  . 

Peripteral  Temple  at  Kunawat  . 

Temple  at  ’Atil . 

Temple  at  es  Suweideh . 

Church  and  Convent  at  Um  el  Jemal  . 
Theatre  within  the  Castle  at  el  Busrah. 
Cufic  Inscription  at  el  Busrah 
Reservoir  and  Ruined  Mosk  at  el  Busrah 

Ruins  of  el  Busrah . 

Castle  of  Salchah — Kul’at  Sulkhad  . 

Triumphal  Arch  at  Jerash . 

Temple  at  Jerash . 

Theatre  at  Jerash . 

Section  of  the  Colonnade  along  the 

Main  Street  at  Jerash . 

Niches  in  the  Semicircular  Recess  of 

an  Elegant  Building . 

Propylaeum  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun. 
Northern  Theatre  at  Jerash  . 

Colossal  Lions  on  the  Fa$ade  of  the 

Palace  of  Hyrcanus . 

Rock  Chambers  and  Stables  excavated 
in  the  Limestone  Cliffs  at  ’Arak  el 

Emir . 

Ruined  Temple  or  Tomb . 

Exterior  of  an  Imposing  Structure  . 
Interior  of  an  Imposing  Structure  . 
Roman  Bridge,  and  Banks  of  the  Stream 
Theatre  and  Odeon  at  ’Amman  . 

Rear  Wall  of  a  Large  Temple  . 
Peripteral  Temple  within  the  Citadel  . 
Decorated  Arches  in  the  Church  or 
Mosk  on  the  Citadel-hill  . 

Khan  Mushatta — The  Wintering  Place. 


PAGE 

393 

397 

400 

402 

404 

406 

408 

410 

413 

416 

451 

479 

485 

487 

488 
495 
499 

509 

514 

520 

522 

525 

528 

561 

562 

563 

565 

566 

567 

570 

598 


599 

609 

610 

611 

612 

613 

615 

617 

618 
631 


INTRODUCTION. 


Palestine,  both  east  and  west  of  the  Jordan,  may  be 
fairly  regarded  as  the  divinely  prepared  tablet  whereon  God’s 
messages  to  men  have  been  graven  in  ever-living  characters. 
This  fact  invests  even  the  geography  and  topography  of  the 
Holy  Land  with  special  importance.  But  there  are  other 
considerations  which  impart  to  it  a  deeper  and  more  prac¬ 
tical  interest.  From  this  land  we  have  received  that  mar¬ 
vellous  spiritual  and  figurative  nomenclature  of  the  Bible 
through  which  nearly  all  true  religious  knowledge  has  been 
communicated  to  men.  Here  it  was  devised  and  first  used, 
and  here  are  found  its  best  illustrations.  We  learn  from 
history  that  it  required  fifteen  centuries  of  time,  and  an 
endless  array  of  providential  arrangements,  co  -  operating 
with  human  and  superhuman  agents  and  agencies,  to  bring 
this  medium  of  intercourse  between  God  and  man  to  the 
needed  perfection. 

Numerous  and  complicated  as  were  the  instrumentali¬ 
ties  employed,  and  for  so  many  generations  of  human  his¬ 
tory,  still  they  may  be  all  grouped  under  two  fundamental 
expedients — 

The  selecting,  training,  and  governing  of  a  peculiar  peo¬ 
ple  ;  and, 


2 


INTRODUCTION- 


The  creating  and  preparing  an  appropriate  home  for 
them. 

Abraham  and  Canaan,  the  Hebrew  Nation  and  the  Land 
of  Promise,  the  long  ongoing  and  outworking  of  the  Mosaic 
Economy,  in  conjunction  with  the  people  of  God  and  the 
physical  phenomena  of  their  earthly  Inheritance  —  by  and 
through  all  these  did  the  Spirit  of  Inspiration  evolve  and 
perfect  man’s  religious  language.  Palestine,  fashioned  and 
furnished  by  the  Creator’s  hand,  was  the  arena,  and  the  He¬ 
brew  people  and  the  surrounding  nations  were  the  actors 
brought  upon  it,  and  made  to  perform  their  parts  by  the 
Divine  Master.  When  the  end  and  aim  had  been  reached, 
the  spiritual  and  figurative  nomenclature  fully  developed 
and  matured,  the  Gospel  of  Salvation  was  sent  forth  on  its 
high  mission  of  mercy  amongst  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

Like  other  books,  the  Bible  has  had  a  home,  a  birth¬ 
place  ;  but,  beyond  all  other  examples,  this  birthplace  has 
given  form  and  color  to  its  language.  The  underlying  ba¬ 
sis  of  this  wonderful  dialect  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is 
found  in  the  land  itself.  But  as  in  the  resurrection  “  that 
was  not  first  which  is  spiritual,  but  that  which  is  natural ; 
and  afterward  that  which  is  spiritual,”  so  man’s  religious 
language  was  preceded  by  and  grew  out  of  the  natural 
and  the  mundane.  The  material  out  of  which  was  formed 
our  spiritual  dialect  was  of  the  earth  earthy,  requiring  to 
be  transformed  and  transfigured  ere  it  could  become  a  fit 
medium  for  things  heavenly. 

To  study  to  the  best  advantage  the  transfiguration  of 
that  language,  we  must  resort  to  Palestine,  where  it  was  first 
learned  and  spoken.  That  land,  we  repeat,  has  had  an  all- 
pervading  influence  upon  the  costume  and  character  of  the 
Bible.  Without  the  former,  the  latter,  as  we  now  have  it, 
could  not  have  been  produced.  To  ascertain  this  fact,  and 


INTRODUCTION. 


3 


to  notice  by  what  process  of  analogy  and  of  contrast  the 
physical  and  the  mundane  came  to  signify  and  illustrate 
things  spiritual  and  heavenly,  may  well  occupy  much  of  our 
attention  during  this  pilgrimage  through  the  Holy  Land. 

Let  us,  therefore,  deal  reverently  with  it,  walk  softly  over 
those  acres  once  trodden  by  patriarchs,  prophets,  and  poets, 
and  even  by  the  sacred  feet  of  the  Son  of  God  himself. 
Let  us  put  off  the  soiled  sandal  of  worldliness  and  sin  as 
we  enter  this  consecrated  domain.  There  is  design  in  this 
peculiar  grouping  of  mountains  and  plains,  hills  and  valleys, 
lakes  and  rivers,  the  desert  and  the  sea,  all  in  intimate  as¬ 
sociation  with  the  marvellous  and  miraculous  incidents  and 
phenomena  recorded  in  the  Bible. 

The  Land  and  the  Book  constitute  the  all-perfect  text 
of  the  Word  of  God,  and  can  be  best  studied  together.  To 
read  the  one  by  the  light  of  the  other  has  been  the  privilege 
of  the  author  for  more  than  forty  years,  and  the  govern¬ 
ing  purpose  in  publishing  is  to  furnish  additional  facilities 
for  this  delightful  study  to  those  who  have  not  been  thus 
exceptionally  favored. 

The  sites  and  scenes  described  in  the  work  were  visited 
many  times  during  the  author’s  long  residence  in  the  coun¬ 
try  ;  and  the  results,  so  far  as  they  bear  on  Biblical  illustra¬ 
tion,  appear  in  the  current  narrative.  The  conversations  are 
held  by  the  way-side,  on  horseback,  in  the  open  country,  or 
in  the  tent,  and  the  reader  is  at  liberty  to  regard  himself 
as  the  author’s  travelling  companion,  in  full  sympathy  with 
the  purpose  and  aim  of  this  pilgrimage  through  the  Holy 
Land. 


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Scale  of  Miles 


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THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


i. 

SIDON  TO  BEIRUT. 

Sidon  from  the  North. — Ancient  Wall. — Boats  drawn  up  on  the  Shore. — The  Gardens  of 
Sidon. — The  Banana-tree. — Na’urah,  or  Water-wheel. — The  Aqueduct. — El  Auwaly, 
the  Bostrenus. — The  Bridge. — Bridges  not  Mentioned  in  the  Bible. — Bridges  in  the 
Time  of  the  Romans. — The  Khan. — Migration  of  an  Arab  Tribe. — A  Winter  Storm. 
— An  Officer  of  Sa’id  Beg. — Personal  Experience. — A  Bridal-party. — The  Road  from 
Sidon  to  Beirut. — Dahar  June,  the  Residence  of  Lady  Hester  Stanhope. — The  Burial 
of  Lady  Hester. — Eccentricities  of  Lady  Hester. — Neby  Yunas,  Tomb  of  Jonah. — The 
Mother  of  Samuel. — “  Horned  Ladies.” — Biblical  Allusions  to  Horns. — The  Story  of 
Jonah  and  the  Whale. — Berja. — El  Jiyeh,  Porphyreon. — Arabs  at  a  Well. — Tattooing. 
— The  Hebrews  Forbidden  to  print  Marks  upon  themselves. — Along  the  Sandy  Beach, 
and  over  the  Rocky  Headlands. — Nukkar  es  Sa’diat. — Defeat  of  Ptolemy’s  Army  by 
Antiochus. — The  Shepherd  and  the  Sheep. — Ed  Damur,  the  Tamyras. — The  Mulberry 
Gardens  of  Mu’allakah. — Sugar  and  the  Sugar-cane. — The  Sweet  Cane  of  the  Bible. — 
“The  Burnings  of  Lime.” — Lime  Mentioned  Twice  in  the  Bible. — El  Bellan,  Thorn 
Bush. — Biblical  Allusions  to  Thorns. — Raw  or  Burnt. — Pots  and  Plots. — “  The  Crack¬ 
ling  of  Thorns  under  a  Pot.” — Khan  Khulda,  Heldua. — Ghufr  en  Na’imeh. — One  of 
St.  Plelena’s  Towers. — Broken  Sarcophagi. — Esh  Shuweifat. — Olive-grove. — Beauty 
of  the  Olive-tree. — “  Oil  out  of  the  Flinty  Rock.” — Oil-presses. — Grafting. — “  A  Wild 
Olive-tree.” — The  Flower  of  the  Olive. — “  The  Labor  of  the  Olive.” — “  The  Shaking 
of  an  Olive-tree.” — The  Gleaning  of  the  Olive. — “Thy  Children  shall  be  like  Olive- 
plants  round  about  thy  Table.” — Dukkan  el  Kusis. — “A  Sea  of  Sand.” — El  Ghiidir. 
— El  Kalabat. — Ibrahim  Pasha  and  the  Emir  of  Shuweifat. — The  Goodly  Lebanon. — 
Picturesque  Villages. — The  Pines. — Arrival  at  Beirut. 

May  27th. 

To  one  riding  along  the  sandy  beach,  and  approaching  Sidon 
from  the  north,  the  appearance  of  the  city  is  quite  imposing. 
About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  out  to  sea,  and  itself  not  much  more 
than  that  in  length,  lies  the  Jezireh — a  low,  rocky  island,  in  the  lee 
of  which  ships  and  large  coasting  craft  cast  anchor.  Nearer  the 
A 


6 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


boats  drawn  up  on  the  beach.  arches  connecting  it  with  the 


city,  which  is  built  upon  a 
promontory  that  rises  gradually  southward  to  the  old  land  castle 
of  St.  Louis,  which  is  nearly  two  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  city  itself  is  seen  to  the  best  advantage,  however, 
from  the  villages  on  the  foot-hills  east  of  the  gardens,  from  where 
nearly  every  house  is  visible. 

Before  we  turn  up  to  the  right,  among  the  gardens,  I  call  your 
attention  to  the  remains  of  that  ancient  wall,  and  to  this  sheltered 
beach,  upon  which  some  sailors  are  repairing  their  “  ships.”  When 
the  stormy  season  commences  this  space  will  be  crowded  with 
Sidon’s  dismantled  fleet.  It  is  the  invariable  custom  to  lay  up 
those  frail  craft  for  the  winter,  and  that  has  always  been  the  prac¬ 
tice  along  this  coast,  I  suppose.  The  Phoenicians  rarely  had  har¬ 
bors  where  ships  could  ride  in  safety  during  the  storms  of  winter, 
and  hence  they  drew  them  up  on  shore.  They  could  thus  dispense 
with  harbors,  and  could  and  did  build  towns  along  the  coast,  wher¬ 
ever  there  was  a  bit  of  sandy  beach  large  enough  for  their  vessels. 
W  hen  the  spring  opened  they  probably  did  just  what  these  modern 


SIDON  AND  ITS  GARDENS. 


; 


mariners  now  do — re-pitched,  launched,  and  rigged  up  their  ships, 
and  prosecuted  their  business  until  the  next  winter,  when  they 
again  dismantled  and  hauled  them  on  shore.  The  Greeks  did  the 
same  even  with  their  war-ships,  and  Homer’s  heroes  built  a  forti¬ 
fication  around  their  navy  to  protect  it  from  the  Trojans;  and,  in¬ 
deed,  Sidonian  ships  were  there  to  aid  the  beleaguered  city  of  Troy. 

Instead  of  following  the  ordinary  route  along  the  shore  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Auwaly,  we  will  pass  through  the  gardens  to  the 
bridge  over  that  river.  The  ride  is  much  pleasanter,  and  you  will 
get  a  better  idea  of  the  extent  and  character  of  these  celebrated 
gardens — the  glory  of  Sidon,  and  the  source  of  much  of  the  wealth 
and  prosperity  of  its  present  inhabitants. 

We  have  seen  nothing  like  them  in  this  country  except  at  Jaffa, 
and  in  many  respects  these  are  more  beautiful  and  larger.  Can 


SIDON  AND  ITS  GARDENS. 


8 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


anything  of  the  kind  be  richer  or  more  delightful  than  those  orange 
and  lemon  trees,  loaded  with  golden  fruit,  single  or  in  compact  clus¬ 
ters,  decked  with  leaves  of  liveliest  green,  and  spangled  all  over  with 
snow-white  flowers  of  sweetest  fragrance?  With  distance  to  lend 
enchantment,  Sidon’s  fair  daughters  gliding  through  these  verdant 


en  na’urah — the  water- wheel.  “  ladies  of  the  Hesperides,”  as 


Milton  has  it,  set  to  watch 
those  golden  apples.  Then  these  banana- trees,  with  their  large 
bunches  of  green  and  ripe  fruit,  and  their  extraordinary  leaves,  a 
dozen  feet  long,  and  drooping  like  great  pendent  ears,  are  exceed- 
ingly  picturesque. 

Commerce  has  made  all  the  world  familiar  with  the  fruit  of  that 
tree,  but  as  it  cannot  endure  the  frost  it  is  never  seen  in  northern 
countries.  Here  there  are  thousands  of  them,  and  Sidon  is  justly 
celebrated  for  the  quality  as  well  as  the  quantity  of  its  bananas. 

The  na’urah,  or  water-wheel,  with  its  ropes  of  twisted  myrtle 


THE  AQUEDUCT.— BRIDGE  OVER  THE  AUWALY. 


9 


branches,  its  dripping  buckets,  its  groaning  well -sweep — to  which 
a  mule  or  a  camel  is  harnessed — and  its  birkeh,  or  reservoir,  into 
which  the  water  raised  from  the  well  falls  with  monotonous  splash, 
is  almost  exactly  like  those  we  saw  at  Jaffa. 

To  these  gardens  the  inhabitants  of  Sidon  come,  and  around 
those  birkehs  they  sit  and  “  kaiyef  ” — eat,  drink,  smoke,  and  make 
merry — especially  in  the  spring  and  early  summer,  when  the  lettuce 
is  fresh  and  crisp,  or  the  apricots  ripe  and  luscious. 

When  I  resided  in  Sidon,  many  years  ago,  one  of  my  favorite 
walks  was  along  the  aqueduct  which  brings  the  water  from  the  Au- 
waly  through  the  gardens  and  into  the  city.  All  this  wilderness  of 
fadeless  verdure,  this  paradise  of  fruits  and  flowers,  derives  its  life 
from  that  aqueduct,  and  from  the  many  shallow  wells  which  the 
gardeners  dig.  The  aqueduct  not  being  kept  in  good  repair,  a  part 
of  the  city  is  deprived  of  any  benefit  from  it,  and  a  large  quantity 
of  water  runs  to  waste  in  the  gardens,  and  along  the  road,  as  we 
have  found  to  our  annoyance  during  most  of  this  ride. 

Here  we  are  at  Jisr  el  Auwaly,  as  this  picturesque  bridge  is 
called.  It  is  a  fine  ^tone  structure,  spanning  the  river  by  a  single 
arch,  and  is  said  to  have  been  built,  more  than  two  hundred  and 
fifty  years  ago,  by  an  Italian  architect  in  the  employ  of  the  Emir 
Fakhr  ed  Din,  concerning  whom  we  shall  have  more  to  say  when 
we  visit  the  region  of  that  chief’s  exploits  on  Lebanon.  The 
bridge  occupies  the  site  of  one  more  ancient,  erected  by  the  Ro¬ 
mans,  or  the  Phoenicians,  whose  builders  have  left  the  marks  of 
their  handiwork  on  some  of  the  large  bevelled  stones  in  the  foun¬ 
dation.  The  Auwaly  has  been  identified  by  Dr.  Robinson  with  the 
Bostrenus  of  the  ancient  geographers,  “  described  by  Dionysius  Pe- 
riegetes  as  the  ‘  graceful’  river  upon  whose  waters  ‘flowery’  Sidon 
was  situated,  though  it  is  actually  two  miles  south  of  it.” 

How  quietly  the  river  glides,  between  these  green  and  bushy 
banks,  towards  the  sea!  Is  it  so  deep  as  to  require  a  bridge? 

Only  during  the  stormy  season  in  winter;  but,  as  often  happens 
to  many  other  streams  along  this  coast,  the  waves  of  the  sea  dam 
up  their  mouths,  especially  in  the  summer  and  autumn,  when  the 
current  is  too  feeble  to  keep  the  channel  open,  and  the  ford  is 

thus  rendered  almost  impracticable. 

A* 


IO 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


Is  it  not  surprising  that  bridges  are  not  once  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  not  even  in  the  New  Testament,  at  which  time  there  were  at 
least  Roman  bridges  in  many  parts  of  this  country? 

The  Hebrews  do  not  appear  to  have  understood  the  art  of 
bridge  making.  When  they  were  commanded  by  Joshua  “to  pass 


EL  AUWALY — THE  BOSTRENUS. 

*  V 

over  Jordan,”  a  way  was  miraculously  opened  for  them — “the  wa¬ 
ters  which  came  down  from  above  stood  and  rose  up  upon  a  heap, 
and  those  that  came  down  toward  the  sea,  even  the  salt  sea,  failed 
and  were  cut  off :  and  all  the  Israelites  passed  over  on  dry  ground.”  1 
And  so  late  as  the  reign  of  David,  when  he  returned  from  Maha- 

1  Josh.  iii.  16,  17. 


BRIDGES.— OLD  KHAN.— MIGRATION  OF  AN  ARAB  TRIBE. 


II 


naim  to  the  Jordan,  “  there  went  over  a  ferry  boat  to  carry  over  the 
king’s  household,”  which  implies  that  there  were  then  no  bridges, 
and  that  the  main  body  of  his  army  forded  the  river.1 

The  Romans  were  the  great  bridge  builders,  and  it  was  not 
till  after  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  them  that  bridges  were 
erected.  Not  long  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  Herod  the  Great 
must  have  thrown  across  the  Tyropoeon  that  stupendous  bridge, 
now  familiarly  known  as  “  Robinson’s  Arch  and  farther  up  the 
valley  the  grand  viaduct,  “  Wilson’s  Arch,”  was  probably  built 
about  the  same  time,  and  by  the  same  architects.  Herod  was  a 
great  builder  of  castles,  temples,  theatres,  and  other  public  edi¬ 
fices,  and  he,  perhaps,  constructed  or  repaired  some  of  the  bridges 
over  the  Jordan,  whose  ruins  indicate  a  Roman  origin. 

I  have  passed  more  than  one  night  at  this  old  khan  on  our  left, 
and  the  sight  of  it  revives  the  memory  of  other  days,  and  of  curious 
personal  experiences.  On  my  way  from  Beirut  to  Hasbeiya,  many 
years  ago,  I  arrived  at  this  place  about  sunset.  It  was  the  3d  of 
December,  and  a  winter-storm  was  coming  on  in  all  its  might  and 
majesty.  Lightnings  blazed  along  the  mountain- tops,  and  loud 
thunder  echoed  through  the  wadys  of  the  upper  Auwaly.  As 
evening  deepened  into  night  the  wind  began  to  moan  amongst 
the  rocks  and  trees,  and  volumes  of  black  vapor,  rolling  in  from 
the  sea,  settled  on  the  heights  of  Lebanon  like  “a  horror  of 
great  darkness.”  The  long-expected  and  much-desired  rains  had 
commenced,  and  we  were  glad  to  take  shelter  in  that  dismal  khan. 

When  the  day  dawned,  for  want  of  other  amusement,  I  watched 
the  migration  of  a  tribe  of  Arabs  which  had  been  encamped  on 
the  mountains.  They  were  evidently  fleeing  from  some  appre¬ 
hended  danger.  Ragged  boys  and  girls  urged  forward  droves  of 
cattle,  as  lean  as  Pharaoh’s  types  of  the  seven  years  of  famine ; 
men,  riding  lank  and  shaggy  mares,  hurried  onward  the  slow-paced 
camels,  loaded  with  tents  and  the  multifarious  furniture  of  their 
camp  ;  women  staggered  along  with  small  children  on  their  backs ; 
old  people  were  strapped  fast  on  the  loads ;  and  the  little  babes  up 
there,  too,  took  the  pelting  rain  as  merrily  as  unfledged  ducklings. 
Last  of  all  came  large  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  with  their  surly 

1  2  Sam.  xix.  18. 


12 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


canine  guards  and  insolent  shepherds.  Over  the  bridge  rushed  the 
whole  caravan,  as  if  the  avenger  of  blood  was  behind  them. 

A  circumstance  which  occurred  the  evening  before  explained 
the  reason  of  that  hasty  migration.  The  chief  of  a  troop  of 
horsemen,  a  few  miles  back,  had  called  on  me  and  inquired  if  my 
companion  could  read  Arabic,  handing  to  him  a  letter  which  con¬ 
tained  an  order  from  Sa’id  Beg  to  capture  all  the  men  of  a  particu¬ 
lar  Arab  encampment,  as  they  were  accused  of  robbing  the  house 
of  a  Maronite  priest.  The  Arabs,  however,  had  got  the  start  of  the 
officer,  and  by  sunrise  were  on  the  south  side  of  the  Auwaly,  and 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Governor  of  Sidon.  I  was  amused  at 
the  way  in  which  my  companion  reproved  the  sheikh,  and,  by  im¬ 
plication,  his  master.  It  was  thoroughly  Arabic.  “  Why,”  said  he, 
“  can’t  the  keeper  of  this  khan  read  ?  No  !  Well,  that’s  a  pity.  It 
would  be  better  if  every  khanjy  could  read,  and  then  it  would  not 
be  necessary  for  an  officer  of  Sa’id  Beg  to  show  his  letters  to  any 
chance  traveller  that  comes  along.  They  might  contain  things 
which  ought  not  to  be  published.  I  would  advise  the  Beg  not  to 
rent  any  of  these  khans  to  one  who  can’t  read.”  “Why,”  said  I, 
“  not  tell  the  officer  himself  that  it  was  a  shame  for  one  in  his  sta¬ 
tion  not  to  know  how  to  read?”  What !  and  insult  the  officer  of 
Sa’id  Beg?  Of  course,  that  is  what  I  meant,  and  he  understood  it; 
but  it  would  never  do  to  say  all  that  to  his  beard.” 

Though  it  rained  hard,  I  pursued  my  journey  to  Hasbeiya,  for 
I  had  no  desire  to  repeat  the  experiment  of  the  past  night  in  that 
way-side  inn.  Our  host,  with  his  cats  and  kittens,  his  barley  and 
straw,  bread  and  olives,  leben  and  oil,  and  every  other  article  of  his 
trade,  shared  with  us,  and  our  saddles,  baggage,  and  beds,  this  one 
low,  dark  vault.  A  few  burning  brands,  or  brands  that  would  not 
burn,  enabled  us,  with  a  great  deal  of  persuasion,  to  boil  a  little  wa¬ 
ter  for  tea,  with  no  more  serious  penalty  than  that  of  being  nearly 
blinded  by  a  cloud  of  pungent  smoke.  The  privacy  of  our  apart¬ 
ment  was  farther  invaded  by  a  native  bridal-party,  who  appeared 
determined,  bride  and  all,  to  share  with  us  the  privileges  of  our 
smoky  vault.  They  kept  up  a  violent  row  with  our  host  until  a 
late  hour,  when,  buying  a  few  piastres’  worth  of  bread,  they  kin¬ 
dled  a  fire  in  that  field  on  the  other  side  of  the  road,  and,  huddling 


.  SIDON  TO  BEIRUT.— LADY  HESTER  STANHOPE’S  RESIDENCE.  1 3 

round  it,  kept  up  a  dismal  concert,  singing,  shouting,  and  clapping 
hands,  until  morning,  when,  cold,  wet,  and  woe-begone,  they  set  off 
to  find  the  bishop,  not,  as  it  appeared,  to  be  married,  but  to  get 
unmarried.  The  young  lady  had  been  betrothed,  nolens  volens,  to 
a  man  she  did  not  like,  and  was  now,  with  her  friends,  going  to  get 
his  lordship  to  cancel  the  espousals. 

It  is  about  twenty-seven  miles  from  Sidon  to  Beirut,  and,  owing 
to  the  character  of  the  road,  it  will  take  nearly  eight  hours  of  weary 
plodding  to  accomplish  that  distance.  The  ride  is  one  of  the  least 
interesting  and  most  tedious  in  the  country.  The  traveller  winds 
along  the  beach  with  the  noisy  surf  dashing  over  the  horses’  feet 
and  his  own,  to  the  discomfort  of  both  ;  or  he  flounders  over  rocky 
headlands,  or  wades  through  leagues  of  deep  sand.  And  to  pass 
from  one  to  another  of  these  annoyances  in  tiresome  succession  is 
the  wayfarer’s  only  relief.  The  sea  never  wearies,  and  with  a  mo¬ 
notony  that  varies  not  wave  chases  wave  towards  the  shore  ;  then 
hesitates,  raises  its  crest  and  plunges  forward,  striking  the  shore 
with  a  heavy  thud,  and  sending  the  quivering,  feathery  foam  far  up 
the  sandy  beach.  In  the  clear  light  of  a  midsummer  moon  this 
ride  is  not  without  its  charms ;  but  even  then  utter  solitude  sad¬ 
dens,  ceaseless  repetition  wearies,  and  one  rejoices  to  escape  from 
the  deafening  “plunge  of  the  implacable  sea”  into  the  narrow 
alleys  and  sombre  pine  groves  in  the  suburbs  of  Beirut. 

The  residence  of  Lady  Hester  Stanhope  was  somewhere  on 
these  mountains,  above  our  road,  was  it  not? 

A  ride  of  two  hours  to  the  north-east  would  bring  us  to  Dahar 
June,  a  high  conical  mount,  on  whose  breezy  summit  her  ladyship 
lived  ;  and  there  she  died  and  was  buried. 

It  would  have  been  an  interesting  episode  in  our  day’s  travel  to 
have  seen  the  place  of  her  residence  and  to  have  visited  her  tomb. 

The  history  of  that  place  is  peculiar.  It  belonged  to  a  wealthy 
Christian  of  Damascus,  who  built  the  original  house,  to  which  Lady 
Hester  added  some  twenty-five  or  thirty  rooms.  At  his  death,  soon 
after  that  of  Lady  Hester,  the  property  was  left  to  an  only  son,  who 
quickly  dissipated  it.  He  then  turned  Moslem,  and  finally  hung 
himself  in  a  neighboring  house.  His  Moslem  wife,  fearing  that  the 
Christians  would  one  day  deprive  her  of  the  place,  tore  down  the 


14 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


buildings,  and  sold  the  material  to  the  people  of  June.  Thus  the 
destruction  has  been  intentional,  rapid,  and  complete. 

A  melancholy  change  has  come  over  the  scene  since  I  first  vis¬ 
ited  it.  The  garden,  with  its  choice  flowers,  its  shaded  walks,  and 


DAHAR  JUNE — RESIDENCE  OF 
LADY  HESTER  STANHOPE. 


trellised  arbors,  is  utterly 
destroyed,  and  not  one  room  of  all 
Lady  Hester’s  large  establishment  re¬ 
mains  entire.  The  tomb  also  is  sadly 
changed.  It  was  then  embowered  in 
dense  shrubbery,  and  covered  with  an 
arbor  of  running  roses,  not  a  vestige 
of  which  now  remains,  and  the  stones  of  the  vault  itself  are  broken 
and  displaced.  There  is  no  inscription — not  a  word  in  any  lan¬ 
guage — and  unless  some  measures  are  adopted  for  its  protection 
the  last  resting-place  of  her  ladyship  will  soon  be  entirely  lost. 

The  British  consul  at  Beirut  requested  me  to  perform  the  reli- 


BURIAL  OF  LADY  HESTER  STANHOPE. 


15 


gious  services  at  the  burial  of  Lady  Hester.  It  was  an  intensely 
hot  Sabbath  in  June,  1839.  We  started  on  our  melancholy  errand 
at  one  o’clock,  and  reached  the  place  about  midnight.  After  a 
brief  examination,  the  consul  decided  that  the  funeral  should  take 
place  at  once.  The  vault  in  the  garden  was  hastily  opened,  and 
the  bones  of  a  French  general  who  died  there,  and  was  buried  by 
her  ladyship  in  the  vault,  were  taken  out  and  placed  at  its  head. 

The  body,  in  a  plain  deal  box,  was  carried  by  the  servants  to 
the  grave,  followed  by  a  mixed  company,  with  torches  and  lanterns, 
to  enable  them  to  thread  their  way  through  the  winding  alleys  of 


GRAVE  OF  LADY  HESTER  STANHOPE. 


the  garden.  I  took  a  wrong  path,  and  wandered  some  time  in  the 
mazes  of  those  labyrinths.  When  at  length  I  entered  the  arbor 
the  first  thing  I  saw  were  the  bones  of  the  general,  in  a  ghastly 
heap,  with  the  head  on  the  top,  having  a  lighted  taper  in  either 
eye-socket — a  hideous  spectacle.  It  was  difficult  to  proceed  with 
the  service  under  such  circumstances.  The  consul  afterwards  re¬ 
marked  that  there  were  some  curious  coincidences  between  that 
and  the  burial  of  Sir  John  Moore,  her  ladyship’s  early  love.  In  si¬ 
lence,  on  the  lone  mountain  at  midnight,  “  our  lanterns  dimly  burn¬ 
ing,”  with  the  flag  of  her  country  around  her,  she  “lay  like  a  war¬ 
rior  taking  his  rest,”  and  we  left  her  alone  in  her  glory.  There  was 
but  one  of  her  own  nation  present,  and  his  name  was  Moore. 

The  morning  after  the  funeral  the  consul  and  I  went  round  the 


THE  LAND  A^D  THE  BOOK. 


1 6 

premises,  and  examined  thirty- five  rooms,  which  had  been  sealed 
up  by  the  vice-consul  of  Sidon  to  prevent  robbery.  One  had  forty 
or  fifty  oil-jars  of  French  manufacture,  old,  empty,  and  dusty.  An¬ 
other  was  filled  with  Arab  saddles,  moth-eaten,  tattered,  and  torn. 
They  had  belonged  to  her  mounted  guard.  Superannuated  pipe- 
stems  without  bowls  were  in  one  room.  Two  more  rooms  were 
devoted  to  medicines;  and  one  to  books  and  papers,  mostly  in 
boxes  and  ancient  chests.  Nothing  of  much  value  was  found  any¬ 
where,  and  the  seals  were  replaced,  to  await  legal  action.  The 
crowd  of  servants  and  greedy  retainers  had  appropriated  to  them¬ 
selves  her  most  valuable  effects. 

She  told  an  acquaintance  that  once,  when  she  was  supposed  to 
be  dying  of  the  plague,  she  could  hear  the  servants  breaking  open 
chests,  and  ripping  off  the  embroidered  covers  of  cushions.  “  Oh  ! 
didn’t  I  vow,”  said  she,  “  that  if  I  recovered  I  would  make  a  scat¬ 
tering  among  them  !”  and  she  performed  her  vow.  But  each  suc¬ 
ceeding  set,  like  the  flies  in  the  fable  of  the  fox,  were  as  greedy  as 
their  predecessors ;  and  when  she  died  nothing  valuable  escaped 
their  rapacity.  What  a  death  !  Without  a  European  attendant — 
without  a  friend — alone,  on  the  top  of  a  bleak  mountain,  her  lamp 
of  life  grew  dimmer  and  dimmer,  until  it  went  quite  out  in  rayless 
night.  Such  was  the  end  of  the  once  gay  and  brilliant  niece  of  Pitt, 
presiding  in  the  saloons  of  the  master-spirit  of  Europe,  and  familiar 
with  the  intrigues  of  kings  and  cabinets. 

On  most  subjects  Lady  Hester  was  not  merely  sane,  but  well- 
informed  and  extremely  shrewd.  She  possessed  great  powers  of 
conversation,  and  was  quite  fascinating  when  she  chose  to  make 
herself  agreeable.  With  Mr.  Abbott,  then  the  British  consul,  and 
his  lady  she  would  sit  talking  long  into  the  night  over  the  stir¬ 
ring  times  of  the  last  century  and  those  of  the  present  with  inex¬ 
haustless  spirit  and  keen  delight.  But  nothing  could  tempt  her 
back  to  England.  At  length  her  income  was  greatly  reduced  by 
cancelling  numerous  debts.  But  she  was  unsubdued ;  and  alone  in 
her  mountain  retreat  she  spent  the  remnant  of  her  days  in  haughty 
pride  and  stubborn  independence. 

She  was  wholly  unique.  Bold  as  a  lion,  she  wore  the  costume  of 
an  emir,  weapons,  pipe,  and  all ;  nor  did  she  fail  to  rule  her  servants 


ECCENTRICITIES  OF  LADY  HESTER  STANHOPE.  17 

and  her  Albanian  guards  with  absolute  authority.  Now  riding  at 
the  head  of  the  Bedawin  Arabs,  queen  of  the  desert,  on  a  visit  to 
Palmyra ;  now  intriguing  with  venal  pashas  and  cunning  emirs ;  at 
one  time  treating  with  contempt  nobles,  generals,  and  consuls,  bid¬ 
ding  defiance  to  law,  and  thrashing  the  officers  sent  to  her  lodge ; 
at  another  eluding  or  confounding  her  creditors ;  to-day  charitable 
and  kind  to  the  poor,  to-morrow  oppressive,  selfish,  and  tyrannical 
in  the  extreme.  She  kept  spies  in  the  principal  cities  and  at  the 
residences  of  pashas  and  emirs,  and  knew  all  that  was  going  on  in 
the  country.  Her  garden  of  several  acres  was  walled  round  like  a 
fort ;  and  crowning  the  top  of  the  conical  hill,  with  deep  wadys  on 
all  sides,  its  appearance  from  a  distance  was  quite  imposing.  But 
the  site  was  badly  chosen  ;  the  water  was  distant,  far  below,  and 
had  to  be  carried  up  on  mules.  She,  however,  had  the  English 
taste  for  beautiful  grounds,  and  spared  neither  time,  labor,  nor  ex¬ 
pense  to  convert  that  barren  hill  into  a  maze  of  shady  avenues  and 
a  paradise  of  sweet  flowers. 

There  was  no  limit  to  her  eccentricities.  In  some  things  she 
was  a  devout  believer — an  unbeliever  in  many.  She  read  the  stars, 
and  calculated  nativities  and  claimed  the  gift  of  second -sight,  by 
which  she  pretended  to  foretell  coming  events.  She  practised  al¬ 
chemy,  and  in  pursuit  of  that  vain  science  was  often  closeted  with 
strange  companions.  She  had  a  mare  whose  backbone  sank  sud¬ 
denly  down  at  the  shoulders  and  rose  abruptly  near  the  haunches. 
That  deformity  her  vivid  imagination  converted  into  a  miraculous 
saddle,  on  which  she  was  to  ride  into  Jerusalem  as  queen  by  the 
side  of  some  Messiah,  who  was  to  introduce  a  fancied  millennium. 
Another  mare  had  a  part  to  play  in  that  august  pageant,  and  both 
were  tended  with  extraordinary  care.  A  lamp  was  kept  burning 
in  their  comfortable  stables,  and  they  were  served  with  sherbet  and 
other  delicacies.  Nothing  about  the  premises  so  excited  my  com¬ 
passion  as  those  poor  pampered  animals,  upon  which  Lady  Hester 
had  lavished  her  affection  for  the  last  fourteen  years.  They  were 
soon  after  sold  at  auction,  when  hard  work  and  low  living  quickly 
terminated  their  miserable  existence. 

Lady  Hester  was  a  doctor,  and  most  positive  in  her  prescrip¬ 
tions  to  herself,  her  servants,  her  horses,  and  even  to  her  chickens, 


i8 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


and  often  did  serious  mischief  to  all  her  patients.  She  had  many 
whimsical  tests  of  character  both  for  man  and  beast,  and,  of  course, 
was  often  deceived  by  both  to  her  cost.  She  could  be  extremely 
sarcastic,  and  the  margins  of  some  books  which  I  purchased  at  the 
auction  were  “  illuminated  ”  with  her  caustic  criticisms. 

Such  was  Lady  Hester  in  her  mountain  retreat  on  Lebanon. 
Alas!  she  must  have  drained  to  the  dregs  many  a  bitter  cup.  Her 
sturdy  spirit  there  fought  out  alone  a  thousand  desperate  battles, 
and  lost  them  all.  Let  those  who  are  tempted  to  revolt  against 
society,  and  war  with  nature,  God,  and  man,  come  to  Dahar  June — 
sit  and  moralize  on  the  fragments  of  that  broken  tomb,  amidst  ruins 
without  beauty  to  charm,  or  age  to  make  venerable — itself  a  ruin  of 
yesterday,  and  fast  sinking  into  oblivion.  Will  such  a  melancholy 
end  compensate  for  such  an  erratic  life? 

What  is  that  low  building  on  our  right,  which  we  are  now 
passing,  with  its  white  dome  and  tall  cypress-tree  ? 


NEBY  Yt>NAS — TOMB  OF  JONAH. 


NEBY  YUNAS.— VOWS.— “  HORNED  LADIES.” 


*9 


Neby  Yunas,  one  of  the  many  shrines  dedicated  to  the  prophet 
Jonah.  The  mukam  en  Neby,  sanctuary  of  the  prophet,  is  in  that 
room  with  the  white  dome  over  it.  The  arched  building  north  of  it 
is  an  ordinary  way-side  inn,  so  numerous  along  this  coast,  having  a 
covered  portico  in  front,  back  of  which  are  rooms  for  native  travel¬ 
lers,  and  stables  for  their  animals.  In  former  times  Neby  Yunas 
was  much  frequented  by  Moslems,  and  Druses  from  the  mountains, 
especially  by  Druse  sittat,  or  princesses,  who  came  with  their  sor¬ 
rows,  their  prayers,  and  their  vows,  for  the  same  blessing  which 
the  mother  of  Samuel  sought  “  in  bitterness  of  soul”  to  obtain  at 
Shiloh.1  The  vows  of  some  are  made  in  times  of  sickness,  either 
of  their  friends  or  themselves,  and  they  come  here  from  all  parts 
of  the  country  to  fulfil  them  upon  their  recovery. 

I  have  repeatedly  pitched  my  tent  on  the  smooth  sandy  terrace 
east  of  that  mukam,  and  have  seen  more  than  one  group  of  “  horned 
ladies  ”  resort  to  the  shrine  of  the  prophet  to  obtain  the  interces¬ 
sion  of  the  Neby  in  their  behalf,  and  to  fulfil  vows  which  they  had 
made.  But  such  companies  are  rarely  seen  now;  the  progress  of 
civilization,  and  the  general  spread  of  education  in  this  country, 
have  robbed  the  prophet  of  much  of  his  prestige  and  patronage, 
and  his  shrine  is  now  almost  deserted. 

Do  you  imagine  that  such  horns  have  any  connection  with 
those  so  often  alluded  to  in  the  Bible? 

No.  These  tanturs  grew,  like  other  horns,  from  small  begin¬ 
nings  and  by  slow  degrees,  and  pride  nourished  them.  At  first 
they  were  merely  designed  to  finish  off  the  head-dress,  so  as  to  raise 
the  veil  a  little  from  the  face.  Specimens  of  that  primitive  kind 
are  still  found  in  remote  and  semi-civilized  districts.  I  have  seen 
them  only  a  few  inches  long,  made  even  of  common  pottery.  By 
degrees  the  more  fashionable  ladies  used  tin,  and  lengthened  them  ; 
then  rivalry  made  them  of  silver,  and  still  farther  prolonged  and  or¬ 
namented  them  ;  until  finally  the  princesses  of  Lebanon  and  Her- 
mon  wore  horns  of  silver  and  gold,  decked  with  jewels,  and  so  long 
— some  nearly  eighteen  inches — that  a  servant  had  to  spread  the 
veil  over  them...  But  the  day  for  those  most  preposterous  append¬ 
ages  to  the  female  head  has  passed  away.  After  the  wars  between 

1  i  Sam.  i.  io,  n. 


20 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


the  Maronites  and  Druses  in  1841  and  1845,  the  Maronite  clergy 
thundered  their  excommunications  against  them,  and  very  few 
Christians  now  wear  them.  Even  the  Druse  women  have  cast 
them  off,  and  the  “horn,”  or  tantur,  has  entirely  disappeared  from 
the  land,  and  given  place  to  modern  fashions,  more  convenient, 
perhaps,  though  far  less  picturesque. 

I  do  not  suppose  that  horns  like  these  were  worn  by  the  Jews, 
nor,  indeed,  by  any  nation  of  such  antiquity.  So  remarkable  an 
article  of  dress,  had  it  been  in  existence,  would  certainly  have  been 
noticed  by  authors  who  enter  so  minutely  into  such  matters  as 
many  did.  The  horns  of  animals,  where  the  Creator  alone  planted 
them,  were  their  weapons  of  defence ;  and  man,  who  lays  all  nature 
under  tribute  to  enrich  his  store  of  images  and  figures,  very  early 
made  them  synonymous  with  power,  and  then  for  what  that  will 
always  confer  upon  the  possessor.  To  exalt  the  horn,  an  expres¬ 
sion  often  occurring  in  the  poetic  and  prophetic  parts  of  the  Bible, 
means  to  advance  in  power,  honor,  and  dominion.  To  defile  it  in 
the  dust  is  a  figure  drawn  from  the  condition  of  a  dying  ox  or  stag, 
who  literally  defiles  his  horn  in  dust,  mingled  with  his  own  blood. 
It  is  painfully  significant  of  defeat,  disgrace,  and  death,  and  for  a 
prince  like  Job  it  was  to  be  dishonored  and  utterly  overthrown.1 

It  is  not  certainly  known  why  the  corners  of  altars  were  finished 
off  like  horns.  Several  purposes  may  have  been  attained  by  that 
custom.  Such  horns  were  probably  intended  to  symbolize  the  ma¬ 
jesty  and  power  of  the  being  in  whose  honor  the  altar  was  reared, 
and  to  whom  the  sacrifice  was  offered  ;  or  the  design  may  have 
been  suggested  by  the  horns  of  the  victims  to  be  slain.  As  altars 
early  became  sanctuaries,  it  was  natural  that  the  suppliant  should 
lay  hold  of  the  horns.  In  fact,  there  was  often  nothing  else  about 
them  which  he  could  grasp  with  his  hand.  That  natural,  signifi¬ 
cant,  and  very  expressive  act  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

The  custom  of  making  vows  seems  to  have  been  prevalent  in 
this  country  from  the  earliest  times.  Thus  the  devout  Psalmist 
says  :  “  I  will  pay  thee  my  vows,  which  my  lips  have  uttered,  and  my 
mouth  hath  spoken,  when  I  was  in  trouble.”2  This  he  repeats  in 
the  one  hundred  and  sixteenth  Psalm,  with  the  addition  that  he 

2  Psa.  lxvi.  13,  14. 


1  Job  xvi.  15. 


DRUSE  PRINCESSES  FROM  MOUNT  LEBANON. 


VOWS  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


21 


would  do  so  “  in  the  presence  of  all  his  people,”  and,  also,  that  he 
would  offer  the  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving  “  in  the  courts  of  the 
Lord’s  house,  in  the  midst  of  thee,  O  Jerusalem.”1 

Yes,  and  long  before  the  time  of  the  Psalmist,  Jacob  vowed  a 
vow  at  Bethel,  as  you  remember,  which  reads  very  like  one  of  those 
carefully  conditioned  contracts,  in  the  drawing  up  of  which  his  de¬ 
scendants  have  always  been  so  celebrated.  Doubtless  the  custom 
was  far  older  than  the  time  of  Jacob,  and  it  was  continued  down  to 
that  of  Paul,  who  shaved  his  “head  in  Cenchrea,  for  he  had  a  vow,” 
which  necessitated  the  most  disastrous  journey  he  ever  made ;  en¬ 
snared  him  into  an  ostensible  compliance  with  abrogated  rights,  dif¬ 
ficult  to  justify;  depriving  him  of  liberty;  nearly  cost  him  his  life, 
and  ultimately  sent  him,  through  storm  and  shipwreck,  a  prisoner  in 
chains  to  Rome,  there  to  die.  There  can  be  no  objection  to  vows, 
when  made  to  the  proper  person,  for  things  lawful  and  right,  and 
faithfully  performed.  But  few  of  the  vows  in  this  country  con¬ 
form  to  the  conditions  above  stated.  They  are  not  made  directly 
to  God,  but  to  saints  or  to  their  shrines. 

That  is  true  of  every  Christian  sect  in  the  land  ;  and,  what  is 
very  surprising,  many  non-Christians  make  vows  and  pilgrimages  to 
Christian  shrines.  The  large  convent  of  Mar  Jirjis  el  Humeira,  St. 
George,  near  Kul’at  el  Husn,  is  largely  enriched  by  the  vows  of  the 
semi -pagan  Nusairiyeh.  The  Druses,  also,  who  are  half  atheists, 
still  pay  their  vows  at  the  shrines  of  reputed  saints,  as  we  have  just 
seen  at  Neby  Yunas.  I  once  saw  a  large  gathering  of  Bedawin 
Arabs  at  Neby  Safy,  south-east  of  Sidon,  slaughtering  victims  and 
performing  vows  which  they  had  made  while  in  the  desert  east  of 
the  Jordan.  In  every  case  such  vows  are  not  to  God,  but  to  de¬ 
parted  beings,  real  or  fictitious,  whose  spirits  are  supposed  to  fre¬ 
quent  certain  consecrated  shrines.  This  at  once  draws  a  broad  line 
of  distinction  between  vows  made  by  the  natives  of  this  country 
at  the  present  day  and  those  which  were  sanctioned  by  Moses, 
and  practised  by  the  people  of  God  in  ancient  times. 

How  do  you  suppose  that  the  name  and  the  story  of  Jonah 
came  to  be  attached  to  this  locality? 

It  is  possible  that  in  some  former  age  a  whale  was  driven  ashore 

1  Psa.  cxvi.  1 8,  19. 


22 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


during  one  of  the  wild  storms  which  prevail  along  this  coast  in  win¬ 
ter,  as  happened  quite  recently  not  far  from  Tyre,  and  something 
in  the  attending  circumstances  may  have  suggested  the  experience 
of  that  prophet  to  the  people  in  the  neighborhood.  Superstition 
would  speedily  render  the  site  sacred,  and  in  due  time  a  shrine 
would  be  erected  to  confirm  the  faith  of  those  who  resorted  to  it. 
There  are  many  mukams  with  white -domed  vaults  all  over  this 
Eastern  land  whose  origin  is  shrouded  in  equal  uncertainty.  Not 
a  few  of  them  are  evidently  ancient ;  but  when  and  through  what 
means  they  were  established  is  now  unknown. 

This  part  of  the  coast  seems  to  be  entirely  deserted  ;  there  is 
not  a  human  habitation  in  sight. 

On  the  narrow  plain  east  of  the  khan  there  are  a  few  houses, 
and  upon  the  hills  above  are  several  villages.  One  called  Berja  is 
celebrated  for  the  sweetest  and  purest  olive -oil  in  this  region — a 
fact  of  much  importance  to  the  Greeks  and  Maronites,  who  are 
restricted  to  the  use  of  oil  in  cooking  during  their  stringent  fasts. 

In  the  Jerusalem  Itinerary,  Porphyreon  is  located  in  this  neigh¬ 
borhood,  and  the  sand  hillocks  that  extend  for  some  distance  north 
of  the  khan,  towards  the  village  of  el  Jiyeh,  probably  cover  the 
remains  of  that  ancient  town.  Twenty  years  ago  I  saw  men  dig¬ 
ging  out  old  building- stones  in  various  places  along  those  sand 
hills,  and  shipping  them  to  Beirut,  to  meet  the  extraordinary  de¬ 
mand  in  that  city  for  such  durable  material. 

Though  abandoned  by  civilized  people,  or  because  thus  for¬ 
saken,  this  neighborhood  is  frequented  by  remnants  of  Arab  tribes, 
and  there  is  a  group  of  their  tents,  and  a  number  of  women  and 
children  watering  their  flocks  at  that  well.  We  will  soon  be  sur¬ 
rounded  by  them,  clamoring  for  bakhshish,  and  urging  us  to  drink 
out  of  their  water-bottles. 

They  are  apparently  amongst  the  very  poorest  and  most  de¬ 
graded  of  their  race.  Their  very  donkeys  and  dogs  are  lean  and 
lank,  and  seem  to  be  pinched  up  with  hunger. 

They  are  by  no  means  so  poverty-smitten  as  their  appearance 
would  indicate,  and  you  may  with  a  safe  conscience  button  up  your 
pocket  and  spare  your  pity.  Not  only  are  they  importunate  beg¬ 
gars,  but  cunning  thieves  also  ;  for  when  passing  this  way,  on  a  for- 


TATTOOING. 


23 


mer  occasion,  one  of  those  degenerate  Bedawin  stole  our  water-bot¬ 
tle  from  which  he  had  just  slaked  his  own  real  or  pretended  thirst. 

The  desire  for  personal  adornment  has  prompted  these  women 
to  tattoo  themselves  most  profusely — forehead,  face,  lips,  chin,  chest, 
arms,  hands,  and  even 
their  feet,  with  the 
rude  designs  and  cu¬ 
rious  figures  of  that 
most  ancient  art. 

The  effect  is  any¬ 
thing  but  agreeable  to 
our  taste,  yet  Orientals 
have  a  passion  for  it. 

The  practice  of  mark¬ 
ing  religious  signs  and 
tokens  upon  the  hands 
and  the  arms  is  almost 
universal  amongst  the 
Arabs,  of  all  sects  and 
classes.  The  Christian 
pilgrim  to  Jerusalem 
has  the  operation  per¬ 
formed  there,  as  it  is 
the  most  holy  place 
known  to  his  religion. 

I  have  watched  the 
process  of  tattooing, 
and  it  is  not  a  little 
painful.  A  number  of 
common  needles  are 
bound  together  in  the 
shape  of  the  desired 
figure,  or  so  that  the 

design  can  be  marked  out  with  sufficient  exactness.  The  skin  be¬ 
ing  punctured  in  the  required  pattern,  certain  mixtures  of  coloring 
matter  are  rubbed  in,  and  the  place  bound  with  a  tight  bandage. 
Gunpowder,  variously  prepared,  is  commonly  employed,  and  it  is 


TATTOOED  EGYPTIAN  WOMAN. 


1|s  = 


|tHW, 


SPECIMENS  OF  TATTOOING. 


24 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


that  which  gives  to  the  tattooing  of  these  Bedawin  its  bluish 
tinge.  Mr.  Lane  tells  us  that  in  Egypt,  where  this  singular  cus¬ 
tom  is  very  general,  smoke-black  mixed  with  milk  is  used,  and 
subsequently  a  paste  of  fresh-pounded  leaves  of  clover,  or  white 
beet,  is  applied,  so  as  to  give  a  blue  color  to  the  marks. 

It  is  now  well  ascertained  that  tattooing  prevailed  in  Egypt 
even  before  the  time  of  Moses.  In  Leviticus  the  Hebrews  were 
forbidden  not  only  to  make  any  “  cuttings  ”  in  their  flesh  for  the 
dead,  but  also  to  “print”  any  marks  upon  themselves.1  No  doubt 
those  cuttings  and  prints  had  an  idolatrous  signification  which 
Moses  desired  to  condemn.  The  allusions  in  Revelation  to  reli¬ 
gious  marks  are  too  numerous  to  be  specified.  Isaiah,  however,  has 
an  impressive  reference  to  them,  which  we  may  quote,  to  strengthen 
our  trust  in  the  watchful  providence  of  our  heavenly  Father:  “Can 
a  woman  forget  her  sucking  child,  that  she  should  not  have  compas¬ 
sion  on  the  son  of  her  womb  ?  yea,  they  may  forget,  yet  will  I  not 
forget  thee.  Behold,  I  have  graven  thee  upon  the  palms  of  my 
hands;  thy  walls  are  continually  before  me.”2  As  to  these  Arabs, 
whose  blue  markings  started  us  off  upon  this  digression,  we  shall 
have  many  occasions  to  notice  their  strange  ways  and  singular 
customs  when  we  go  amongst  them,  in  their  special  domain  east  of 
the  Jordan.  Those  dingy  black  objects  peeping  out  of  the  bushes 
on  the  mountain-side  are  their  tents,  and  they  are  found  spread 
over  the  whole  country,  from  Egypt  to  Mount  Taurus. 

This  is  indeed  a  tantalizing  and  wearisome  ride.  Plodding 
through  the  deep  sand  along  the  shore  one  longs  for  the  rocky 
pathway  over  the  headland  ;  but  once  there  the  ceaseless  clatter  of 
our  iron-shod  horses,  as  they  slip,  slide,  and  stumble  along  on  the 
smooth  stones,  makes  one  quite  nervous. 

We  shall  soon  escape  from  Nukkar  es  S’adiat,  as  this  low  prom¬ 
ontory  is  called.  Here,  it  is  supposed,  Antiochus  the  Great  de¬ 
feated  the  army  of  Ptolemy,  commanded  by  his  general,  Nicolaus. 
This  nukkar  is  well  adapted  to  be  the  scene  of  bloody  tragedies, 
being  a  difficult  pass  over  one  of  “  the  roots  of  Lebanon,”  thrust 
out  into  the  sea  and  ending  there — a  strong  military  position,  espe¬ 
cially  as  against  an  enemy  marching  from  the  north. 

1  Levit.  xix.  28. 


9  Isa.  xlix.  15,  16. 


ED  DAMUR,  THE  TAMYRAS.— THE  SHEPHERD.  25 

And  now  for  a  gallop  over  this  stretch  of  sand  to  the  river  Da- 
mur,  where  we  will  rest  for  half  an  hour  and  take  our  lunch. 

There  is  something  worth  seeing.  That  shepherd  is  about  to 
lead  his  flock  through  the  river;  and — as  our  Lord  says  of  the 
good  shepherd — “  he  goeth  before  them,  and  the  sheep  follow  him  : 
for  they  know  his  voice.  And  a  stranger  will  they  not  follow.”1 

They  follow,  but  not  all  in  the  same  manner.  Some  enter 
boldly,  and  come  straight  across.  Those  are  the  favored  ones 


ED  DAMUR — THE  TAMYRAS. 


of  the  flock,  who  keep  hard  by  the  footsteps  of  the  shepherd 
through  green  meadows,  by  the  still  waters,  feeding  upon  the  moun¬ 
tains,  or  resting  at  noon  beneath  the  shadow  of  great  rocks.  And 
now  others  enter,  but  in  doubt  and  alarm.  Far  from  theii  guide, 
they  miss  the  ford,  and  are  carried  down  the  river,  some  faither 
than  others,  yet,  one  by  one,  they  struggle  over  and  make  a  safe 

1  John  x.  4. 


26 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


landing.  Notice  those  little  lambs.  They  refuse  to  enter,  and  must 
be  driven  into  the  stream  by  the  shepherd’s  dog,  mentioned  by  Job 
in  his  “  parable.”  Poor  things !  how  they  leap,  and  plunge,  and 
bleat  in  terror !  That  weak  one  will  be  swept  quite  away,  and  per¬ 
ish  in  the  sea.  But  the  shepherd  himself  leaps  into  the  stream,  lifts 
it  into  his  bosom,  and  bears  it  trembling  to  the  shore.  All  now  are 
safely  over,  and  how  happy  they  appear !  The  lambs  frisk  and  gam¬ 
bol  about,  while  the  older  ones  gather  round  their  faithful  shepherd, 
and  look  up  to  him  in  subdued  but  expressive  thankfulness. 

Can  you  watch  such  a  scene,  and  not  think  of  that  Shepherd 
who  leadeth  Joseph  like  a  flock,  and  of  another  river  which  all  his 
sheep  must  cross?  He,  too,  goes  before,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  this 
flock,  they  who  keep  near  him  fear  no  evil.  They  hear  his  encour- 
aging  voice  saying,  “  When  thou  passest  through  the  waters,  I  will 
be  with  thee;  and  through  the  rivers,  they  shall  not  overflow  thee.”1 
With  their  eyes  fastened  on  him,  they  scarcely  heed  the  stream,  or 
feel  its  cold  and  threatening  current.  The  majority,  however,  “  lin¬ 
ger,  shivering  on  the  brink,  and  fear  to  launch  away.”  They  lag 
behind,  look  down  upon  the  dark  river,  and,  like  Peter  on  stormy 
Gennesaret,  when  faith  fails,  they  begin  to  sink.  Then  they  cry  for 
help,  and  not  in  vain.  The  good  Shepherd  hastens  to  their  rescue, 
and  none  of  all  his  flock  ever  perish.  Even  the  weakest  lambkins 
are  carried  safely  over.  I  once  saw  flocks  crossing  the  Jordan 
“  to  Canaan’s  fair  and  happy  land,”  and  there  the  scene  was  even 
more  striking  and  impressive.  The  river  was  broader,  the  current 
stronger,  and  the  flocks  larger,  while  the  shepherds  were  more  pict¬ 
uresque  and  their  occupation  more  Biblical.  The  danger,  too,  with 
which  many  poor  sheep  were  threatened  —  of  being  swept  down 
into  that  mysterious  Sea  of  Death  which  swallows  up  the  Jordan 
itself — was  more  certain  and  suggestive. 

This  name,  Damur,  is  a  mere  variation  of  the  Tamyras  of  Strabo, 
the  Damouras  of  Polybius,  I  suppose. 

Yes,  if  the  variation  is  not  that  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
probably  Damur  is  nearer  the  original  name.  The  main  source  of 
this  river  is  near  ’Ain  Zahelteh,  a  village  five  hours  to  the  east,  upon 
the  lofty  range  of  Lebanon.  Other  streams  from  the  north  unite 

1  Isa.  xliii.  2. 


BROKEN  BRIDGE.— SCENERY.— MULBERRY  GARDENS. 


2/ 


with  it  at  Jisr  el  Kady,  on  the  road  from  Beirut  to  Deir  el  Kamar. 
Below  that  the  river  turns  to  the  south-west,  and  enters  the  sea  just 
south  of  the  long,  straggling  village  of  Mu’allakah.  Though  not 
more  than  twenty- five  miles  long,  yet,  from  the  extent  of  those 
high  mountains  which  pour  down  their  floods  into  its  channel,  the 
Damur  rises  suddenly  in  winter,  and  becomes  a  turbulent,  unford- 
able  river.  Men  and  animals  have  been  carried  off  by  it  and  per¬ 
ished  at  the  ford,  or  were  swept  away  into  the  sea. 

That  broken  bridge  was  built  by  the  Emir  Beshir  Shehab,  some 
sixty  years  ago,  but  it  soon  gave  way  before  the  violence  of  the 
stream.  The  emir  erected  his  on  the  ruins  of  one  more  ancient, 
built  probably  by  the  Romans,  and  with  no  better  success  than 
they.  The  river  frequently  changes  its  channel,  and  though  a  heavy 
wall  was  built  running  up  the  stream  to  confine  it  to  its  proper  bed, 
still  in  winter  it  sets  all  bounds  at  defiance.  During  great  floods 
it  spreads  through  these  gardens,  tears  up  the  mulberry-trees,  and 
carries  them  down  to  the  sea.  The  scenery  around  the  head  of 
this  river  is  not  so  wild  as  in  many  other  places ;  but  the  basins 
of  the  different  tributaries  open  out  prospects  which,  when  sur¬ 
veyed  from  the  lofty  declivities  of  Lebanon,  are  rarely  surpassed 
for  depth,  breadth,  vastness,  and  variety.  The  view  from  Mutyar 
Abeih  is  particularly  impressive. 

To  escape  the  deep  sand  between  this  and  Khan  Khulda  we 
will  pass  up  the  river  for  a  short  distance,  and  then  ride  through 
the  mulberry  gardens  of  Mu’allakah. 

They  appear  to  be  quite  extensive,  but  the  branches  of  the 
trees  have  all  been  cut  off,  leaving  only  the  glaring  and  bare 
trunks,  some  eight  or  ten  feet  high. 

The  silk -growers  adopt  that  method  in  order  that  the  young 
branches  may  grow  during  the  summer.  They  say  that  next  spring 
the  leaves  of  those  branches  will  contain  more  glutinous  matter — 
from  which  substance  the  silk-worms  spin  their  cocoons — than  is 
found  in  the  leaves  growing  upon  the  old  branches. 

I  noticed  hedges  of  the  ordinary  reed  cane  near  the  river  and 
along  the  water-courses,  and  here  are  fields  of  genuine  sugar-cane. 

It  is  said  that  the  sugar-cane  was  originally  taken  from  this 
coast  to  Europe  during  the  Crusades ;  and,  after  America  was  dis- 


28 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


covered  the  Spaniards  carried  it  to  the  West  Indies,  from  where  it 
was  introduced  into  the  Southern  States.  The  people  of  this  coun¬ 
try,  however,  do  not  make  any  sugar;  but  during  the  season  the 
cane  is  cut  and  taken  in  large  bundles  to  the  cities,  where  it  is 
sold,  mostly  to  the  lower  classes,  and  especially  to  children,  who 
chew  the  stem  for  its  sweet  juice — hence  its  name,  Kussab  Muss. 

Is  this  “the  sweet  cane  from  a  far  country”  mentioned  by  the 
prophet  Jeremiah?1 

The  sweetness  was,  probably,  not  that  of  taste,  but  of  smell,  and 
may  have  had  reference  to  the  aromatic  properties  of  some  root, 
plant,  or  leaf,  possibly  from  Arabia  or  India.  The  sugar-cane,  being 
a  perishable  article,  could  not  have  been  brought  as  a  luxury  from 
a  far  country,  since  it  would  have  withered  and  decayed  on  the 
way,  and  have  lost  all  its  sweetness. 

For  what  purpose  are  those  people  cutting  up  the  thorn-bushes 
amongst  the  rocks,  with  their  mattocks  and  hand  scythes,  and  gath¬ 
ering  them  together  into  such  large  bundles? 

To  be  burnt  as  fuel  in  that  lime-kiln.  We  have  there  a  strik¬ 
ing  illustration  of  a  passage  in  Isaiah:  “And  the  people  shall  be 
as  the  burnings  of  lime:  as  thorns  cut  up  shall  they  be  burned  in 
the  fire.”2  This  picture  from  real  life  is  in  curious  fidelity  with  the 
scene  depicted  by  the  prophet,  for  when  the  thorns  are  merely  to 
be  destroyed  they  are  not  “  cut  up,”  but  set  on  fire  where  they 
grow,  to  clear  the  ground  for  the  plough. 

Does  that  passage  in  Isaiah  to  which  you  have  just  referred 
contain  the  earliest  mention  of  lime  in  the  Bible? 

The  Hebrews  were  acquainted  with  lime  and  its  uses  in  very 
early  times.  Moses  directs  the  people  of  Israel,  when  they  “  pass 
over  Jordan,”  to  “set  up  great  stones,  and  plaister  them  with  plais- 
ter.”3  The  word  in  the  Hebrew  is  the  same  as  that  translated  lime 
in  Isaiah,  and  also  in  Amos  ii.  i,the  only  places  in  the  Bible  where 
lime  is  mentioned  —  a  fact  somewhat  remarkable,  considering  the 
importance  of  that  article,  and  the  many  and  varied  purposes  to 
which  it  was  applied  from  remote  antiquity.  And  not  only  was 
lime  itself  known  from  ancient  times,  but  the  kiln  and  the  fuel  to 
burn  it  with  were  very  much  like  these  we  have  before  us. 

1  Jer.  vi.  20.  2  Isa.  xxxiii.  12.  3  Deut.  xxvii.  2. 


EL  BELLAN,  THE  THORNS.— BIBLICAL  ALLUSIONS  TO  THORNS.  29 

This  kind  of  thorn  seems  to  cover  the  entire  face  of  the  moun¬ 
tain.  What  is  the  name  of  it  ? 

It  is  the  Poterium  spinosum  of  the  botanist.  The  Arabs  call  it 
bellan,  and  it  abounds  in  almost  every  part  of  Syria  and  Palestine, 
and  is  also  to  be  found  in  the  Wilderness  of  the  Wandering. 

Is  it  ever  mentioned  specifically  in  the  Bible? 

Not  by,  its  modern  Arabic  name;  but  these  thorns  are  so  om¬ 
nipresent  and  obtrusive  that  they  could  not  have  escaped  notice, 
and  I  suppose  they  are  the  same  as  those,  to  which  “  David  in 
his  last  words”  likened  “the  sons  of  Belial,”  which  are  “as  thorns 
thrust  away,  because  they  cannot  be  taken  with  hands :  but  the 
man  that  shall  touch  them  must  be  fenced  with  iron  and  the  staff 
of  a  spear;  and  they  shall  be  utterly  burned  with  fire  in  the  same 
place.”1  The  Arabic  translation  is  more  specific:  “The  sons  of 
Belial  are  all  like  thorns  thrust  aside,  for  they  cannot  be  taken  by 
the  hand  ;  and  the  man  who  would  touch  them  must  be  armed 
with  iron  and  the  staff  of  a  spear.  And  they  shall  be  burned  in 
the  fire  in  their  place.”  This  description  applies  perfectly  to  the 
bellan.  Those  men  first  tear  them  loose  from  the  rocks  with  their 
iron  mattocks  and  scythes,  and  then  thrust  them  away  into  heaps 
with  a  long  forked  stick.  When  the  purpose  is  merely  to  clear  the 
ground  for  ploughing  and  sowing  the  grain,  they  are  simply  set  fire 
to  on  a  windy  day  and  “  burned  in  their  place.” 

David,  in  the  fifty-eighth  Psalm,  has  a  curious  allusion  to  thorns. 
Concerning  the  wicked,  who  “  go  astray  as  soon  as  they  be  born, 
speaking  lies,”  he  says :  “  Before  your  pots  can  feel  the  thorns,  he 
shall  take  them  away  as  with  a  whirlwind,  both  living,  and  in  his 
wrath.”2  Is  the  allusion  there  also  to  this  bellan? 

The  poetical  figure  in  that  passage  is  tangled  somewhat,  like  the 
bellan  itself,  but  the  reference  is  to  cooking  in  pots  by  kindling  fires 
under  them,  possibly  with  this  thorn-bush.  I  have  often  watched 
the  operation  with  much  interest.  These  thorns  burn  with  a  sud¬ 
den  and  intensely  hot  blaze,  but  that  very  vehemence  often  creates 
a  little  whirlwind  which  whisks  the  flame  from  the  blazing  bush 
into  the  air,  so  that  the  pots  do  not  “  feel  the  thorns  ”  at  all.  As 
suddenly  as  the  wind  catches  up  in  its  wings  the  flame  of  the  burn- 
1  2  Sam.  xxiii.  6,  7.  2  Psa.  lviii.  3,  9. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


30 

in g  bushes,  so  suddenly  shall  the  whirlwind  of  divine  indignation 
drive  away  those  incorrigible  sinners. 

Dr.  Alexander  has  some  curious  remarks  in  his  exposition  of 
the  latter  part  of  that  passage.  “  Both  living  and  in  his  wrath”  he 
translates  “  whether  raw  or  done,”  meaning  that  whether  the  flesh 
which  is  in  the  pot  is  cooked  or  is  raw,  he  will  blow  it  or  them 
away.  The  Arabic  translation  reads  thus :  “  Before  that  your  pots 
feel  the  thorns,  whether  raw  or  burnt,  he  will  scoop  them  away.” 
In  either  case  the  essential  elements  in  the  figure  are  retained, 
and  some  of  the  obscurities  are  aptly  illustrated  by  the  ephemeral 
flames  of  the  bellan  under  the  pots  of  Arab  peasants. 

The  complicated  figure  in  that  passage  will  bear  even  farther 
illustration.  There  is  no  proverbial  metaphor  more  familiar  to  Arab 
ears  than  one  which  compares  secret  plots  and  machinations  to  a 
covered  pot  on  a  fire.  To  intimate  that  the  plot  is  brewing  they 
say,  with  a  knowing  shake  of  the  head,  “the  pot  is  boiling,”  or  sim¬ 
ply,  “  it  is  boiling.”  Now,  the  pot  is  the  representative  of  dark  and 
treacherous  schemes;  those  who  kindle  the  fire  and  sit  round  watch¬ 
ing  it  are  the  wicked  plotters,  and  the  Psalmist  says  that  ere  the 
pot  can  feel  the  flame,  and  while  the  schemes  they  are  concocting 
are  still  immature  or  raw,  the  Lord  in  his  indignation  will  blow  out 
and  away  both  the  plot  and  the  plotters.  David  had,  no  doubt, 
often  seen  during  his  shepherd  boyhood,  and  his  exile  life  and  wan¬ 
derings,  all  the  circumstances  which  suggested  the  complicated  fig¬ 
ure  in  that  ninth  verse  of  his  psalm.  To  understand  it  perfectly 
one  must  actually  witness  the  process  of  cooking  in  the  open  coun¬ 
try — a  pot  or  pan  placed  upon  two  or  three  stones,  bellan  thorns 
ignited  under  it ;  the  blaze  flashing  up  fiercely,  creating  or  increas¬ 
ing  the  wind  which  whirls  and  whisks  the  flame  into  the  air,  and 
the  meat  thus  left  half  raw,  half  burnt,  to  the  utter  disgust  and  dis¬ 
appointment  of  both  cook  and  expectant  guests.  So  will  it  be  with 
those  sons  of  Belial — their  plot  defeated  and  blown  away,  and  they 
with  it,  to  utter  destruction. 

In  “the  words  of  the  Preacher,”  “the  laughter  of  the  fool”  is 
compared  to  “the  crackling  of  thorns  under  a  pot.”1 

Yes,  the  laughter  of  a  fool  he  rightly  calls  “vanity” — mocking, 

1  Eccles.  i.  1  ;  vii.  6. 


31 


KHAN  KHULDA.— ST.  HELENA’S  TOWER. 

tantalizing,  and  annoying — just  like  the  blaze  of  the  bellan  which 
flashes  up  in  the  face,  burns  the  hands,  blinds  the  eyes,  and  dies  out 
suddenly  before  the  pot  can  feel  the  heat.  The  ephemeral  charac¬ 
ter  of  the  blazing  bellan  is  alluded  to  by  the  Psalmist  when  he  says 
of  his  enemies,  “  They  compassed  me  about  like  bees ;  they  are 
quenched  as  the  fire  of  thorns.”1 

The  name  of  this  way-side  inn,  on  the  left,  which  we  are  now 
approaching  is  Khan  Khulda,  and  it  probably  occupies  the  site  of 
Mutatio  Heldua,  an  unimportant  place  mentioned  in  the  Jerusalem 
Itinerary  about  the  fourth  century  of  our  era  as  twelve  Roman 
miles  south  of  Beirut.  There  is  another  khan,  below  the  gardens 
of  Mu’allakah,  and  about  a  mile  south  of  this  one,  called  Ghufr  en 


one  of  st.  Helena’s  towers  near  tyre. 


Na’imeh,  which  may  mark  the  site  of  Heldua.  However  that  may 
be,  there  are  at  this  place  some  old  foundations  and  remains  of 
antiquity  which  we  should  not  pass  by  without  visiting. 

1  Psa.  cxviii.  12. 


32 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


The  debris  on  the  top  of  that  half-natural,  half-artificial  mound 
marks  the  site  of  one  of  those  signal  stations  or  beacons  which  St. 
Helena  built  along  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Constantinople,  to 
convey  to  her  royal  son  the  first  tidings  of  the  discovery  of  the  true 


ancient  sarcophagi.  she  was  then  searching  in  the  rub¬ 

bish  of  the  Holy  City.  More  pro¬ 
bably  it  was  one  of  a  system  of  watch-towers  for  the  defence  of 
the  coast,  such  as  are  still  in  use  along  the  shores  of  Spain  and 
Algiers.  Marc  Antony  spent  some  time  at  a  fort  between  Beirut 
and  Sidon,  called  Dukekome,  waiting  for  Cleopatra.  Perhaps  this 
tower-crowned  hill  marks  the  spot  where  those  mighty  revellers 
met  and  feasted.  I  remember  when  the  tower  was  destroyed  to 
supply  the  demand  for  building  material  in  Beirut. 

The  most  remarkable  relics  of  past  ages  are  those  broken  sar¬ 
cophagi  on  the  side  of  the  mountain.  Their  number  is  surpris¬ 
ing,  since  for  ages  the  inhabitants  have  been  breaking  them  up  for 
building-stone,  or  burning  them  into  lime.  They  are  of  all  sizes: 
some  eight  feet  long,  and  in  fair  proportion,  the  resting-place  of 
giants ;  others  were  made  for  small  children.  Many  are  hewn  in 
the  live  rock ;  others  are  single  coffins  cut  out  of  separate  blocks. 


OLIVE  GROVES  OF  ESH  SHUWEIFAT. 


33 


All  had  heavy  lids,  of  various  shapes,  but  with  the  corners  raised. 
On  one  is  a  cherub  with  wings  expanded,  as  if  about  to  fly  away  to 
the  “  better  land  another  has  a  palm  branch,  emblem  of  immor¬ 
tality  ;  a  large  one  has  three  warlike  figures,  the  chosen  compan¬ 
ions,  perhaps,  of  some  ancient  hero.  They  are  without  inscriptions, 
and  have  nothing  about  them  to  determine  their  age  or  origin ; 
and  on  none  of  them  is  there  a  single  mark  or  scratch  which  might 
indicate  that  those  who  made  them  had  an  alphabet.  They  are,  no 
doubt,  very  ancient.  Lift  the  lid,  and  the  dust  within  differs  not 
from  the  surrounding  soil  from  which  grows  the  corn  of  the  current 
year.  And  so  it  was  twenty  centuries  ago,  I  suppose. 

From  Khan  Khulda  to  Beirut  is  about  three  hours,  and,  as  the 
road  leaves  the  sea-coast  and  follows  the  border  of  this  little  plain, 
the  scene  is  varied  and  the  ride  becomes  more  interesting. 

What  a  large  village  that  is  on  the  foot-hills  east  of  us ! 

It  is  esh  Shuweifat,  one  of  the  most  important  towns  on  Leba¬ 
non,  and  its  prosperity  is  mainly  due  to  the  extensive  olive-groves 
below  and  north  of  it — the  largest  in  the  country.  This  sand  de¬ 
sert,  on  our  left,  interposed  between  those  olive-groves  and  the  sea, 
extends  northward  quite  to  the  suburbs  of  Beirut. 

That  forest  of  olive-trees  naturally  attracts  one’s  thoughts  to 
them,  and  to  the  many  Biblical  references  to  the  olive,  some  of 
which  I  do  not  yet  fully  comprehend.  Thus  Hosea  says,  “  His 
beauty  shall  be  as  the  olive  tree.”1  It  is  more  picturesque  than 
beautiful,  but  perhaps  the  eye  needs  to  be  educated  before  it  can 
distinguish  properly  and  decide  correctly. 

The  olive-tree  and  its  fruit  make  the  face  of  man  to  shine  in 
more  senses  than  one,  and  this  noble  grove,  spreading  like  a  silver 
sea  over  the  plain  and  along  the  base  of  the  hills,  and  rolling  far 
up  their  ascending  terraces,  is  beautiful ;  and  it  speaks  of  peace 
and  plenty,  food  and  gladness.  To  a  stranger  it  is  destitute  of 
pleasing  associations;  but  to  me  it  is  delightful  and  refreshing  to 
ride  through  it,  especially  when  the  trees  are  bowed  down  with 
purple  berries,  or  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  flowers. 

Moses,  in  that  last  ode  which  he  taught  the  children  of  Israel, 
speaks  of  “  oil  out  of  the  flinty  rock;”  and  I  had  supposed  that  the 

1  Hos.  xiv.  6. 


34 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


tree  delighted  in  hard,  rocky  soil ;  but  this  vast  grove  spreads  over 
a  soft  and  sandy  plain.1 

You  were  not  mistaken — only  misled  by  appearances.  The  sub¬ 
stratum  of  this  plain  is  chalky  marl,  abounding  in  flint,  and  the  sand 
is  merelv  an  intruder  blown  in  from  this  desert  on  our  left.  The 

J 

olive  is  found,  also,  in  places  where  there  is  no  rocky  basis ;  but  it 

is  in  soil  such  as  this  that  the  tree  flourishes  best,  both  in  the  plains 

and  upon  the  mountains.  It  insinuates  its  roots  into  the  crevices 

of  this  flinty  marl,  and  draws  from  thence  its  stores  of  oil.  If  the 

/ 

overlying  earth  is  so  deep  that  its  roots  cannot  reach  the  rock  be¬ 
neath,  I  am  told  that  the  tree  languishes,  and  its  berries  are  small 
and  sapless.  There  is,  however,  another  explanation  of  that  figure 
of  Moses.  In  ancient  times  generally — and  in  some  places  at  the 
present  day — the  olives  were  ground  to  a  pulp  in  large  stone  basins, 
by  rolling  a  heavy  stone  wheel  over  them,  and  the  oil  was  then 
expressed  in  stone  presses  established  near  by.  Frequently  those 
presses,  with  their  floors,  gutters,  troughs,  and  cisterns,  were  all  hewn 
out  of  solid  rock,  and  thus  literally  “  the  rock  poured  out  rivers  of 
oil,”  as  Job  affirms  in  his  parable.2 

I  notice  that  the  branches  of  some  trees  have  been  cut  off,  and 
then  grafted  ;  why  is  that  done  ? 

The  olive,  in  its  natural  wild  state,  bears  no  berries,  or  but  few, 
and  those  small  and  destitute  of  oil. 

St.  Paul  has  an  extended  reference  to  grafting.  He  says:  “If 
some  of  the  branches  be  broken  off,  and  thou,  being  a  wild  olive 
tree,  wert  graffed  in  among  them,  and  with  them  partakest  of  the 
root  and  fatness  of  the  olive  tree ;  boast  not  against  the  branches. 
But  if  thou  boast,  thou  bearest  not  the  root,  but  the  root  thee.” 
And  then,  in  the  twenty-fourth  verse:  “For  if  thou  wert  cut  out 
of  the  olive  tree,  which  is  wild  by  nature,  and  wert  graffed  contrary 
to  nature  into  a  good  olive  tree,”3  etc.  The  olive,  says  the  apostle 
— and  so  you  say — is  wild  by  nature,  and  it  must  be  grafted  by  the 
good  before  it  will  bear  fruit ;  but  the  apostle  speaks  of  grafting 
the  wild  into  the  good,  not  the  good  upon  the  wild. 

True;  but  observe,  he  expressly  states  that  this  is  “  contrary  to 
nature,”  as  it  really  is.  In  the  kingdom  of  nature  generally,  cer- 

1  Deut.  xxxii.  13.  2  Job  xxix.  6.  3  Rom.  xi.  17,  18,  24. 


THE  WILD  OLIVE-TREE  AND  THE  GOOD  OLIVE-TREE.  35 


tainly  in  the  case  of  the  olive,  the  process  referred  to  by  the  apostle 
never  succeeds.  Graft  the  good  upon  the  wild,  and,  as  the  Arabs 
say,  “  it  will  conquer  the  wild,”  but  you  cannot  reverse  the  process 
with  success.  If  you  insert  a  wild  graft  into  a  good  tree,  it  will 
conquer  the  good.  It  is  only  in  the  kingdom  of  grace  that  a  pro¬ 
cess  thus  contrary  to  nature  can  be  successful ;  and  it  is  this  circum¬ 
stance  which  the  apostle  has  seized  upon  to  magnify  the  mercy 
shown  to  the  Gentiles  by  grafting  them,  a  wild  race,  contrary  to  the 
nature  of  such  operations,  into  the  good  olive-tree  of  the  Church, 
and  causing  them  to  flourish  there,  and  bring  forth  fruit  unto  eter¬ 
nal  life.  The  apostle  lived  in  the  land  of  the  olive,  and  was  in  no 
danger  of  falling  into  a  blunder  in  founding  his  argument  upon  such 
a  circumstance  in  its  cultivation. 

But  have  all  the  trees  in  this  vast  grove  of  esh  Shuweifat  been 
reclaimed  from  a  wild  state  by  grafting  ? 

Certainly  not.  The  apostle  himself  speaks  of  the  root  of  the 
good  olive,  implying  that,  by  some  means  or  other,  it  had  been 
changed.  As  explained  by  the  natives,  the  process  by  which  that 
result  is  reached  is  quite  simple.  There  are  knobs,  or  large  warts,  so 
to  speak,  on  the  body  of  the  trees.  Cut  off  one  of  those  which  has  a 
branch  growing  out  of  it,  above  the  place  where  it  has  been  grafted  ; 
plant  it  in  good  soil,  water  it  carefully,  and  it  will  strike  out  roots 
and  grow.  It  is  now  a  good  tree  from  the  root,  and  all  scions  taken 
from  it  are  also  good  by  nature.  But  if  the  knob  be  taken  below 
the  grafting,  the  tree  grows  wild  again.  The  greater  part  of  this 
grove  is  now  “good”  from  the  root.  I  am  told,  however,  that 
there  is  a  tendency  to  degenerate,  and  that  it  is  often  an  improve¬ 
ment  to  graft  even  “a  good  olive  tree”  with  one  that  is  still  better. 

Eliphaz  says  of  the  wicked  man,  “  He  shall  cast  off  his  flower  as 
the  olive.”  1  What  is  there  in  the  casting  off  of  olive-flowers  which 
can  illustrate  the  rejection  and  ruin  of  those  who  trust  in  vanity, 
for  which  purpose  the  figure  was  employed  ? 

The  olive  is  the  most  prodigal  of  all  fruit-bearing  trees  in  flow¬ 
ers.  It  bends  under  the  weight  of  them.  But  then  not  one  in  a 
hundred  comes  to  maturity.  The  tree  casts  them  off  as  if  they 
were  of  no  more  value  than  flakes  of  snow,  which  they  closely 


C 


1  Job  xv.  33. 


36 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


resemble.  So  it  will  be  with  those  who  put  their  trust  in  vanity: 
“  for  vanity  shall  be  their  recompense.  They  shall  be  cut  off  before 
their  time,  and  their  branch  shall  not  be  green.”  1  Cast  off,  they 
disappear,  and  no  one  asks  after  them  ;  so  the  olive  seems  to  throw 
off  in  contempt  the  flowers  that  signify  nothing,  and  turns  all  its 
fatness  to  those  which  will  mature  into  good  and  fruitful  berries 
at  the  end  of  the  season,  when  the  owners  and  olive-gatherers  go 
forth  to  shake  their  trees  after  the  rains  in  the  autumn. 

The  olive-tree  is  of  slow  growth,  and  the  husbandman  must  have 
long  patience.  Except  under  circumstances  peculiarly  favorable,  it 
bears  no  berries  until  the  seventh  year,  nor  is  the  crop  worth  much 
until  the  tree  is  ten  or  fifteen  years  old  ;  but  then  “  the  labor  of  the 


2  Hab.  iii.  17. 


olive  ”  is  very  pro¬ 
fitable,  although  it 
sometimes  “  fails,”  as 
implied  in  the  prayer 
of  Habakkuk,2  and 
it  will  continue  to 
yield  its  fruit  to  ex¬ 
treme  old  age,  like  the 
excellent  of  the  earth.  So  long 
as  there  is  a  mere  fragment  re¬ 
maining,  though  externally  the  tree  looks  as  dry  as  a  post,  yet  it 
continues  to  yield  its  oily  berries,  and  for  twenty  generations  the 
owners  gather  fruit  from  the  faithful  old  patriarch.  The  tree  also 
requires  but  little  care,  and  will  revive  again  when  the  ground  is 
dug  or  ploughed,  and  begin  afresh  to  yield  as  before.  Vineyards 
forsaken  die  out  almost  immediately,  and  mulberry  orchards  ne¬ 
glected  run  rapidly  to  ruin,  but  not  so  the  olive.  I  saw  the  deso- 


OLIVE-BRANCH. 


1  Job  xv.  31,  32. 


LONG  LIFE  AND  UNFAILING  PRODUCTIVENESS  OF  THE  OLIVE.  3 7 

late  hills  of  Jebel  el  A’alah,  above  Antioch,  covered  with  such  groves, 
although  no  one  had  paid  attention  to  them  for  half  a  century. 

Is  it  upon  this  tenacity  of  life  in  the  olive  that  Job  bases  his 
affecting  comparison  in  regard  to  the  frailty  of  man  :  “  There  is 
hope  of  a  tree,  if  it  be  cut  down,  that  it  will  sprout  again,  and  that 
the  tender  branch  thereof  will  not  cease.  Though  the  root  thereof 
wax  old  in  the  earth,  and  the  stock  thereof  die  in  the  ground  ;  yet 
through  the  scent  of  water  it  will  bud,  and  bring  forth  boughs  like 
a  plant.  But  man  dieth,  and  wasteth  away :  yea,  man  giveth  up 
the  ghost,  and  where  is  he?”1 

It  is  very  likely  that  it  was  the  olive-tree  which  the  patient 
man  of  Uz  had  in  mind  ;  for  although  the  facts  mentioned  apply  to 
other  trees  in  this  country,  yet  they  are  particularly  appropriate  to 
the  olive.  That  tree  will  thus  revive  “through  the  scent  of  water” 
after  the  root  has  waxed  old  in  the  earth,  and  the  stock,  to  all 
appearance,  become  entirely  dead.  I  have  seen  olive  trees  which 
seemed  to  have  neither  green  wood  nor  live  bark  revive  and  bear  a 
crop  of  olives  when  properly  cultivated.  The  next  verses  in  Job’s 
entreaty  refer  to  other  facts  equally  striking  and  common  in  this 
Eastern  land  :  “  As  the  waters  fail  from  the  sea,  and  the  flood  drieth 
up ;  so  man  lieth  down,  and  riseth  not ;  till  the  heavens  be  no  more, 
they  shall  not  wake,  nor  be  raised  out  of  their  sleep.”  No  one  will 
reside  long  in  this  country  without  becoming  more  or  less  familiar 
with  some  of  the  phenomena  referred  to.  The  waters  fail  from 
the  sea,  and  the  clouds  bring  no  refreshing  rain  ;  the  floods  dry  up, 
the  land  is  parched,  and  every  green  thing  languishes :  famine  stalks 
abroad,  and  pestilence  follows  in  her  footsteps ;  then  men  lie  down 
and  die,  nor  will  they  rise  up  again  till  the  heavens  be  no  more. 

If  the  olive  bore  every  year  its  value  would  be  doubled  ;  but, 
like  most  other  trees,  it  yields  only  every  alternate  year.  Even 
with  this  deduction  it  is  amongst  the  most  valuable  species  of 
property  in  the  country.  Large  trees,  in  a  good  season,  will  yield 
from  ten  to  fifteen  gallons  of  oil,  and  the  olive  crop  from  an  acre 
of  such  trees  is  worth  at  least  one  hundred  dollars. 

The  value  of  this  tree  is  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  its  fruit 
is  indispensable  to  the  comfort,  and  almost  the  existence,  of  the 

-  Job  xiv.  7-10. 


33 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


poorer  classes  of  the  community.  The  Biblical  references  to  that 
subject  are  not  exaggerated.  The  berry,  pickled,  forms  the  general 
relish  to  the  farmer’s  dry  bread.  He  goes  forth  to  his  work  in  the 
field  at  early  dawn,  or  sets  out  on  a  journey,  with  no  other  provi¬ 
sion  than  olives  wrapped  up  in  tough  paper-like  loaves,  and  with 
that  he  is  contented.  Then  almost  every  dish  is  cooked  in  oil,  and 
without  it  the  good-wife  would  be  confounded  ;  and  when  the  oil 
fails  the  lamp  in  the  dwelling  of  the  poor  expires.  Moreover,  the 
entire  supply  of  soap  made  in  this  country  is  from  the  produce  of 
the  olive.  Habakkuk,  therefore,  gives  a  very  striking  attestation  of 
his  faith  in  God  when  he  says,  “  Although  the  labour  of  the  olive 
shall  fail,  yet  I  will  rejoice  in  the  Lord,  I  will  joy  in  the  God  of 
my  salvation.”  1 

Isaiah  thus  refers  to  the  gathering  of  the  olive:  “Yet  glean- 
ing  grapes  shall  be  left  in  it,  as  the  shaking  of  ah  olive  tree,  two  or 
three  berries  in  the  top  of  the  uppermost  bough,  four  or  five  in  the 
outmost  fruitful  branches  thereof.”2  Have  you  noticed  the  circum¬ 
stances  alluded  to  by  the  prophet? 

Very  often  ;  and  it  is  the  language  of  familiar  acquaintance  with 
the  subject.  As  you  may  never  have  an  opportunity  to  watch  the 
process,  I  will  describe  it  as  it  occurs  in  such  places  as  Hasbeiya. 
Early  in  autumn  the  berries  begin  to  drop  of  themselves,  or  are 
shaken  off  by  the  wind.  They  are  allowed  to  remain  under  the 
trees  for  some  time,  guarded  by  the  watchmen  of  the  town.  Then 
a  proclamation  is  made  by  the  governor  that  all  who  have  olive- 
trees  should  go  out  and  pick  what  has  fallen.  Previous  to  that,  not 
even  the  owners  are  allowed  to  gather  olives  in  the  groves.  The 
proclamation  is  repeated  once  or  twice,  according  to  the  season. 
In  November  comes  the  general  and  final  summons,  which  sends 
forth  all  Hasbeiya.  No  olives  are  then  safe  unless  the  owner  looks 
after  them,  for  the  watchmen  are  removed,  and  the  groves  are  alive 
with  men,  women,  and  children.  Everywhere  the  people  are  in  the 
trees  “  shaking  ”  them  to  bring  down  the  fruit. 

That  is  what  the  prophet  had  in  mind.  The  effort  is  to  make 
a  clear  sweep  of  the  whole  crop  ;  but,  in  spite  of  shaking  and  beat¬ 
ing,  there  is  always  a  gleaning  left :  “  two  or  three  berries  in  the 

1  Hab.  iii.  17,  18.  2  Isa.  xvii.  6. 


THE  “SHAKING  OF  THE  OLIVE.” 


39 


top  of  the  uppermost  bough,  four  or  five  in  the  outmost  fruitful 
branches.”  Those  are  afterwards  gleaned  by  the  very  poor,  who 
have  no  trees  of  their  own,  in  seeming  accordance  with  the  com¬ 
mand,  “  When  thou  beatest  thine  olive  tree,  thou  shalt  not  go  over 
the  boughs  again  :  it  shall  be  for  the  stranger,  for  the  fatherless,  and 
for  the  widow;”1  and  they  gather  enough  to  keep  a  lamp  in  their 
habitation  during  the  dismal  nights  of  winter,  and  to  cook  their 
mess  of  pottage  and  bitter  herbs. 

The  “  shaking  of  the  olive  ”  is  the  severest  operation  in  Syrian 
husbandry,  particularly  in  mountainous  regions.  When  the  procla¬ 
mation  goes  forth  to  “  shake,”  there  can  be  no  postponement.  The 
rainy  season  has  already  set  in  ;  the  trees  are  dripping  with  the  last 
shower,  or  bowing  under  a  load  of  moist  snow ;  but  the  owners 
must  shake  them,  drenching  themselves  and  those  below  with  an 
artificial  storm  of  rain,  snow,  and  olives.  No  matter  how  piercing 
the  wind,  or  how  blinding  the  rain,  that  work  must  go  on  from  early 
dawn  to  dark  night ;  and  then  the  weary  laborer  must  carry  on  his 
aching  back  a  heavy  load  of  dripping  berries  two  or  three  miles,  it 
may  be,  up  the  mountain  to  his  home.  The  olive-groves  are  mostly 
held  in  common — not  owned  in  common,  but  planted  on  the  same 
general  tract  of  land,  without  hedges,  fences,  or  walls,  and  the  trees 
are  like  those  in  a  natural  forest.  This  tree  belongs  to  Zeid,  that 
to  ’Abeid,  as  they  say,  and  so  on  through  the  whole  grove.  This 
vast  grove  below  Shuweifat,  along  which  we  have  been  riding  for 
the  last  hour,  has  many  owners,  and  in  “  shaking  time  ”  every  one 
must  look  sharply  after  his  own.  There  is  a  great  confounding  of 
meum  and  tuum  in  the  average  conscience  of  olive-gatherers. 

To  what  particular  circumstance  does  the  Psalmist  refer  in  the 
one  hundred  and  twenty-eighth  Psalm,  where  he  says,  “  Thy  chil¬ 
dren  shall  be  like  olive  plants  round  about  thy  table?” 

Follow  me  into  the  grove,  and  I  will  show  you  what  may  have 
suggested  the  comparison.  This  aged  and  decayed  tree  is  sur¬ 
rounded,  as  you  see,  by  several  young  and  thrifty  shoots,  which 
spring  from  the  root  of  the  venerable  parent.  They  seem  to  up¬ 
hold  and  protect  it.  Thus  do  good  and  affectionate  children  gather 
round  the  table  of  the  righteous.  Each  contributes  something  to 


1  Deut.  xxiv.  20. 


40 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


the  common  welfare  of  the  whole  —  a  beautiful  sight,  with  which 
may  God  refresh  the  eyes  of  all  our  friends. 


OLD  OLIVE-TREE. 


What  a  magnificent  tree  that  is  which  we  have  just  passed! 

It  is,  indeed,  a  grand  old  sycamore,  under  whose  grateful  shade 
many  a  weary  traveller  seeks  protection  from  the  burning  sand  and 
the  scorching  sun.  There  he  dismounts  to  rest,  to  drink  a  cup  of 
coffee,  and  smoke  a  nargileh,  which  the  khanji  at  Dukkan  el  Kusis 
is  always  ready  to  supply. 

Here  we  leave  this  pleasant  grove  for  that  singular  sea  of  sand, 
which  rolls  quite  back  to  the  gardens  of  Beirut.  Geologists  tell  us 
that  this  sand  has  travelled  long  and  far  before  it  reached  its  pre- 


A  DREARY  DESERT  OF  DRIFTING  SEA. 


41 


sent  resting-place.  That,  in  fact,  its  original  home  was  in  the  great 
African  desert,  and,  during  the  countless  ages  of  the  past,  it  has 
been  drifted  first  by  the  wind  into  the  sea,  and  then  by  the  current 
along  the  northern  coast  past  Egypt,  and  around  the  head  of  the 
sea,  until,  stopped  by  the  Cape  of  Beirut,  it  has  been  thrown  out  by 
the  waves  on  to  this  plain.  Others  say  that  it  is  the  sand  of  the 
Nile  transported  hither  by  the  northern  current  in  this  part  of  the 
Mediterranean.  I  believe  that  we  need  look  no  farther  than  the 
immediate  neighborhood  for  the  origin  of  this  desert.  The  rock  on 
the  shore  is  a  soft  sandstone,  which  is  continually  disintegrating  by 
the  action  of  wind  and  wave.  The  loose  sand  is  cast  up  upon  the 
beach,  and  the  strong  south-west  winds  which  blow  across  the  plain 
are  constantly  spreading  it  inward  under  our  very  eyes. 

No  doubt  the  Damur  and  the  Ghudir — the  latter  just  ahead  of 
us — bring  down  a  great  amount  of  sand  during  the  winter  rains, 
which  is  also  thrown  on  shore  by  the  sea.  This  sand  is  continually 
driven  in  upon  these  fields  like  another  deluge.  Entire  mulberry 
gardens  about  Beirut,  with  their  trees  and  houses,  have  been  thus 
overwhelmed  since  I  came  to  the  country ;  and  the  day  is  not  dis¬ 
tant  when  it  will  have  swept  over  the  cape  to  the  bay  on  the  north 
of  the  city,  unless  its  course  can  be  arrested.  I  never  take  this  ride 
without  watching,  with  weary  interest,  this  ever- changing  desert. 
Upon  the  great  sand-waves,  which  swell  up  from  twenty  to  fifty 
feet  high,  the  west  wind  makes  small  but  well-defined  wavelets,  the 
counterpart  in  miniature  of  those  it  has  just  left  on  yonder  noisy 
sea.  Should  these  ripples  be  caught  and  fixed  by  some  tranquil¬ 
lizing  and  indurating  agency,  we  would  there  have  a  vast  forma¬ 
tion  of  wavy  sandstone  the  origin  of  which  might  puzzle  the 
student  of  earth’s  rocky  mysteries  to  explain. 

These  sandy  invasions  are  not  found  to  any  injurious  extent 
north  of  Beirut,  but  as  one  goes  south  they  become  broader  and 
more  continuous.  They  spread  far  inland  round  the  Bay  of  Acre. 
They  begin  again  at  Caesarea,  and  reach  to  the  river  ’Aujeh  ;  and 
then  south  of  Jaffa,  past  Askelon  and  Gaza,  they  roll  in  their  deso¬ 
lating  waves  wider  and  still  wider,  until  they  subside  in  the  great 
desert  that  lies  between  Arabia  and  Africa.  Let  us  ride  up  to  the 
crest  of  that  bold  sand-wave,  and  take  a  look  at  this  prospect,  so 


42 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


eminently  Syrian.  The  local  name  of  this  desert  of  shifting  sand 
is  el  Kalabat.  Ibrahim  Pacha  told  the  Emir  of  Shuweifat  that  he 
had  three  different  seas  beneath  his  feet — the  blue  Mediterranean, 
this  yellow  Kalabat,  and  the  silvery  sea  of  that  olive  Sahra.  All  he 
saw  is  before  us ;  with  the  goodly  Lebanon  for  the  background,  ris¬ 
ing  range  above  range,  up  to  where  Sunnin  lifts  his  snowy  head  to 
the  blue  firmament  of  heaven.  Picturesque  villages  sleep  at  his 
feet,  cling  to  his  sides,  or  stand  out  in  bold  relief  upon  his  ample 
shoulders,  giving  variety  and  interest  to  the  scene. 

We  have  now  reached  the  extensive  pine-groves  in  the  suburbs 
of  Beirut ;  but,  instead  of  passing  through  them,  let  us  continue  our 
course  over  the  sands,  and  in  half  an  hour  we  will  reach  the  western 
part  of  the  town,  and  our  weary  ride  will  be  ended. 


THE  MOST  BEAUTIFUL  AND  PROSPEROUS  CITY  OF  SYRIA.  43 


II. 


BEIRUT. 

Beirut  and  its  Surroundings. — The  Plain  of  Beirut. — Goodly  Lebanon. — Beirut  from  the 
Sea. — Beirut  not  a  Biblical  City. — History  of  Beirut. — Colonia  Augusta  Felix  Julia, 
Berytus. — Herod  the  Great. — Agrippa. — Titus. — Law  School. — Earthquake. — Theo- 
prosopon. — The  Crusaders. — The  Saracens. — Miracle  of  the  Holy  Cross. — Palace  and 
Gardens  of  Fakhr  ed  Din. — The  Saraya. — Muhammed  ’Aly. — Bombardment  of  Bei¬ 
rut. —  Population  of  Beirut. —  Railroad. —  Antiquities  about  Beirut. —  Ancient  Aque¬ 
duct. — Tunnel. — The  Wife  of  Haroun  er  Raschid. — Ruined  Temple  at  Deir  el  Ku- 
l’ah. —  “The  Smell  of  Lebanon.” — Magnificent  Prospect. —  Roofs  with  Battlements. 
— The  Holy  Land  and  the  Holy  Book. — House-tops. — Samuel  and  Saul. —  David’s 
Palace. — The  Inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  upon  the  House-tops. —  Proclamations  from 
the  House-tops. — The  Year  of  Jubilee. — Peter  Praying  upon  the  House-top. — House¬ 
tops  in  the  Time  of  Christ. — The  Sparrow  upon  the  House-top. — In  the  Streets  of 
Beirut. —  Coffee  and  Coffee  -  shops. —  Shopkeepers. —  Pipe  -  stems.  —  Cigarettes. —  The 
Letter- writer. — Writing  and  Writing  Materials. — The  Open  Letter. — Seal  Rings. — 
The  Call  to  Prayer. — Moslems  Praying  in  the  Mosk. — Hypocrisy. — The  Pilgrimage  to 
Mecca. — Praying  Seven  Times  a  Day. — The  Sanctimonious  Judge. — Praying  towards 
Mecca  and  Jerusalem. — Shops  and  Streets. — The  Crowded  Street. — Hewers  of  Wood 
and  Drawers  of  Water. — The  Gibeonites. — Shaving  the  Head. — Paul  at  Cenchrea. — 
Barbers’  Shops. — Street  of  the  Auctioneers. — No  Provision  for  Lighting  the  Streets. 
—  Bidding  the  Guests  to  the  Supper. —  Dining  amongst  the  Orientals.  —  Sitting  at 
Meat. — Rice,  Stews,  and  Meats. — Etiquette  at  Meals. — Washing  the  Hands. — Elijah 
and  Elisha. — Ceremonial  Etiquette. —  Pipes,  Nargilehs,  and  Coffee-cups. — Talking  to 
be  Heard. — Garments,  Ancient  and  Modern.  —  Elijah’s  Mantle. — Joseph’s  Coat  of 
Many  Colors. — Rending  the  Clothes. — Linen,  Woollen,  Cotton,  and  Silk. — Manners 
and  Customs. — Boots  and  Shoes. — Putting  off  the  Shoes. — The  Head  and  the  Feet. — 
Costume  of  the  Women. —  Domestic  Relations. — The  Harem. —  Naming  the  Father 
after  his  Eldest  Son.  —  Significant  Names,  Ancient  and  Modern. —  Sleeping  without 
Change  of  Garments. —  Co-operative  House-keeping. — “Saving  your  Reverence.” — 
Matrimony. — Sons  and  Daughters. — Marriage  with  Slaves. 

May  28th. 

BeirUt  is  said  to  be  not  only  the  most  prosperous  city  of 
Syria,  but  also  the  most  beautiful ;  and  as  we  escaped  from  the 
deep  sand,  and  rode  along  the  broad  macadamized  lanes  in  the 
southern  suburbs  of  the  town  last  night,  with  fine  houses  and  well- 


44 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


patronized  shops  on  either  side,  and  busy  crowds  of  well-dressed 
natives,  I  could  see  ample  corroboration  of  that  statement. 

The  city  itself  and  the  surroundings  possess  that  natural  beauty 
and  picturesqueness  which  never  wearies,  and  is  always  remembered 
with  delight,  even  by  those  who  make  but  a  short  stay  here. 

That  I  can  readily  believe,  and  no  wonder,  for  the  scenery  is  on 
a  scale  so  grand  and  so  varied  ;  but  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get 
an  adequate  idea  of  the  whole. 

Follow  me,  then,  to  the  terrace  of  our  house,  for  it  commands 
the  entire  prospect  of  the  sea,  the  city,  and  the  mountains. 

The  Bay  of  Beirut  is  truly  magnificent,  and  the  city  is  even 
more  extensive  and  beautiful  than  I  had  imagined.  How  clear 
and  transparent  is  the  atmosphere,  and  how  sharply  defined  are 
the  hills  and  valleys,  the  villages,  the  houses,  and  even  the  rocks 
and  trees  on  lofty  Lebanon  ! 

That  snow  on  its  summit  is  thirty  miles  away,  and  yet  you 
could  almost  read  your  own  name  if  written  with  a  bold  hand  on 
its  calm,  cold  brow.  You  perceive  that  the  city  and  its  suburbs  are 
situated  on  the  northern  slope  of  a  triangular  plain,  whose  base-line 
is  the  shore,  from  Ras  Beirut  southward  to  Nahr  el  Yabis,  some  six 
miles  distant  on  the  road  to  Sidon.  The  perpendicular  line  runs  in 
eastward  from  the  Ras  about  five  miles  to  the  foot  of  Sunnin,  at 
the  end  of  St.  George’s  Bay.  The  hypothenuse  is  the  long  line  of 
the  mountains  from  north-east  to  south-west.  The  entire  plain  is 
a  projection  seaward  from  the  general  direction  of  the  coast,  and 
along  the  base  of  the  hills  it  is  so  low  as  to  appear  like  an  island 
to  one  sailing  up  from  Sidon.  The  surface  rises  gradually  from  the 
south  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  city,  where  in  some  places 
it  is  about  three  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  and  it  falls  rapidly 
down  towards  the  roadstead  on  the  north  by  a  succession  of 
broad  and  irregular  terraces.  It  is  that  feature  which  imparts 
such  variety  and  beauty  to  Beirut  and  its  environs. 

The  substratum  of  the  plain — a  white  marl,  passing  into  com¬ 
pact  limestone,  and  enclosing  nodules  of  flint  and  thin  seams  of 
chert — is  similar  to  that  of  the  adjoining  hills  of  Lebanon.  Upon 
that  rests  a  very  large  formation  of  arenaceous,  unstratified  stone, 
which  is  easily  wrought,  and  hence  has  been  used  from  time  imme- 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  BEIRUT  AND  ITS  SURROUNDINGS.  45 

morial  for  building  purposes.  It  is  mixed  with  comminuted  shells 
and  corals,  and  is  very  porous,  absorbing  water  with  great  rapidity. 
This,  indeed,  is  almost  the  only  defect  in  that  otherwise  admirable 
building  stone,  for  it  renders  the  houses  very  damp  in  winter.  The 
quarries  are  to  the  south-west  of  the  city,  and  from  them  a  broad 
belt  of  loose,  movable  sand  stretches  inward  from  the  shore,  quite 
down  to  the  point  at  Nahr  el  Yabis.  The  south-eastern  part  of  the 
plain  is  covered  with  a  dense  olive-grove,  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  productive  in  Syria,  while  in  the  centre  are  beautiful  pine 
forests,  planted,  or  rather  sowed,  by  successive  governors  at  differ¬ 
ent  times,  from  the  famous  Druse  chief,  Fakhr  ed  Din,  two  hun¬ 
dred  and  fifty  years  ago,  to  the  recent  representative  of  the  Sublime 
Porte  at  Beirut.  In  the  suburbs,  where  they  can  be  irrigated,  there 
are  gardens  of  orange  and  lemon  trees :  fig,  almond,  and  apricot 
trees  abound,  and  the  mulberry-tree  is  found  everywhere ;  and  here 
and  there 

The  palm-tree  rears  his  stately  head  on  high, 

And  spreads  his  feathery  plume  along  the  sky  ; 

while  the  kharnub,  sycamore,  prickly  oak,  and  many  a  bush  and 
shrub  of  humbler  name,  cast  abroad  their  grateful  shade,  and  draw 
their  green  mantles  over  the  lovely  scene. 

The  view  of  the  city  from  the  roadstead  on  the  north  is  the 
most  impressive,  I  believe? 

In  that  I  entirely  concur.  Coming  into  the  harbor  at  early 
dawn,  the  scenery  is  grand,  and  even  sublime.  Goodly  Lebanon, 
towering  to  a  height  of  over  eight  thousand  feet,  with  a  diadem 
of  stars  around  his  snowy  brow,  with  his  head  in  heaven  and  his 
feet  upon  the  sea,  looks  like  some  august  monarch  of  the  universe, 
to  be  saluted  with  profound  admiration  and  respect.  And  as  morn¬ 
ing  brightens  to  glorious  day,  what  a  magnificent  panorama  is  re¬ 
vealed  all  around  the  city!  The  mountains  of  el  Metn  and  the 
Kesrawan,  on  the  east  and  north-east,  rugged,  steep,  and  lofty, 
shaded  with  pine- forests,  and  dotted  with  villages,  churches,  and 
convents ;  the  wild  gorge  of  the  Dog  River,  with  snowy  Sunnin 
beyond  and  above ;  the  deep  Bay  of  St.  George  sweeping  around 
the  base  of  the  hills ;  the  sandy  ridge  of  Brummana,  and  Deir  el 
Kul’ah,  with  the  deep  ravine  of  Nahr  Beirut;  the  hills  of  el  Ghurb, 


46 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


bold  and  bright  against  the  southern  sky,  extending  from  Aleih  to 
Abeih,  with  villages,  hamlets,  and  factories,  and  terraced  vineyards 
and  fruitful  gardens;  and  the  city  itself,  with  its  white  houses 
facing  seaward,  some  seated  on  overhanging  cliffs,  others  grouped 
on  verdant  terraces  and  commanding  hill- tops,  or  stowed  away 
along  retiring  glens,  half  revealed,  now  quite  concealed  by  mul¬ 
berry  and  China  trees,  and  waving  festoons  of  vines  and  cunning 
creepers  of  many  colors — such  is  Beirut,  under  a  bright  and  pure 
sky,  with  the  glorious  Mediterranean  around  it,  and  ships  and  boats 
of  various  nations  sailing  in  and  out  or  lying  at  anchor  in  the  bay. 

Is  it  probable  that  the  Berothai  of  2  Samuel  viii.  8,  from  which 
“King  David  took  exceeding  much  brass,”  was  Beirut? 

I  think  not ;  nor  is  it  likely  that  the  Berothah  mentioned  in 
Ezekiel  xlvii.  1 6,  as  one  of  the  places  in  the  northern  boundary  of 
the  land  of  Israel,  was  this  city.  From  the  similarity  of  names,  and 
the  geographical  position  of  both,  Ezekiel’s  Berothah  and  Samuel’s 
Berothai  were  probably  identical,  and,  of  course,  neither  of  them 
was  Beirut.  Some  go  still  farther  back  and  assert  that  it  was 
founded  by  the  Giblites,  or  “  stone-squarers,”  mentioned  by  Joshua, 
and  also  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  i  Kings.1 

Since  Beirut  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  we  must  look  else¬ 
where,  I  suppose,  for  evidences  of  its  antiquity. 

Nor  are  those  altogether  wanting.  Stephanus  of  Byzantium 
ascribes  the  foundation  of  the  city  to  Kronos,  the  harvest  god,  an 
origin,  of  course,  mythical,  but  indicating  the  general  belief  in  its 
extreme  antiquity.  Others  claim  for  Beirut  the  distinction  of  be¬ 
ing  one  of  the  oldest  of  Phoenician  towns.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  the  second  century  before  Christ  that  Beirut  is  mentioned, 
under  its  Greek  name  of  Berytus,  and  Strabo  relates  that  it  was 
destroyed  by  Tryphon  of  Syria,  and  afterwards  rebuilt  by  the  Ro¬ 
mans.  They  established  a  colony  here  during  the  reign  of  Augus¬ 
tus,  and  it  was  called  Colonia  Augusta  Felix  Julia,  Berytus. 

Here,  on  the  advice  of  Augustus,  Herod  the  Great  appeared  in 
court  as  the  accuser  of  his  two  sons,  whom  he  afterwards  sent  to 
Sebaste,  Samaria,  where  they  were  strangled.  Herod  Agrippa  II. 
adorned  and  beautified  Berytus  with  colonnades,  porticoes,  theatres, 

1  Josh.  xiii.  5  ;  i  Kings  v.  18. 


BEIRUT— BERYTUS— MOUNT  LEBANON— JEBEL  SUNNIN. 


i 


, 


,  -  *•  -■  -  I  ■  v 


. 


' 


' 


GLADIATORIAL  SHOWS.— DESTRUCTIVE  EARTHQUAKE.  47 

baths,  and  other  public  buildings,  and  their  remains  are  scattered 
over  the  gardens,  and  buried  beneath  the  rubbish  of  the  ancient 
city.  It  was  in  the  theatres  of  Agrippa,  I  suppose,  that  Titus  cele¬ 
brated  his  own  victories  over  Jerusalem,  and  his  father’s  birthday, 
by  gladiatorial  shows,  in  which  the  miserable  captives  of  Zion  per¬ 
ished  in  great  numbers,  fighting  with  wild  beasts  and  with  one 
another,  as  Josephus  informs  us. 

Though  none  of  the  apostles  appear  to  have  visited  Beirut,  yet 
Christianity  was  early  established  here,  and  this  city  became  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric.  Under  the  Christian  emperors  of  Constantino¬ 
ple  it  continued  to  prosper  down  to  the  reign  of  Justinian.  It  was 
then  one  of  the  most  celebrated  seats  of  learning  in  the  empire,  and 
its  law-school,  which  flourished  for  a  period  of  over  three  centuries, 
was  frequented  by  youth  from  the  first  families  in  the  state,  and 
by  graduates  of  the  schools  of  Athens  and  Alexandria.  Then,  as 
now,  was  the  golden  age  of  Beirut’s  literary  fame,  and  then,  as 
now,  it  was  the  most  beautiful  city  on  this  coast.  But  its  decline 
commenced  under  the  reign  of  that  emperor. 

On  the  9th  of  July,  A.D.  551,  one  of  those  awful  earthquakes, 
which  repeatedly  shook  the  Roman  world  in  the  time  of  Justinian, 
seems  to  have  entirely  destroyed  Beirut,  overthrown  her  colleges, 
churches',  temples,  theatres,  and  palaces,  and  buried  multitudes  of 
the  inhabitants  beneath  the  ruins ;  and,  although  the  city  was  re¬ 
built,  it  never  regained  its  former  magnificence.  You  can  scarcely 
walk  through  the  gardens  or  dig  a  foundation  for  a  house  without 
coming  upon  the  memorials  of  that  dreadful  calamity.  It  is  amaz¬ 
ing  to  see  how  deeply  some  of  those  ruins  are  entombed,  suggest¬ 
ing  the  idea  that  the  very  terraces  on  which  such  costly  structures 
stood  were  upheaved  and  precipitated  on  those  below.  And  this 
corresponds  with  the  history  of  that  fearful  time.  We  are  told  that 
“  enormous  chasms  were  opened,  huge  and  heavy  bodies  were  dis¬ 
charged  into  the  air,  the  sea  alternately  advanced  and  retreated  be¬ 
yond  its  ordinary  bounds,”  and  a  mountain  was  torn  from  that  bold 
promontory — then  called  Theoprosopon,  the  face  of  God,  and  now 
Ras  esh  Shukkah — and  cast  into  the  sea,  where  it  formed  a  mole  for 
the  harbor  of  Batrun.  Perhaps  its  Arabic  name,  implying  the  cape 
of  the  split  or  cleft  open,  may  be  a  witness  of  that  catastrophe. 


43 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Beirut  shared  in  all  the  troubles  and  revolutions  which  accompa¬ 
nied  and  grew  out  of  the  conquest  of  this  country  by  the  Muham- 
medans.  In  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  it  was  taken  by  Baldwin 
in  iiio,  and,  during  the  two  hundred  years  of  Frank  rule  on  this 
coast,  it  was  several  times  captured  and  recaptured  by  Saracen  and 
Christian.  Since  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  few  signal 
events  have  happened  to  vary  the  monotony  of  its  story.  But  in 
the  eighth  century  an  illustrious  miracle  spread  the  name  and  fame 
of  this  city  far  and  wide.  Some  image-hating  Hebrews,  in  scorn 
and  mockery,  attempted,  it  is  said,  to  go  through  the  acts  of  the 
Crucifixion  upon  a  holy  image  and  cross ;  when,  as  they  thrust  a 
spear  into  its  side,  to  their  confusion  and  horror,  a  large  quantity 
of  blood  and  water  gushed  forth.  Without  resorting  to  supernatu¬ 
ral  interference,  a  little  manoeuvring,  or  a  little  money,  could  have 
set  either  real  or  spurious  Jews  at  work  to  bring  about  the  miracle. 
But  Beirut  has  no  need  of  such  doubtful  claims  to  immortality. 
Judging  from  the  scanty  and  indefinite  notices  by  the  pilgrims  of 
the  mediaeval  ages,  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  varied  from  five 
to  ten  thousand,  engaged  in  commerce  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  olive  oil  and  soap,  and  the  culture  of  silk,  which  for  several  cen¬ 
turies  continued  to  be  the  staple  productions  of  this  region. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  famous  Druse 
emir,  Fakhr  ed  Din,  “the  glory  of  religion,”  established  himself  in 
Beirut.  He  is  said  to  have  filled  up  the  port  to  prevent  the  land¬ 
ing  of  pirates;  and  to  have  planted  the  extensive  pine -groves  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  city.  He  built  a  large  palace  in  the  north-east¬ 
ern  part  of  the  town,  and,  after  his  return  from  Italy,  he  adorned 
it  with  ample  gardens.  That  palace,  though  in  a  very  dilapidated 
condition,  is  now  the  Saraya,  or  official  residence  of  the  Pasha,  but 
the  gardens  have  long  since  disappeared. 

When  Muhammed  ’Aly  wrested  Syria  from  the  Sultan,  in  1830- 
’31,  he  made  Beirut  the  chief  quarantine  station  on  the  coast,  and 
obliged  all  ships  to  come  to  this  port.  But  during  the  month  of 
September,  1840,  the  combined  English  and  Austrian  fleet  bom¬ 
barded  the  castles  and  fortifications,  and  compelled  the  Egyptian 
troops,  under  Suleiman  Pasha,  to  evacuate  the  place.  Beirut  was 
restored  to  the  Turk;  and  as  European  merchants  were  already  set- 


POPULATION  OF  BEIRUT.— ANCIENT  AQUEDUCT. 


49 


tied  here,  and  the  foreign  consuls  had  selected  it  for  their  residence, 
that  Government  made  it  the  capital  of  the  country.  Forty  years 
ago,  when  I  came  to  Beirut,  there  was  scarcely  a  house  outside  of 
the  walls  fit  to  live  in  ;  now  hundreds  of  convenient  dwellings,  and 
not  a  few  large  and  noble  mansions,  adorn  its  beautiful  suburbs, 
and  two-thirds  of  the  population  reside  in  the  gardens.  The  mas¬ 
sacres  of  i860  led  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Damascus,  the  Leba¬ 
non,  and  elsewhere,  to  settle  in  Beirut,  which  added  largely  to  its 
inhabitants,  and  many  of  the  public  buildings  that  attract  the  no¬ 
tice  of  visitors  now  have  been  erected  since  that  deplorable  event. 

The  population  is  now  estimated  at  eighty  thousand,  more  than 
one -half  of  which  is  made  up  of  the  various  Christian  sects  and 
denominations.  No  city  in  Syria,  perhaps  none  in  the  Turkish 
Empire,  has  had  so  rapid  an  expansion.  And  it  must  continue  to 
grow  and  prosper,  with  but  one  proviso  to  cast  a  shade  of  doubt 
upon  its  bright  future.  Should  a  railroad  ever  connect  the  head 
of  this  sea  with  the  Euphrates  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  that  will  in¬ 
evitably  dictate  where  the  emporium  of  Syria  is  to  be.  If  Beirut 
can  attract  that  line  of  trade  and  travel  to  its  door,  it  will  rank 
amongst  the  important  cities  of  the  world  ;  if  it  cannot,  then  must 
it  wane  before  some  other  rival  queen  of  the  East. 

Are  there  many  antiquities  about  Beirut? 

There  are  columns  and  sarcophagi  in  abundance,  and  some  of 
them  have  inscriptions  which  tell  their  own  story.  An  ancient 
aqueduct  has  been  discovered,  cut  through  the  rock,  and  passing 
beneath  the  city  at  Bab  Y’akob.  It  must  either  have  had  a  more 
permanent  supply  of  water  than  at  present,  which  fails  in  dry 
weather,  when  it  is  most  needed,  or  have  been  connected  with  the 
ancient  aqueduct  which  brought  water  from  Lebanon  to  Berytus. 

Are  the  existing  remains  of  that  ancient  work  extensive? 

More  so  than  most  travellers,  or  even  natives,  are  aware  of. 
The  supply  of  water  for  that  aqueduct  came  from  a  fountain  in  the 
bed  of  the  Beirut  River,  below  Deir  el  Kul’ah.  The  aqueduct  from 
it  was  conducted  along  the  hill-side  above  the  north  bank  of  the 
river  for  a  mile  or  more.  It  was  then  carried  over  the  river  upon 
a  series  of  lofty  arches.  The  first  and  lowest  tier  had  only  two 

arches,  the  second  three.  The  next  tier  above  had  fifteen,  and  the 
D 


50 


TIIE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


ANCIENT  AQUEDUCT  OVER 
THE  BEIRUT  RIVER. 


fourth  or  highest  tier  had 
twenty -five  arches,  and  the  canal  upon 
them  was  about  one  hundred  and  sixty 
feet  above  the  bed  of  the  river.  The 
wall  of  the  aqueduct  was  twenty  feet  broad,  and  was  built  of 
well-cut  stone,  and  the  entire  structure  must  have  presented  a 
grand  and  very  imposing  appearance. 

Though  carried  over  the  river  at  so  great  an  elevation,  the  ca¬ 
nal,  on  the  Beirut  or  west  bank,  met  with  perpendicular  cliffs,  and 
passed  directly  into  them  by  a  tunnel  cut  in  the  solid  rock.  I  once 
crept  into  it  a  distance  of  a  few  feet,  beyond  which  it  is  now  choked 
up  with  rubbish.  The  tunnel,  excavated  along  and  within  the  face 
of  the  cliff,  was  conducted  in  a  direction  nearly  north  for  a  con¬ 
siderable  distance,  and  at  intervals  of  a  few  rods  shafts  were  sunk 
from  the  top  and  covered  over  with  massive  arches,  to  prevent  the 


'.a' 


ANCIENT  AQUEDUCT.— TEMPLE  AT  DEIR  EL  KUL’AH.  5  I 

debris  from  the  cliff  falling  into  and  choking  up  the  canal.  They 
are  still  quite  perfect,  and  are  amongst  the  best  specimens  of  an¬ 
cient  vaults.  The  great  elevation  of  the  aqueduct  over  the  river 
shows  that  the  design  was  to  carry  the  water  to  the  highest  terraces 
in  the  suburbs  of  Beirut,  and  that  this  was  actually  done  is  demon¬ 
strated  by  many  channels  which  have  been  discovered  in  the  gar¬ 
dens  to  the  west  and  south  of  the  city. 

Descending  to  the  margin  of  the  plain,  the  canal  was  led  along 
the  base  of  the  hills  southward,  past  Khan  esh  Shiah,  and  thence 
westward  to  the  vicinity  of  Beirut,  and  the  water  was  distributed 
through  many  pipes  to  various  parts  of  the  city.  As  the  plain  west 
of  esh  Shiah  is  quite  low,  the  canal  had  to  be'  elevated  by  a  long 
line  of  arches,  erected  upon  a  broad  and  massive  wall.  It  was  built 
solid  throughout,  of  large,  well-squared  stone,  and  was  about  forty 
feet  wide  at  the  base.  No  traces  of  the  arches  now  exist,  but 
masses  of  tufaceous  deposit  remain  formed  by  the  trickling  of  the 
water  through  the  aqueduct,  similar  to  those  along  the  ancient 
canals  of  Tyre  and  Acre.  The  wall  itself,  however,  was  nearly  en¬ 
tire  when  I  first  came  to  this  country ;  but  the  rapid  growth  of 
Beirut  created  such  a  demand  for  building-stone  that  the  greater 
part  of  it  has  been  quarried  and  brought  to  the  city.  In  that  pro¬ 
cess,  palm  and  olive  trees,  which  had  grown  old  upon  the  top,  were 
undermined  and  thrown  away ;  and  where  the  work  of  quarrying 
has  been  completed,  and  the  ground  levelled,  mulberry-trees  are 
now  flourishing  upon  it.  The  Arabs,  as  a  matter  of  course,  ascribe 
the  building  of  that  aqueduct  to  Sit  Zebeideh,  the  wife  of  Ha- 
roun  er  Raschid  ;  but,  whether  constructed  by  Phoenicians,  Greeks, 
or  Romans,  it  was  an  admirable  work,  and  a  great  blessing  to  the 
inhabitants  of  ancient  Berytus. 

What  place  is  Deir  el  Kul’ah? 

Deir  el  Kul’ah  is  the  name  of  a  Maronite  convent  situated  on 
the  southern  termination  of  that  bold  ridge  of  Lebanon  east  of 
Beirut.  It  occupies  the  site  of  an  ancient  temple,  the  walls  of 
which  have  been  thrown  down  to  the  very  foundation,  either  by 
over- zealous  Christians  of  early  days,  or  by  fanatical  Moslems  of 
later  times.  This  must  have  been  no  easy  achievement,  for  the 
walls  were  built  with  great  blocks  of  hard  breccia  marble,  from 


52 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


eight  to  fourteen  feet  long,  four  broad,  and  five  thick,  resting  on 
the  everlasting  rock  of  the  mountain  ;  and  it  is  evident  that  nei¬ 
ther  earthquake  nor  any  other  known  natural  agency  could  have 
effected  such  an  overthrow.  With  the  single  exception  of  Ba’al- 
bek,  it  must  have  been  the  largest  and  most  splendid  temple  on  or 
amongst  these  mountains.  The  body  of  the  edifice  was  one  hundred 
and  six  feet  long  and  fifty-four  wide,  having  a  grand  portico  thirty 
feet  broad  on  the  west  end,  making  the  entire  length  from  south¬ 
east  to  north-west  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  feet.  The  portico 
was  supported  by  a  double  row  of  columns,  four  in  each  row.  The 
lower  parts  of  four  or  five  of  these  still  stand  upon  their  original 
bases,  and  are  nearly  six  feet  in  diameter.  There  were  no  columns 
either  on  the  east  end  or  along  the  sides,  but  the  portico  must  have 
presented  a  magnificent  appearance. 

Though  fronting  north-west  instead  of  to  the  east,  that  temple 
was  no  doubt  dedicated  to  Baal,  like  many  others  on  and  around 
Lebanon  and  Hermon.  This  is  confirmed  by  Greek  and  Latin 
inscriptions  found  mostly  built  into  the  walls  of  the  convent.  In 
common  with  other  visitors  I  have  repeatedly  transcribed  them, 
and  about  a  dozen  have  been  discovered,  copied  and  deciphered. 
One  inscription  in  the  kitchen  of  the  convent,  “  being  interpreted,” 
reads:  “  Balmarkos,  Sovereign,  Lord  of  Sports.”  It  is  pleasant  to 
find  that  his  Sovereign  Lordship  assumed  a  character  so  amiable  in 
presence  of  this  beautiful  city.  It  must  have  been  a  favorite  resort 
of  the  Beiruteens  for  making  “  kaif,”  sport,  and  there  I  have  found 
the  aromatic  “smell  of  Lebanon”  exceedingly  grateful,  and  the 
glorious  prospect  most  exhilarating. 

Seated  on  the  very  last  ledge  of  that  lofty  headland  overhang¬ 
ing  the  gorge  on  three  sides,  with  the  Beirut  River  two  thousand 
feet  below,  the  eye  wanders  mountainward  up  two  tremendous  ra¬ 
vines  to  snowy  Sunnin,  over  eight  thousand  feet  high,  on  the  north¬ 
east,  and  to  Jebel  Keniseh,  more  than  six  thousand  feet  high,  on 
the  south-east  —  a  wilderness  of  gigantic  cliffs  and  well -wooded 
ridges,  where  nestle  many  picturesque  hamlets  under  oak-groves  or 
amongst  dark  forests  of  fragrant  pine.  Southward,  and  westward, 
and  northward  lies  the  whole  plain,  with  the  city  beyond,  and  the 
view  has  no  other  limit  than  the  utmost  horizon  along  the  van- 


HOUSE -TOPS.— ROOFS.— BATTLEMENTS 


53 


ishing  verge  of  the  “  great  and  wide  sea.”  Such  panoramic  scenes 
can  neither  be  painted  nor  described,  they  must  be  seen  and  felt. 
On  the  north  of  that  site  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient  town  now 
covered  and  concealed  by  a  thick  grove  of  young  oak-trees.  To 
that  town  and  to  the  temple  at  Deir  el  Kul’ah  an  aqueduct  brought 
the  cool  water  from  its  distant  source  north-east  of  Brummana. 


HOUSE-TOPS,  SHOWING  ROOFS  AND  BATTLEMENTS. 


The  flat  roofs  of  these  Beirut  houses  afford  such  a  delightful 
promenade,  and  the  prospect  is  so  beautiful,  that  one  can  scarcely 
keep  away  from  them  by  day  or  night.  So  absorbed  was  I  just  now 
in  gazing  about  and  listening  to  your  peroration,  that,  if  it  had  not 
been  for  the  parapet,  I  should  have  walked  quite  off  the  terrace, 
and  then  found  myself  on  the  ground  below  with  a  broken  limb. 


54 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


A  very  practical  illustration,  that,  of  the  wisdom  and  humanity 
of  the  command  in  Deuteronomy  xxii.  8 :  “  When  thou  buildest  a 
new  house,  then  thou  shalt  make  a  battlement  for  thy  roof,  that 
thou  bring  not  blood  upon  thine  house,  if  any  man  fall  from 
thence.”  That  ordinance  ought  to  be  enforced  by  law  wherever 
the  roofs  are  flat,  and  resorted  to  for  relaxation,  for  sleeping,  or  for 
business.  Roofs  were  appropriated  to  similar  purposes  at  a  very 
early  age.  Rahab  had  evidently  placed  her  flax  on  the  roof  of 
her  house,  at  Jericho,  to  preserve  it;  and  when  the  Hebrew  spies 
were  sought  for  by  the  men  of  that  city,  she  “  brought  them  up 
to  the  roof  of  the  house,  and  hid  them  with  the  stalks  of  flax, 
which  she  had  laid  in  order  upon  the  roof.”  1 

Ordinary  houses  have  no  other  place  where  the  inmates  can 
either  “  smell  the  air,”  dry  the  clothes,  set  out  their  flower-pots,  or 
do  numberless  other  things  essential  to  their  health  and  comfort. 
This  is  particularly  true  within  the  city  walls ;  and  in  villages  the 
roof  is  very  useful.  There  the  farmer  suns  his  wheat  for  the  mill, 
and  the  flour  when  brought  home,  and  dries  his  figs,  raisins,  and 
other  fruits  in  safety  both  from  animals  and  from  thieves. 

Though  we  may  have  travelled  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Holy 
Land,  I  see  abundant  evidence  that  we  are  still  surrounded  by 
scenes  and  scenery  that  aptly  illustrate  the  Holy  Book ;  and  I  am 
glad  that  it  is  so,  for  it  is  this  that  imparts  the  greatest  interest  to 
our  rambles,  and  constitutes  their  chief  value. 

This  land  of  Syria  and  Palestine — these  mountains  and  valleys, 
hills  and  plains,  rivers  and  lakes,  the  sea  and  the  sky — claims  no 
inherent  attractions  over  other  countries,  and,  the  Bible  left  out, 
other  parts  of  the  world  may  surpass  it  in  interest  and  importance. 
We  must,  therefore,  ever  keep  in  view  the  purpose  and  aim  of  our 
travels.  Nor  will  that  be  difficult,  for  we  shall  continually  be  re¬ 
minded  of  it  by  many  and  varied  incidents  and  experiences.  This 
subject  of  house-tops  is  a  very  Biblical  one,  and  will  bear  farther 
illustration  by  the  actual  habits  of  the  people  at  this  day. 

For  a  great  part  of  the  year  the  roof,  or  “  house-top,”  is  the 
most  agreeable  place  about  the  house,  especially  in  the  morning 
and  evening.  There  many  sleep  during  the  summer,  both  in  the 

1  Josh.  ii.  6. 


SAMUEL  AND  SAUL.— DAVID’S  PALACE.— HOUSE -TOPS.  55 

city  and  the  country,  and  in  all  places  where  malaria  does  not  ren¬ 
der  it  dangerous.  This  custom  is  very  ancient.  Though,  according 
to  our  translation  of  1  Samuel  ix.  25,  26,  Samuel  calls  Saul  to  the 
top  of  the  house,  that  he  might  send  him  away,  instead  of  from 
it,  yet,  taking  the  whole  passage  together,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
but  that  the  process  should  be  reversed.  The  Arabic  has  it  thus: 
Samuel  “  conversed  with  Saul  upon  the  roof ;  and  early  at  the  dawn 
Samuel  called  Saul  from  the  roof,”  etc.,  etc.  This  is  natural,  and 
doubtless  the  correct  history  of  the  case.  Saul,  young,  vigorous, 
but  weary  with  his  long  search,  would  desire  no  better  place  to 
sleep  than  on  the  roof.  But  there  should  always  be  battlements, 
and  they  should  be  kept  in  proper  repair.  The  Moslems  generally 
build  very  high  parapets,  in  order  to  screen  their  harem  from  ob¬ 
servation  ;  but  the  Christians  are  very  negligent,  and  do  bring  blood 
upon  their  houses  by  a  disregard  of  that  law  of  Moses. 

Your  remark  about  the  Moslems  suggests  the  thought  that  if 
Uriah’s  house  had  been  thus  protected,  David  might  have  been 
saved  from  a  series  of  crimes,  and  Israel  from  dreadful  calamity. 

True  ;  but  then  the  roof  of  David’s  palace  was  probably  so  high 
that  he  could  look  directly  down  into  the  courts  of  the  neighboring 
houses.  There  are  such  in  most  cities,  and  one  can  scarcely  com¬ 
mit  a  greater  offence  than  to  frequent  a  terrace  which  thus  com¬ 
mands  the  interior  of  other  people’s  dwellings. 

Isaiah  has  a  reference  to  house-tops  in  the  twenty-second  chap¬ 
ter  which  I  do  not  quite  understand.  He  says,  verse  first,  “  What 
aileth  thee  now,  that  thou  art  wholly  gone  up  to  the  house-tops?” 
For  what  purpose  did  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  go  there? 

That  is  a  remarkable  passage.  Verse  second  goes  on  to  say, 
“Thou  art  full  of  stirs,  a  tumultuous  city,  a  joyous  city;”  from 
which  one  might  suppose  that  the  people  had  gone  to  the  roofs  to 
eat,  drink,  clap  hands,  and  sing,  as  the  Arabs  delight  to  do  in  the 
mild  summer  evenings.  But,  from  verses  fifth  to  seventh,  it  is  plain 
that  it  \^as  a  time  of  “  trouble,  and  of  treading  down,  and  of  per¬ 
plexity  which  naturally  suggests  the  idea  that  the  inhabitants 
had  rushed  to  the  tops  of  the  houses  to  get  a  sight  of  those  chari¬ 
ots  and  horsemen  of  Elam  and  Kir,  with  whom  their  choice  valleys 
were  full,  and  who  were  thundering  against  the  gates  of  the  city. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


56 

And,  as  Oriental  houses  have  no  windows  looking  into  the  streets, 
or,  if  there  are  such,  they  are  closely  latticed,  there  is  no  place 
but  the  roof  from  whence  to  obtain  a  view  of  what  is  going  on 
without.  When,  therefore,  anything  extraordinary  occurs  in  the 
streets  the  people  rush  to  the  roofs  and  look  over  the  battlements. 

The  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  at  the  time  of  that  Assyrian  in¬ 
vasion,  were  probably  seized  with  frenzy  and  madness,  as  they 
were  centuries  after,  when  the  city  was  besieged  by  the  Roman 
legions  under  Titus.  Then,  according  to  Josephus,  some  revelled  in 
drunken  feasts,  and  kept  the  place  in  alarm  by  their  stirs  and  tu¬ 
mults ;  some  were  engaged  in  plunder  and  murder;  some  wept  bit¬ 
terly,  because  of  the  spoiling  of  the  daughter  of  God’s  people.  It 
was  a  day  of  universal  and  utter  confusion.  Nobody  could  sit  still, 
but  all  hurried  to  the  house-tops,  either  to  join  in  untimely  riots 
of  fanaticism  and  drunken  despair,  or  to  watch  with  fear  and  trem¬ 
bling  the  assault  upon  their  walls  and  gates. 

Was  it  not  customary  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour  to  make  public 
proclamations  from  the  tops  of  the  houses? 

Such  an  inference  may  be  drawn  from  Matthew  x.  27,  and  Luke 
xii.  3.  Our  Lord  spent  most  of  his  life  in  villages,  and  accordingly 
the  reference  there  probably  was  to  a  custom  observed  only  in  such 
places,  never  in  cities.  At  the  present  day  local  governors  in  coun¬ 
try  districts  cause  their  commands  thus  to  be  published.  Their 
proclamations  are  generally  made  in  the  evening,  after  the  people 
have  returned  from  their  labors  in  the  field.  The  public  crier  as¬ 
cends  the  highest  roof  at  hand,  and  in  a  long-drawn  call  admonishes 
all  faithful  subjects  of  the  Prophet,  within  the  hearing  of  his  voice, 
to  pray  to  him.  He  then  proceeds  with  the  announcement  in  a  set 
form,  and  demands  obedience  thereto. 

It  was  somewhat  in  this  manner,  I  suppose,  that  the  year  of 
Jubilee  was  proclaimed  throughout  the  land,  according  to  the  com¬ 
mand  in  Leviticus,  twenty-fifth  chapter  and  tenth  verse. 

The  proclamation  of  that  ordinance,  so  unique  and  unparal¬ 
leled  in  the  legislation  of  the  world,  was  to  be  made  with  trumpets. 
Whether  straight,  like  those  seen  on  the  Arch  of  Titus,  at  Rome, 
or  crooked,  like  those  rams’  horns  with  which  the  walls  of  Jericho 
were  blown  down,  is  not  known.  That  joyful  proclamation  was 


THE  YEAR  OF  JUBILEE.— PRAYING  UPON  THE  HOUSE-TOP.  57 


to  be  made  by  the  priests,  in  the  first  instance  ;  but  as  it  was  to 
be  made  “  throughout  all  the  land,”  on  one  and  the  same  day, 
the  great  day  of  atonement,  it  is  scarcely  possible  that  there  were 
priests  enough  furnished  with  “trumpets”  to  sound  the  news  in 
every  village  or  hamlet,  and  in  every  city  and  town  in  all  their  bor¬ 
ders.  Maimonides  tells  us  that  every  Hebrew  at  the  Jubilee  blew 
nine  blasts,  so  as  to  make  the  trumpet  literally  sound  throughout 
the  land.  Accustomed  as  I  have  been  to  proclamations  made  from 
house-tops  by  the  human  voice,  I  can  fancy  that  the  sound  of  the 
Jubilee  trumpets  from  the  Temple  of  the  Lord  would  be  instantly 
caught  up  and  heralded  abroad  from  every  hill-top  and  mountain 
height,  even  to  the  utmost  border  of  the  land.  The  expectant 
and  joyful  nation  would  then  neither  need  nor  wait  for  the  mere 
sound  of  trumpets  and  rams’  horns,  but  the  people  themselves 
with  their  own  glad  voices  would  proclaim  aloud  the  acceptable 
year  of  the  Lord  : 

The  year  of  Jubilee  is  come  : 

Return,  ye  ransomed  captives,  home. 


It  is  plain  that  the  roofs  were  resorted  to  for  worship,  both  true 
and  idolatrous.  We  read,  in  Zephaniah  i.  5,  of  “them  that  worship 
the  host  of  heaven  upon  the  house-tops ;”  and  from  Acts  x.  9  we 
learn  that  at  Joppa  “  Peter  went  up  upon  the  house-top  to  pray 
about  the  sixth  hour,”  before  the  arrival  of  the  men  from  Caesarea. 

All  this  is  very  natural.  The  Sabeans  of  Chaldea  and  Persia 
could  find  no  more  appropriate  place  for  the  performance  of  their 
idolatrous  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies  than  the  open  terraces, 
with  the  stars  shining  down  upon  them  so  kindly.  And  as  few,  if 
any,  ancient  dwellings  had  closets  into  which  the  devout  could  re¬ 
tire  for  prayer,  I  suppose  Peter  was  obliged  to  resort  to  the  roof  of 
Simon’s  house  for  that  purpose ;  and  when  surrounded  with  battle¬ 
ments,  and  shaded  by  vines  trained  over  them,  like  those  of  the 
present  day,  they  would  afford  a  very  agreeable  retreat,  even  at  “  the 
sixth  hour,”  or  about  noon — the  time  when  Peter  was  favored  with 
that  singular  vision,  by  which  the  kingdom  of  heaven  was  thrown 
open  to  the  entire  Gentile  world. 

Our  Lord  says,  “Let  him  which  is  on  the  house-top  not  come 


53 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


down  to  take  any  thing  out  of  his  house.”  1  Is  it  a  correct  inference 
from  this  that  the  stairway  landed  on  the  outside  of  the  house? 

Probably  outside  of  the  house,  but  within  the  exterior  court. 
It  would  be  neither  agreeable  nor  safe  to  have  the  stairs  land  out¬ 
side  the  enclosure  altogether,  and  it  is  rarely  done,  except  in  moun¬ 
tain  villages,  and  where  roofs  are  but  little  used!  They  not  unfre- 
quently  end  at  the  lewan,  but  more  commonly  in  some  part  of  the 
lower  court.  The  urgency  of  the  flight  recommended  by  our  Lord 
is  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  the  stairs  probably  did  lead  down  into 
the  court  or  lewan.  He  in  effect  says,  though  you  must  pass  by 
the  very  door  of  your  room,  do  not  enter;  escape  for  your  life, 
without  a  moment’s  hesitation  or  delay. 

1  Matt.  xxiv.  17. 


THE  SPARROW  UPON  THE  HOUSE -TOP.— DIVINE  PROVIDENCE.  59 


No  traveller  in  Syria  will  need  an  introduction  to  the  sparrow 
on  the  house-top.  They  are  a  tame,  troublesome,  vivacious,  and 
impertinent  generation,  and  nestle  just  where  they  are  not  wanted. 
They  stop  up  the  stoves-pipes  and  water-gutters  with  their  rubbish, 
build  nests  in  the  windows  and  under  the  beams  in  the  roof,  and 
would  stuff  your  hat  full  of  stubble  if  they  found  it  hanging  in  a 
place  to  suit  them.  They  are  extremely  pertinacious  in  asserting 
their  right  of  possession,  and  have  not  the  least  reverence  for  any 
place  or  thing.  David  alludes  to  these  characteristics  of  the  spar¬ 
row  in  the  eighty-fourth  Psalm,  when  he  complains  that  they  had 


THE  SPARROW. 


appropriated  even  the  altars  of  God  for  their  nests.  Concerning 
himself,  he  says,  “  I  watch,  and  am  as  a  sparrow  alone  upon  the 
house-top.”1  When  one  of  them  has  lost  its  mate — a  matter  of 
every-day  occurrence  —  he  will  sit  on  the  house-top  alone,  and 
lament  by  the  hour  his  sad  bereavement.  As  these  birds  are  not 
much  relished  for  food,  five  sparrows  may  still  be  sold  for  “  two 
farthings and  when  we  see  the  eagerness  with  which  they  are 
destroyed  as  a  worthless  nuisance,  we  can  appreciate  the  assurance 
that  our  heavenly  Father,  who  takes  care  of  them,  so  that  not  one 
can  fall  to  the  ground  without  his  notice,  will  surely  take  care  of 
us,  who  “are  of  more  value  than  many  sparrows.”2 

1  Psa.  cii.  7.  2  Matt.  x.  29,  31  ;  Luke  xii.  6,  7. 


Go 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Let  us  now  descend  from  the  house-top,  and  visit  some  of  the 
shops  and  streets  in  the  city. 

A  stroll  through  an  Oriental  town  is  always  either  amusing  or 
instructive ;  and  in  no  other  way,  I  suppose,  can  a  stranger  gain  so 
rapid  an  insight  into  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people.  We 
have  already  passed  several  coffee-shops,  with  picturesque  groups 
of  natives,  seated  on  low  stools,  or  upon  large  mats,  sipping  black 
coffee  from  tiny  porcelain  cups,  and  sending  forth  clouds  of  smoke 
from  long  pipes,  or  from  those  wonderfully  contrived  and  bubbling 
nargilehs. 

You  may  regard  the  custom  of  frequenting  coffee-shops  with 
the  greater  satisfaction,  because  that  mode  of  spending  time  and 
obtaining  rest  and  refreshment  is  free  from  the  degrading  and 
ruinous  vices  attending  saloons  and  dram-shops  in  other  countries. 
I  do  not  mean  that  everything  indulged  in  by  the  frequenters  of 
Oriental  cafes  is  innocent.  Many  of  them  waste  much  time  at 
card-playing  and  other  methods  of  gambling.  But  even  in  those 
matters  the  stakes  are  insignificant,  and  the  consequences  not  very 
mischievous.  Until  something  better  can  take  their  place,  we  may 
pass  on  and  leave  the  Oriental  in  peaceful  possession  of  his  cafe, 
and  its  cheap  and  harmless  attractions. 

Here  is  a  shopkeeper  whose  small  stock  in  trade  consists  en¬ 
tirely  of  coffee-cups,  pipes,  and  tobacco. 

As  in  other  lands  so  it  is  here  :  many  of  the  occupations  of 
the  middle  classes  have  reference  to  the  necessities  and  habits  of 
the  people.  Next  to  him  is  another  who  has  in  his  shop  a  small 
turning -lathe,  by  means  of  which  he  perforates  long  pipe -stems, 
and  then  fits  them  with  bowls  of  colored  clay,  and  mouth-pieces 
of  glass,  bone,  or  amber.  The  amount  of  capital  invested  in  that 
business,  and  the  gain  accruing,  is  extremely  small ;  but  those  who 
follow  such  avocations  are  simple  in  their  habits  and  frugal  in  their 
mode  of  life. 

In  the  matter  of  smoking,  as  in  others  far  more  important, 
the  people  of  Beirut  have  departed  greatly  from  former  customs. 
Amongst  native  Christians  especially,  the  cigarette  has  taken  the 
place  of  the  more  luxurious  pipe,  and  the  elegant  and  complicated 
nargileh.  Still,  there  is  quite  a  display  of  them  in  many  houses. 


THE  LETTER -WRITER.  6l 


THE  LETTER-WRITER. 


Here  on  our  right  is  something  sufficiently  Oriental,  I  suppose, 
though  there  is  no  mention  of  such  a  custom  in  Biblical  times. 

That  old  man  sitting  by  the  rnosk  is  a  letter-writer.  He  has  his 
paper  near  him,  and  his  scissors  to  trim  it  to  the  required  shape  and 


62 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


size.  And  now  he  takes  the  ink-horn,  or  what  answers  to  that  very 
ancient  article  of  the  “  scribes,”  from  his  girdle,  and  points  one  of 
those  “  reeds  ”  so  often  mentioned  by  the  sacred  writers.  All  this 
seems  Biblical  enough.  But  there  comes  a  woman,  veiled  from 
head  to  foot,  and  takes  her  station  by  his  side.  See,  she  is  whis¬ 
pering  from  behind  her  veil  the  desired  message.  That  is  suffi- 


WRITING  AND  WRITING  MATERIALS 


LETTER-WRITING.— INK-HORN.— ORIENTAL  LETTERS.  63 


cient,  the  introduction  consisting  of  complimentary  phrases ;  the 
salams,  etc.,  go  in  according  to  rule,  and  to  all  alike. 

Why,  it  is  a  kind  of  Moslem  confessional,  and  that  aged  head 
must  be  full  of  the  secrets  and  the  scandal  of  half  the  city. 

I  suppose,  like  other  confessors,  he  keeps  the  faith,  and  may  be 
trusted.  Still,  letter-writing  is  not  a  thriving  business  in  this  coun¬ 
try,  since  even  Moslem  women  are  now  learning  to  write. 

The  writing  materials  are  very  curious,  and  the  mode  of  using 
them  is  peculiar,  to  say  the  least. 

They  do  not  carry  ink-horns  now,  as  the  prophets  and  scribes 
of  old  did,  but  have  a  metal  or  ebony  case  for  their  reed  pens,  with 
a  bulb  of  the  same  material,  attached  to  the  upper  end,  for  the  ink. 
That  case  they  thrust  through  the  girdle,  and  carry  with  them  at 
all  times.  When  they  are  to  write  a  letter,  for  example,  they  open 
the  lid  of  the  ink -bulb,  draw  out  a  long  reed  pen  from  the  case, 


double  over  the  paper,  and  begin  from  the  right  side,  holding  the 
paper  in  the  hand,  without  any  other  support.  To  be  very  respect¬ 
ful,  they  take  a  large  sheet,  and  the  lines  should  incline  upward 
towards  the  left  corner  of  the  paper.  They  have  formal  introduc¬ 
tions  expressing  sentiments  of  the  highest  regard  and  esteem,  no 
matter  to  whom  they  are  writing,  friend  or  enemy.  After  that, 
which,  if  it  have  any  meaning,  is  egregious  flattery,  they  make  an 
epitome  of  the  letter  they  are  to  answer,  repeating  it,  word  for 
word,  as  we  often  find  done  in  the  Bible.  They  date  at  the  top, 
but  mention  of  the  place  is  not  always  considered  essential ;  and 
I  have  often  been  at  a  loss  to  discover  where  to  address  my  reply. 
The  letter  should  be  folded  long,  like  documents  on  file,  placed 


64 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


within  an  envelope  made  for  the 
occasion,  and  the  address  written 
across  it.  It  must  be  sealed.  The 
“open  letter,”  therefore,  or  paper 
sent  by  Sanballat  to  Nehemiah,  was 
an  insult.1  Nearly  ev¬ 
erybody  wears  a  seal¬ 
ring,  either  on  the  fin¬ 
ger,  suspended  from  his 
watch-chain,  or  attach¬ 
ed  to  his  purse,  hav¬ 
ing  his  name  engraven 
upon  it ;  and  this  he 
affixes  to  all  important 
letters  and  documents 
— another  Biblical  cus¬ 
tom  preserved  in  its 
fullest  extent.2  Ara¬ 
bic  books  begin  where 
ours  end,  their  first 
page  being  our  last. 


EL  MUEZZIN — THE  CALL  TO  PRAYER. 


A 


It  is  now  quite  time  to  turn  our  steps  homeward.  The  muez¬ 
zin  calls  “  the  faithful  ”  to  sunset  prayers,  from  that  tall  and  slen¬ 
der  minaret ;  and  dinner  will  be  waiting.  Rich  and  poor,  all  sects 
and  classes  in  the  East,  generally  dine  when  the  day’s  work  is 
done,  as  was  the  custom  in  ancient  Biblical  times. 

See  those  men  in  that  mosk.  One  has  spread  his  cloak,  and 
others  their  Persian  rugs,  towards  the  south.  They  are  preparing 
Neh.  vi.  5.  2  1  Kings  xxi.  8. 


INTERIOR  OF  A  MOSK.— MOSLEMS  AT  PRAYER 


! 


65 


to  say  prayers — perform  them,  rather — in  this  most  public  place, 
and  in  the  midst  of  all  this  noise  and  confusion. 

That  man,  standing  with  his  face  towards  Mecca,  raises  his  open 
hands  till  the  thumbs  touch  the  ears,  exclaiming  aloud,  Allah  hu 


E 


EL  JAMl’A — THE  MOSK 


66 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


akbar — “  God  is  most  great.”  After  uttering  mentally  a  few  short 
petitions,  the  hands  are  brought  down,  and  folded  together  near  the 

girdle,  while  he  recites  the  first 
chapter  of  the  Koran,  and  two  or 
three  other  brief  passages  from 
the  same  book.  And  now  he 

bends  forward, 
rests  both  hands 
upon  his  knees, 
and  repeats  three 
times  a  formula 
of  praise  to  “  God 
the  most  great.” 
Then,  standing 
up  erect,  he  cries 


Allah  hu  akbar,  as  at  the 
beginning.  He  then 
drops  upon  his  knees, 
and  bends  forward  until 
his  forehead  touches  the 
ground,  between  his  ex¬ 
panded  hands.  This  he 
does  three  times,  mutter¬ 
ing  all  the  while  short 
formulas  of  prayer  and 
praise.  The  next  move¬ 
ment  will  bring  him  to 
his  knees,  and  then,  set¬ 
tling  back  upon  his 
heels,  he  mumbles  over 
various  small  petitions, 
with  sundry  exclama¬ 
tions,  according  to  form  and  custom.  He  has  now  gone  through 
one  regular  Rek’ah  ;  and,  standing  up  as  at  the  first,  and  on  the 


MOSLEMS  AT  PRAYER. 


PILGRIMAGE  TO  MEGCA.— NUMBER  OF  DAILY  PRAYERS.  67 

same  spot,  he  will  perform  a  second,  and,  if  specially  devout,  even 
a  third,  with  the  same  genuflections. 

They  seem  to  be  wholly  absorbed  in  their  devotions,  and  mani¬ 
fest  a  power  of  isolation  and  abstraction  quite  surprising. 

That  is  the  result  of  habit  and  education  ;  small  children  imi¬ 
tate  it  to  perfection.  There  is  certainly  an  air  of  great  solemnity 
in  their  mode  of  worship,  and,  when  performed  by  a  large  assembly 
in  the  mosks,  or  by  a  detachment  of  soldiers  in  concert,  guided  in 
their  genuflections  by  an  imam  or  dervish,  chanting  the  service,  it  is 
quite  impressive.  I  have  seen  it  enacted  by  moonlight,  on  the  wild 
banks  of  the  Orontes,  in  the  plain  of  Hamath,  and  the  scene  was 
something  more  than  romantic.  But,  alas !  it  was  by  as  villanous 
a  set  of  robbers  as  could  be  found,  even  in  that  lawless  region. 

You  think,  then,  that  this  solemn  ceremony  is  mere  hollow- 
hearted  hypocrisy? 

Not  exactly  that;  at  least  not  necessarily  so,  nor  in  all  cases. 
I  would  be  glad  to  believe  there  was  ordinarily  any  corresponding 
moral  and  religious  feeling  connected  with  this  exterior  manifesta¬ 
tion  of  devotion.  The  Moslems  themselves,  however,  have  no  such 
idea.  They  are  rather  afraid  of  any  one  who  is  especially  sancti¬ 
monious  and  given  to  prayer — their  prayers,  I  mean.  They  have 
a  proverb  to  this  effect :  “  If  your  neighbor  has  made  the  pilgrim¬ 
age  to  Mecca  once,  watch  him  ;  if  twice,  avoid  his  society ;  if  three 
times,  move  into  another  street.”  And,  certainly,  no  one  acquainted 
with  the  people  will  feel  his  confidence  in  an  individual  increased 
by  the  fact  that  he  is  particularly  devout. 

How  often,  during  the  day  and  night,  do  the  orthodox  Mu- 
hammedans  perform  their  regular  prayers  ? 

The  orthodox  number  is  five;  the  first  at  sunset,  called  salat 
el  mugrib,  because,  according  to  Oriental  usage,  the  day  com¬ 
mences  at  that  time.  The  second  is  about  an  hour  and  a  half 
later,  and  is  called  salat  el  ’eshe.  The  third  is  at  the  dawn,  and 
the  fourth  is  at  noon,  called  respectively,  salat  es  subh  and  salat 
ed  duhr.  The  fifth,  which  is  salat  el  ’asr,  comes  midway  be¬ 
tween  noon  and  sunset.  Those  who  are  especially  devout  observe 
two  additional  seasons,  one  soon  after  midnight,  and  the  other 
about  an  hour  before  daybreak,  seven  in  all,  and  to  some  such 


68 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


custom  in  Biblical  times  there  seems  to  be  an  allusion  in  Psalm 
cxix.  164:  “Seven  times  a  day  do  I  praise  thee,  because  of  thy 
righteous  judgments.”  But  the  times  most  scrupulously  observed 
are  three — at  sunset,  in  the  morning,  and  at  noon.  In  this,  also, 
they  apparently  conform  to  the  seasons  of  devotion  mentioned 
by  David  in  Psalm  lv.  17:  “Evening,  and  morning,  and  at  noon, 
will  I  pray,  and  call  aloud  :  and  he  shall  hear  my  voice.” 

It  is,  to  say  the  least,  interesting  and  suggestive  to  notice  these 
correspondencies  between  the  periods  of  prayer  amongst  the  Mos¬ 
lems  and  those  of  the  Hebrews  in  the  olden  times. 

Many  of  these  people  are  ostentatiously  devout  when  abroad, 
somewhat  after  the  fashion  of  the  Pharisees,  I  suppose.  Look  at 
that  fine,  portly  man,  for  instance,  walking  slowly  and  a  little  in 
advance  of  his  retainers  and  servants.  He  is  the  judge,  or  kady, 
returning  from  the  mehkameh,  or  court  of  justice.  That  is  his 
“walk”  before  the  public,  whatever  his  “conversation”  or  behavior 
may  be  at  home.  No  matter  what  dark  schemes  he  may  have 
been  cogitating  to  sell  justice  at  the  highest  available  price,  no 
sooner  does  he  leave  his  door  and  make  his  appearance  abroad  than 
he  subsides  into  serenest  gravity.  With  an  austere  and  sanctimo¬ 
nious  air  he  passes  along,  a  mesbahah,  or  string  of  beads,  in  his 
hand,  his  eyes  half  closed,  and  his  lips  moving  incessantly  in  pious 
ejaculations  —  brief  prayers  and  citations  from  the  Koran.  In  all 
this  there  is  no  appearance  of  affectation.  Habit,  from  his  early 
childhood,  has  made  it  natural,  and  let  us  hope  that  he  himself  is 
scarcely  conscious  of  acting  the  hypocrite. 

When  in  the  mehkameh  he  will  pause  at  the  call  of  the  muez¬ 
zin,  rise  from  his  divan,  and,  with  an  attitude  and  air  of  the  utmost 
devotion,  betake  himself  to  his  carpet  and  prayers,  in  the  presence 
of  the  entire  court,  and  of  the  victims,  too,  of  his  legal  villanies. 
This  kady  is  neither  exceptional  nor  exaggerated,  and  alas!  his 
kind  of  piety  is  associated  with  the  most  tiger-hearted  fanaticism. 
Just  such  men  planned  and  guided  those  diabolical  butcheries  and 
massacres  in  i860,  and  those  which  have,  in  by-gone  days,,  shocked 
and  horrified  the  civilized  world  ;  nor  will  they  hesitate  to  repeat 
such  atrocities  whenever  and  wherever  the  opportunity  offers. 
There  is  something  so  terrible  in  this  phase  of  human  nature  that 


MUHAMMEDAN  KIBLEH.— MECCA  AND  JERUSALEM.  69 

no  mantle  of  charity  is  sufficiently  ample  to  hide  its  inexpressible 
ugliness  and  fiendish  cruelty. 

What  opposite  conclusions  different  persons  can  and  do  draw 
from  the  same  premises  !  One  who  looks  merely  at  the  surface,  or 
who  is  very  “  liberal,”  or  very  indifferent,  may  connect  out-otf-door 
or  formal  praying  towards  Mecca  with  the  venerable  custom  of  the 
pious  Israelite  turning  towards  the  Temple  in  Jerusalem,  when,  like 
Daniel  in  Babylon,  “he  prayed  and  gave  thanks  before  his  God.”'1 

I  think  it  probable  that  Muhammed,  or  the  Arabs  before  him-, 
borrowed  that  custom  from  the  Jews;  and,  to  this  extent,  there  is 
a  relation  between  them.  He  did  not  need  to  originate  the  idea 
of  a  Kibleh — south.  That  was  an  ancient  custom.  He,  however, 
changed  his  Kibleh  more  than  once  before  success  enabled  him  to 
fix  it  permanently  in  Mecca,  towards  Beit  Allah,  where  the  Black 
Stone  is,  and  the  well  Zemzem.  It  seems  evident,  from  the  way 
in  which  Solomon  mentions  praying  towards  the  Temple,  at  the 
very  dedication  of  it,  that  it  had  been  the  custom  of  the  children 
of  Israel  from  remote  antiquity  to  -direct  their  faces  in  prayer  to¬ 
wards  the  place  where  the  ark  and  the  altar  were  located.  They 
being  permanently  established  in  Jerusalem  by  David,  the  ceremo¬ 
nious  Jew  had  already  learned  to  turn  in  his  devotions  towards  the 
Holy  City  chosen  by  Jehovah  for  his  special  dwelling-place.2 

The  enlightened  Christian,  who  has  learned  that  “  neither  in  this 
mountain,  nor  yet  at  Jerusalem,”  shall  men  worship  the  Father,  who 
is  a  Spirit,  and  must  be  worshipped  “  in  spirit  and  in  truth”3 — such 
a  one  will  be  reminded  by  the  praying  Moslem  in  the  street  and 
at  the  mosk  of  those  who  “  love  to  pray  standing  in  the  synagogues 
and  in  the  corners  of  the  streets,  that  they  may  be  seen  of  men.” 
And  he  will  remember  with  solemnity  the  admonition  of  our  Lord, 
“When  thou  prayest,  thou  shaft  not  be  as  the  hypocrites  are” — 
either  as  to  place,  attitude,  motive,  or  form — in  public  to  be  seen  of 
men,  using  “  vain  repetitions,”  as  these  Moslems  still  do.4  They  are 
obliged  to  repeat  some  expressions  thirty  times;  others  many  hun¬ 
dred  times.  Would  that  these  remarks  did  not  apply  to  nominal 
Christians  in  this  land  as  well  as  to  Moslems ! 

Some  of  these  crooked,  narrow  streets,  with  gutters  in  the  mid- 
1  Dan.  vi.  10,  11.  2  1  Kings  viii.  44,  48.  3  John  iv.  21,  24.  4  Matt.  vi.  5,  7. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


70 

die,  and  no  sidewalks;  with  these  closet -like  shops,  whose  raised 
platforms  extend  so  far  into  the  thoroughfare  ;  with  low  vaulted 


ES  SUK — THE  STREET. 


arches  overhead,  upon  which  houses  appear  to  be  built,  and  with 
kiosks  and  latticed  windows  almost  meeting  from  the  opposite 
sides,  are  anything  but  cheerful  and  convenient. 

Especially  the  latter,  when  the  street  is  crowded  with  men, 


“DRAWERS  OF  WATER.”— SHAVING  THE  HEAD. 


7 1 


women,  and  children,  horses,  camels,  donkeys,  and  dogs  —  all  con¬ 
tributing  to  the  noise  and  confusion,  shouting,  calling,  crying,  growl¬ 
ing,  braying,  barking,  biting,  and  fighting.  This  man  warns  the 
throng  to  be  careful  lest  they  get  their  clothes  wet  by  coming  in 
contact  with  his  burden — a  water-bottle  made  out  of  the  whole 
skin  of  an  ox.  Those  boys  are  shouting,  at  the  top  of  their  voices, 
‘‘Your  back!  your  face!”  admonishing  the  crowd  to  look  sharply 
before  and  behind,  or  they  may  be  knocked  down,  run  over,  crushed 
against  the  wall ;  or  have  their  clothes  torn,  and  their  faces  lace¬ 
rated  by  the  sticks  of  wood  on  the  backs  of  the  donkeys :  a  very 
necessary  admonition. 

That  I  perceive  well  enough,  and  both  the  donkey-boys  and  the 
water-carrier  remind  me  of  that  Biblical  expression,  now  passed  into 
a  proverb — “  Hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water.” 

Their  occupation  is  one  of  slavish  toil,  and  they  are  to  be  en¬ 
countered  everywhere  —  at  the  entrance  to  private  houses,  in  the 
crooked  streets,  on  the  broad  carriage -roads,  and  in  the  narrow 
lanes  in  the  suburbs  of  the  town.  Beirut  still  depends  largely  upon 
hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water,  and  they  are  a  necessity  here 
to-day,  as  were  the  Gibeonites  when  they  were  employed  in  the 
same  service  about  the  sanctuary.1 

Well,  that  is  a  strange  sight,  and  one  which  I  did  not  expect 
to  see  in  a  civilized  city  like  Beirut.  This  barber  has  established 
himself  on  the  flag-stones  in  that  sheltered  corner,  and  is  plying 
his  art  upon  the  head  of  that  muleteer  seated  on  the  mat  in  front 
of  him,  and  meekly  holding  the  basin  under  his  own  chin.  He  is 
actually  shaving  the  man’s  head  as  bare  as  the  palm  of  my  hand  ! 
Are  we  to  suppose  that  Paul  submitted  to  an  operation  like  that 
when  he  shaved  his  head  at  Cenchrea,  and  again  at  Jerusalem  ?2 

I  see  no  reason  to  doubt  it.  Then,  as  now,  it  may  have  been 
the  custom  to  shave  the  head  in  the  public  street.  The  poor,  and 
especially  the  laboring  classes  amongst  the  Christians,  get  shaved 
anywhere — on  the  roadside,  beneath  the  shade  of  some  patriarchal 
tree,  at  the  khan  or  way-side  inn,  and  in  villages  and  towns,  on  the 
thoroughfares,  or  in  the  streets. 

Ignorant  and  fanatical  Moslems  reserve  a  lock  of  hair  on  the 
1  Josh.  ix.  23,  27.  2  Acts  xviii.  iS  ;  xxi.  24. 


72 


.  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


top  of  the  head,  not  only  to  distinguish  them  from  Christians,  but 
also,  if  they  fall  in  battle  against  “  the  unbelievers,”  to  allow  of  the 
head  being  carried  by  it,  when  severed  from  the  body.  Otherwise 
the  impure  hand  of  “  the  infidel  ”  would  be  inserted  into  the  mouth 
of  “the  believer,”  and  thus  defile  it.  There  are  barber- shops  for 


SHAVING  THE  HEAD. 


the  well-to-do  and  intelligent  Moslems,  like  this  one  on  our  left ; 
and  others  fitted  up  in  European  style,  and  patronized  by  foreign 
residents,  travellers,  and  the  better  class  amongst  the  Christians. 

What  a  Babel  of  discordant  sounds  !  and  yet  what  a  perfect 
paradise  for  the  relic  hunter,  the  antiquarian,  and  the  artist  these 
old  curiosity  shops  are,  crammed  full  with  such  an  extraordinary 
collection  of  Oriental  articles  of  every  shape  and  description  ! 

We  are  now  in  “  the  street  of  the  auctioneers,”  and  these  men, 
besetting  us  on  every  side,  and  jabbering  at  us  so  incoherently,  are 
the  dellalin,  or  auctioneers.  They  wear  swords  round  their  waists, 
daggers  and  pistols  stuck  into  their  girdles,  carry  guns  on  their 
shoulders,  and  cast-off  finery  on  their  arms,  from  the  embroidered 
and  spangled  veil  to  the  elegant  cloth  jacket  gleaming  in  purple 
and  gold,  and  from  a  praying-rug  to  a  red  fez  cap  or  a  green  tur¬ 
ban — all  “  going,  going,  gone,”  to  the  highest  bidder. 

No  wonder  that  “  the  buyer,”  in  Solomon’s  time,  if  he  ever  ex- 


BARBER-SHOP.— AUCTIONEER 


73 


BARBER-SHOP — AUCTIONEER 

perienced  any  such  ordeal  as  this,  should  exclaim,  in  order  to 
escape  from  their  importunities,  “  It  is  naught,  it  is  naught :  but 
when  he  is  gone  his  way,  then  he  boasteth.”  1 

1  Prov.  xx.  14. 


74 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Already  the  shades  of  evening  fall  heavily  along  these  gloomy 
streets,  and  I  see  no  provision  for  lighting  them. 

There  is  none ;  and  you  observe  that  the  shopkeepers  are  shut¬ 
ting  up,  and  leaving  for  home.  Thenceforward  until  morning  the 
streets  are  deserted  and  silent,  with  only  here  and  there  a  company 
returning  from  a  visit,  with  a  servant  carrying  a  lantern  before  them. 
The  city  guard  creeps  softly  about  in  darkness,  and  apprehends 
all  found  walking  the  streets  without  a  light.  Beirut  is  gradually 
departing  from  many  of  these  customs,  and  some  of  the  shops 
in  the  suburbs  are  patronized  until  a  late  hour ;  still  enough  of 
them  remain  to  afford  a  type  of  all  that  can  be  seen  elsewhere, 
except  at  Damascus.  That  city  is  wholly  different,  and  carries  one 
back  to  the  age  of  the  Caliphs  and  the  creations  of  the  “  Thou¬ 
sand  and  One  Nights.” 

May  31st. 

The  friend  at  whose  house  we  dined  last  evening  sent  a  ser¬ 
vant  to  call  us  when  dinner  was  ready.  Is  this  custom  strictly 
observed  by  all  classes  in  the  community,  at  the  present  day  ? 

Not  very  generally  amongst  the  common  people,  nor  in  cities, 
where  European  manners  have  greatly  modified  the  Oriental ;  but 
on  Lebanon  it  still  prevails.  If  a  sheikh,  beg,  or  emir  invites,  he 
sends  a  servant  at  the  proper  time.  This  servant  often  repeats  the 
formula  mentioned  in  Luke  xiv.  17:  “Come;  for  all  things  are  now 
ready,”  or  the  supper  is  ready.  The  fact  that  this  custom  is  mainly 
confined  to  the  wealthy  and  to  the  nobility  is  in  agreement  with 
the  same  parable,  where  the  certain  man  “who  made  a  great  sup¬ 
per,  and  bade  many,”  was  presumably  of  that  class.1  It  is  true 
now,  as  then,  that  to  refuse  is  an  affront  to  the  maker  of  the  feast, 
nor  would  such  excuses  as  those  in  the  parable  be  more  acceptable 
to  a  Druse  emir  than  they  were  to  the  lord  of  that  “great  supper;” 
very  few,  however,  would  manifest  their  displeasure  by  sending 
servants  into  the  highways  and  hedges  after  the  poor,  the  maimed, 
the  halt,  and  the  blind.  All  those  characters  are  found  in  the 
streets,  and  I  have  knowm  rich  men  who  exemplified  the  parable 
even  in  that  particular;  it  was,  however,  as  matter  of  ostentation, 
to  show  the  extent  of  their  benevolence,  or  the  depth  of  their 

1  Luke  xiv.  16. 


SUK  ED  DELLALIN— STREET  OF  THE  AUCTIONEERS. 


•  '• 


ORIENTAL  DINNERS. 


75 


humility  and  condescension.  Nevertheless,  it  is  pleasant  to  find 
enough  of  that  parable  still  practised  to  show  that  originally  it  was, 
in  its  details,  in  close  conformity  to  the  customs  of  this  country. 

Orientals  certainly  are  far  behind  the  day  in  almost  every 
branch  of  domestic  economy ;  especially  is  this  noticeable  in  the 
absence  of  a  dining-room,  in  the  deficiency  of  their  table  furni¬ 
ture,  and  their  primitive  mode  of  eating. 

The  common  custom,  even  of  the  better  class,  is  to  bring  a 
polygon  stool,  about  fourteen  inches  high,  into  the  general  sitting- 
room.  On  this  is  placed  a  tray  of  basket-work  or  of  copper,  upon 
which  the  food  is  arranged.  The  bread  lies  on  the  mat  or  upon 
the  tray,  and  a  cruise  of  water  stands  near  by,  from  which  all  drink 
as  they  have  need.  On  formal  occasions  this  is  held  in  the  hand 
by  a  servant,  who  waits  upon  the  guests.  Around  this  stool  and 
tray  the  guests  gather,  sitting  on  the  floor.  The  rich  have  knives 
and  forks,  and  even  silver  spoons;  but  they  rarely  use  them. 

This  is  a  very  meagre  set-out,  certainly. 

It  is  all  they  want,  and  more  convenient  than  our  custom,  and 
less  expensive.  High  tables  and  chairs  would  not  only  be  out  of 
place,  but  in  the  way  at  all  times.  They  do  not  have  a  dining¬ 
room,  and  hence  they  want  furniture  that  can  be  easily  brought  in 
and  removed.  They  eat  out  of  the  same  dish,  for  it  is  within  the 
reach  of  all.  The  dishes  are  composed  generally  of  rice  and  stews, 
of  beans,  cracked  wheat,  or  other  vegetables,  with  leben  or  curdled 
milk,  or  salads,  as  the  case  may  be,  in  deep  dishes  or  bowls.  Some 
use  wooden  or  metal  spoons  for  their  boiled  rice  and  thick  stews, 
but  the  most  common  mode  is  to  double  up  bits  of  the  thin  bread, 
and  dip  them  into  the  dish.  There  is  frequent  reference  to  this 
custom  in  some  of  the  most  interesting  and  solemn  scenes  of  the 
Bible.  As  the  meat  is  always  cut  up  in  the  stews,  or  else  cooked 
until  it  is  ready  to  fall  to  pieces,  knives  and  forks  are  not  neces¬ 
sary  ;  and  when  they  have  chicken  the  flesh  is  easily  torn  to  pieces 
with  the  fingers.  Nor  do  they  see  any  vulgarity  in  this.  Polite 
Orientals  will  tear  off  the  best  bits,  and  either  lay  them  on  the 
guest’s  plate,  or  insist  upon  putting  them  into  his  mouth.  I  have 
had  this  done  to  me  by  fingers  not  particularly  fair,  or  even  clean. 

Their  customs  demand  much  less  labor  than  ours.  If  our  sys- 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


b j 

/ 


6 


SITTING  AT  MEAT — PARTY  AT  DINNER. 


tem  was  introduced,  and  the  females  of  the  family — who  do  all  the 
work — were  required  to  carry  it  out,  their  labor  would  be  increased 
tenfold.  Not  only  must  the  dining-room  be  provided,  but  also  en¬ 
tirely  new  furniture  procured,  and  the  table,  table-linen,  and  chairs 
be  kept  clean  and  bright.  Indeed,  an  entirely  new  and  foreign 


IMITATING  EUROPEAN  MANNERS 


77 


department  must  be  instituted,  and  maintained  under  every  dis¬ 
advantage.  Where  this  has  been  attempted  in  the  native  families, 
imitating  European  manners,  it  has  generally  proved  a  failure. 
The  knives,  forks,  and  spoons  are  rusty ;  the  plates,  dishes,  and 
glasses  ill  assorted,  dirty,  badly  arranged,  and  not  sufficient  in  num¬ 
bers  ;  and  the  chairs  and  the  table  are  rickety,  and  the  cooking  is 
the  worst  of  all.  The  Arabs  should  retain  their  own  dietetic  regu¬ 
lations,  at  least  until  they  are  better  prepared  for  a  change.  For 
their  own  needs  their  cooking  is  good,  and  their  set-out  respectable. 


STOOL  AND  TRAY — PITCHER  AND  BASIN 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


After  such  a  meal  as  we  have  described,  washing  the  hands  is 
indispensable.  The  pitcher  and  basin  are  brought  in,  and  the  ser¬ 
vant  pours  water  over  the  hands  of  the  guests,  who  dry  them  upon 
a  napkin  placed  for  the  purpose  on  his  shoulder. 

If  there  is  no  servant,  they  perform  this  office  for  each  other. 
Great  men  have  those  about  them  whose  duty  it  is  to  pour  water 


WASHING  THE  HANDS. 


on  their  hands.  Thus  it  was  in  ancient  times.  One  of  the  servants 
said  to  Jehoshaphat,  “  Here  is  Elisha  the  son  of  Shaphat,  which 
poured  water  on  the  hands  of  Elijah.”1  It  was  a  pitcher  and  basin 

1  2  Kings  iii.  n. 


SOCIAL  REUNIONS.— COFFEE  AND  PIPES. 


79 


somewhat  like  the  tusht  and  ibriek  of  this  day,  I  suppose,  that  our 
Lord  used  at  the  close  of  the  last  supper  with  his  disciples,  when 
he  girded  himself  with  a  napkin,  and  washed,  not  their  hands,  but 
their  feet,  and  thus  gave  the  most  affecting  lesson  on  humility  the 
world  has  ever  seen  or  heard.1 

The  invited  friends  of  our  host,  who  came  in  after  dinner  to 
spend  the  evening,  belonged  to  some  of  the  most  intelligent  and 
wealthy  families  of  Beirut. 

I  begin  to  understand  their  “reunions,”  and  have  been  much 
impressed  with  the  graceful  politeness  observed  even  between  inti¬ 
mate  friends  on  such  occasions.  When  one  enters  the  room  all 
rise  to  their  feet,  and  stand  steadfast  and  straight  as  palm-trees  to 
receive  him.  The  formal  salams  are  given  and  taken  all  round  the 
room  with  the  dignity  of  princes  and  the  gravity  of  a  court ;  and 
when  the  new-comer  reaches  his  seat  the  ceremony  is  repeated,  all 
sitting,  in  precisely  the  same  words.  In  one  of  theft  full  divans, 
therefore,  a  man  gives  and  receives  about  fifty  salams  before  he  is 
fairly  seated  and  at  his  ease. 

Then  comes  the  formality  of  coffee-drinking  and  the  social  cus¬ 
tom  of  smoking.  Some  use  the  extemporaneous  cigarette.  Others 
have  pipes  with  long  stems  of  cherry  or  other  wood,  ornamented 
with  amber  mouth -pieces  of  considerable  value.  The  nargileh, 
however,  with  its  flexible  tube  of  various-colored  leather,  seems  to 
be  the  greatest  favorite.  The  tube  of  the  one  brought  to  me  the 
other  evening  was  at  least  twelve  feet  long,  of  crimson  leather, 
corded  with  silver  wire ;  the  bottle,  with  its  plate,  was  very  large, 
of  thick  cut-glass,  inlaid  with  gold,  really  rich  and  beautiful.  I, 
however,  could  produce  no  effect  upon  the  water  in  the  bottle. 
One  needs  a  deep  chest  and  great  powers  of  inspiration  to  entice 
the  smoke  of  the  burning  timbek  down  the  tube,  through  the 
water,  and  along  the  coiled  sinuosities  of  the  snake -like  nabridj ; 
and  yet  I  saw  a  lad  make  the  water  in  the  glass  bubble  like  a 
boiling  caldron  without  any  apparent  effort.  The  sipping  of  black 
coffee,  from  tiny  cups,  set  in  holders  of  china,  brass,  or  silver  and 
gold  filigree,  I  like  well  enough,  but  not  the  fumigation.  A  cloud 
soon  fills  the  room  so  dense  that  one  can  scarcely  see,  and  I  was 


F 


1  John  xiii.  4,  5. 


8o 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


PIPES,  NARGILEHS,  COFFEE-CUPS,  AND  TRAYS. 


driven  to  the  open  court  to  escape  suffocation.  Another  thing 
which  surprises  me  is  the  vehemence  of  the  speakers.  Head  and 
shoulders,  hands  and  feet,  the  whole  body,  in  fact,  is  wrought  into 
violent  action  to  emphasize  their  meaning.  When  fairly  roused, 
all  talk  together  at  the  top  of  their  voices,  and  above  anything  of 


GARMENTS,  ORIENTAL  AND  OCCIDENTAL.  8 1 

the  kind  I  have  ever  heard.  Noticing  my  surprise,  one  said  to 
me,  “You  talk  as  if  you  were  afraid  to  be  heard,  and  we  as  if  we 
feared  we  should  not  be.”  I  wonder  how  you  can  distinguish  the 
words  or  comprehend  a  single  sentence. 

We  are  used  to  it ;  and,  unless  a  stranger  calls  attention  to  that 
which  has  confounded  you,  we  hardly  notice  it.  I  wish  you  could 
have  understood  the  discussions  the  other  evening,  for  they  em¬ 
braced  some  of  those  grand  and  impressive  themes  which  can  and 
ought  to  stir  the  deepest  fountains  of  feeling  in  the  human  breast. 
The  Arabs  delight  in  such  subjects. 

My  two  young  friends,  who  spoke  English,  kept  me  informed 
of  the  leading  topics,  and  I  was  able  to  appreciate  some  of  the  re¬ 
marks  which  so  interested  the  company.  We  finally  took  a  corner 
to  ourselves,  and  compared  Oriental  and  Occidental  manners  and 
customs.  They  maintained  that  we  had  invented  and  shaped  ours 
on  purpose  to  contradict  theirs — theirs,  the  original ;  ours,  copies 
reversed  or  caricatured.  Of  course,  the  weighty  questions  about 
beards,  and  mustaches,  and  shaved  heads  were  duly  discussed  with 
respect  to  appearance,  convenience,  cleanliness,  and  health. 

Escaping  from  the  tangle  of  the  beard,  we  fell  into  another 
about  garments,  long  and  short,  tight  and  loose ;  and  there  they 
were  confident  of  victory.  Our  clothes  seem  to  them  uncomforta¬ 
ble  and  inconvenient ;  and  that  is  true,  if  we  must  sit  as  the  Ori¬ 
entals  do  ;  but  with  chairs  and  sofas  their  objection  has  but  little 
force,  while  for  active  life  our  fashions  are  far  the  best.  Long, 
loose  clothes  are  ever  in  the  way,  working,  walking,  or  riding;  and 
I  suspect  that  they  aid  materially  in  producing  that  comparative 
inactivity  which  distinguishes  Orientals  from  Occidentals.  As  to 
the  mere  matter  of  picturesqueness,  we  may  admit  their  claim  to 
some  apparent  superiority.  The  masters  of  the  brush  and  the 
chisel,  and  the  sons  of  song  in  every  age  and  country,  have  so 
decreed,  and  it  is  vain  to  deny. 

These  matters  of  dress  and  costume  have  a  certain  Biblical  in¬ 
terest,  and  therefore  form  a  necessary  part  of  our  study.  The  gar¬ 
ments  of  our  first  parents,  in  addition  to  their  primary  intention, 
had,  as  I  believe,  a  typical  significance.  The  skins  with  which  those 
two  sinners,  penitent  and  reconciled,  were  clothed  were,  probably, 


82 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


those  of  lambs  offered  in  sacrifice,  and  they  not  obscurely  sym¬ 
bolized  the  robes  of  righteousness  purchased  for  penitent  believers 
by  the  sacrifice  of  the  Lamb  of  God  on  Calvary.  And  in  many  sub¬ 
sequent  religious  incidents  and  institutions  garments  are  invested 
with  a  typical  signification. 

Such  facts  elevate  the  subject  far  above  the  category  of  mere 
trivialities.  And,  indeed,  that  cannot  be  a  matter  of  indifference  to 
the  Christian  student  and  philosopher  in  which  all  men,  all  women, 
all  children,  of  every  age  and  country,  have  felt,  do,  and  will  ever 
continue  to  feel,  an  absorbing  interest,  and  upon  which  is  expended 
an  infinite  amount  of  time,  money,  and  labor.  It  would  be  a  curi¬ 
ous  exercise  of  ingenuity  to  trace  out  the  very  gradual  development 
of  human  costume,  from  the  first  fig-leaves  and  coats  of  skins  to  the 
complicated  toilets  of  a  highly-civilized  society. 

We,  however,  must  restrict  ourselves  to  the  Bible.  The  list  of 
garments  is  not  extensive  until  the  times  of  the  later  prophets — 
aprons  of  fig-leaves,  man’s  first  vain  invention  to  hide  the  naked¬ 
ness  of  sin.  Coats  of  skin,  given  in  mercy  by  our  heavenly  Father 
— cloaks,  mantles,  shirts,  breeches,  girdles,  bonnets,  and  sandals,  in¬ 
vented  at  various  dates,  and  most  of  them  consecrated  to  religious 
purposes  by  Moses  in  the  garments  of  the  Hebrew  priesthood. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  after  the  first  mention  of  coats  in 
Genesis  iii.  21,  we  hear  no  more  about  garments  of  any  kind  for 
sixteen  or  eighteen  hundred  years.  Shem  and  Japheth,  after  the 
Deluge,  had  a  garment  so  large  that  they  laid  it  on  their  shoulders, 
in  order  to  cover  their  father.  Several  hundred  years  later —  in 
Abraham’s  day — we  read  of  shoes,  and  of  raiment  presented  to  Re- 
bekah  ;  and  she  covered  herself  with  a  veil  when  Isaac  met  her. 
Later  in  life,  she  had  goodly  raiment  of  her  son  Esau  with  her  in 
the  house.  Then  comes  the  coat  of  many  colors,  the  occasion  of 
sad  calamities  to  Joseph;  Reuben,  not  finding  the  lad  in  the  pit, 
rent  his  clothes  —  the  first  time  this  action  is  mentioned.  Jacob 
also  rent  his;  and,  in  after- ages,  this  expression  of  grief  becomes 
common,  and  is  so  to  this  day,  as  the  fabrics  out  of  which  the  gar¬ 
ments  were  made  became  of  a  finer  texture,  and  more  easily  torn. 

The  materials  first  used  were  skins  of  animals,  and  some  people 
are  clothed  with  them  at  this  day.  Afterwards  coarse  cloth  woven 


GARMENTS,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


83 


from  the  hair  of  goats  and  camels  was  used,  and  linen,  woollen,  and 
cotton  fabrics  were  introduced.  Silk  is  mentioned  in  Genesis  xli. 
42,  margin  ;  Proverbs  xxxi.  22,  and  in  Ezekiel  xvi.  10,  13,  but  I  sup¬ 
pose  “  fine  linen  ”  was  meant.  There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
Solomon’s  “virtuous  wife”  was  acquainted  with  the  manufacture 
of  silk;  nor  was  cotton,  probably,  known  to  the  Jews  until  the 
Captivity.  The  Egyptians,  and  of  course  the  Hebrews,  were  early 
skilled  in  embroidery  with  tissue  of  silver  and  gold  ;  and  Orientals 
are  still  extravagantly  fond  of  embroidered  garments.  The  favorite 
colors,  as  every  reader  of  the  Bible  knows,  were  blue,  and  purple, 
and  scarlet,  and  the  same  taste  prevails  in  Syria,  and  in  Oriental 
countries  generally,  to  this  day. 

The  whole  subject  of  garments  and  fabrics,  shape  and  color,  is 
much  more  obscure  than  most  people  suppose.  The  ancient  He¬ 
brew  costume  is  thought  to  have  resembled,  more  or  less  closely, 
the  Oriental  dress  of  our  day.  But  which?  We  shall  select  that 
of  the  Syrian  Arab  and  Bedawin  of  the  desert,  which  in  all  pro¬ 
bability  do  approach  nearest  to  that  of  the  Hebrews;  and  by 
describing  the  various  articles,  as  well  as  the  ordinary  mode  of 
wearing  them,  their  use  will  be  sufficiently  apparent.  You  need 
not  attempt  to  remember,  or  even  pronounce,  the  Arabic  names ; 
but  it  is  difficult  to  talk  about  nameless  things,  and  therefore  we 
cannot  dispense  with  these  hard  words. 

LIST  OF  GARMENTS  WORN  BY  SYRIAN  ARABS  AND  BEDAWIN. 

Kumis,  a  long  shirt  of  cotton,  linen,  or  silk.  yeh,  overlapping  in  front,  has  pockets  for 

Those  of  the  Bedawin  are  made  of  cot-  purse  and  handkerchief, 

ton,  the  most  important  item  in  their  Gumbaz,  an  open  gown  of  cotton,  silk,  or 
wardrobe.  cloth,  with  long  sleeves,  overlapping  in 

Libas,  drawers  of  cotton.  front,  girded  tightly  about  the  loins  by 

Shintian,  or  Sherwal,  very  full,  loose  trousers  the  zunnar. 

of  cotton,  linen,  or  cloth.  Zunnar,  girdle  of  leather,  cotton,  silk,  wool- 

Dikky,  a  cord  or  sash  of  cotton  or  silk,  with  len,  or  camel’s  hair  shawl. 

which  the  trousers  are  gathered  and  tied  Suita,  an  outer  jacket  worn  over  the  gumbaz. 

round  the  waist.  Kubran,  a  heavy  jacket  of  cotton,  linen,  or 

Suderiyeh,  a  waistcoat,  without  sleeves,  but-  cloth,  with  open  or  slashed  sleeves  fastened 
toned  up  to  the  neck,  of  cotton,  linen,  by  buttons. 

cloth,  silk,  or  velvet.  Jibbeh,  a  long  loose  mantle  of  cotton  or  cloth, 

Mintian,  a  jacket  of  cotton,  linen,  or  cloth,  very  full. 

with  lone  sleeves,  worn  over  the  suderi-  ’Aba,  'Abaiyeh,  Mashlah,  a  cloak,  of  various 

\j> 

Fw 


84 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


forms  and  materials.  It  is  often  richly  or¬ 
namented  with  gold  and  silver  thread  in- 
woven  with  the  cloth.  The  most  common 
is  made  long  and  full,  of  wool,  goats’  or 
camels’  hair,  so  that  the  owner  wraps  him¬ 
self  in  it  to  sleep. 

Burnus,  long  loose  cloak  of  white  wool,  with 
a  hood  to  cover  the  head. 

For  the  head  there  is,  first,  the 

Arkiyeh  and  Takiyeh,  a  cotton  cap,  fitting 
closely  to  the  head,  whether  shaven  or  not. 
If  the  head  is  shaved,  a  soft  felt  cap  is 
often  worn  under  the  takiyeh. 

Tarbush,  or  Fez,  a  thick  red  felt  cap.  The 
best  come  from  Algiers. 

Laffeh,  the  Turban,  a  shawl  of  wool,  cotton, 
or  silk,  wound  around  the  tarbush.  The 
Turks  now  wear  nothing  but  the  fez,  and 
many  Arabs  only  the  tarbush,  with  its  long 
tassel.  Others  have  a  small  colored  hand¬ 
kerchief  or  mandeil  tied  round  the  tarbush. 


The  Bedawin  wear  the  keffiyeh  only,  a  par¬ 
ty-colored  handkerchief,  woven  with  gold 
tissue,  thrown  over  the  head,  and  confined 
there  by  a  twisted  rope  of  goats’  or  camels’ 
hair,  called  ’akal.  This  is  a  picturesque 
and  very  distinctive  article  in  the  costume 
of  an  Arab  of  the  Desert. 

For  the  feet  there  is,  first — 

Jerabat  and  Kalsat,  socks  and  stockings  of 
every  variety,  and  of  all  colors. 

Kalshin,  a  slipper  of  soft  morocco  leather, 
red,  yellow,  or  black. 

Babuje,  a  half  slipper,  answering  in  part  to 
the  ancient  sandal,  which  is  not  now  used 
except  by  the  Bedawin  of  the  desert. 

Surmaiyeh,  a  shoe,  commonly  of  red  mo¬ 
rocco.  Christian  priests  wear  black  shoes, 
but  with  Moslem  sheikhs  the  favorite  color 
is  yellow. 

Jezmah,  a  boot  of  red  morocco,  stout  and 
clumsy. 


There  are  variations  and  additions  to  this  list  in  different  regions 
inhabited  by  the  Arab  race ;  being,  however,  only  slight  departures 
from  existing  types  and  patterns,  they  need  not  be  described. 

To  the  Biblical  student,  these  matters  are  interesting  so  far  only 
as  they  throw  light  on  the  sacred  Scriptures ;  and  this  they  do  in 
many  passages.  For  example,  it  was  the  ’aba  or  mashlah,  I  sup¬ 
pose,  with  which  Shem  and  Japheth  covered  their  father.1  Joseph’s 
“  coat  of  many  colours”  may  have  been  the  kumis,  or  shirt,  and  is 
thus  translated  in  the  Arabic  Bible.2  It  was  the  jibbeh,  probably, 
that  he  left  in  the  hands  of  the  wife  of  Potiphar.3  The  ’Aba,  or 
Mashlah,  may  represent  the  mantle  which  fell  from  Elijah,  and  was 
taken  up  by  Elisha,  or  the  cloak,  in  the  precept,  “  If  any  man  will 
sue  thee  at  the  law,  and  take  away  thy  coat,  let  him  have  thy  cloak 
also.”4  It  was  possibly  the  jibbeh  that  our  Saviour  laid  aside  when 
he  washed  the  feet  of  the  disciples.5  It  can  be  so  worn  or  taken 
off,  and,  like  the  suderiyeh,  or  waistcoat,  rent  in  grief  or  rage,  as  to 
correspond  with  every  allusion  to  such  matters  in  the  Bible.  The 
same  applies  to  the  zunnar  or  girdle,  to  the  surmaiyeh  and  babuj 

1  Gen.  ix.  23.  2  Gen.  xxxvii.  3,  23,  31.  3  Gen.  xxxix.  12. 

4  2  Kings  ii.  8,  13  ;  Matt.  v.  40.  5  John  xiii.  4,  5. 


OF  VARIOUS  SECTS 


PUTTING  OFF  THE  SHOES.— COVERING  THE  HEAD.  85 

■ — the  shoes  and  slippers — and,  in  fact,  to  all  other  articles  of  dress 
which  we  have  described. 

Let  us  turn  philosophers  while  we  look  farther  into  Oriental 
manners,  customs,  and  costumes.  Search  deep  enough,  and  I  be¬ 
lieve  you  will  generally  find  that  the  customs  of  a  people  are  the 
result  of  two  causes — necessity  and  compensation.  The  Oriental 
costume,  for  example,  is  light  and  loose,  because  the  climate  is 
warm.  The  natives  do  not  sit  on  chairs,  because  they  are  hard 
and  uncomfortable,  and  in  this  country  a  recumbent  posture  is 
required  to  insure  rest  and  comfort.  Under  these  circumstances, 
tight  garments  are  very  inconvenient  and  incongruous. 

Then,  as  you  observe,  they  scrupulously  drop  their  boots,  shoes, 
or  slippers  at  the  door  when  they  enter  a  room,  and  keep  on  their 
head-dress.  This  seems  strange  to  us,  but  it  is  necessary.  As 
they  sit  on  the  mat,  rug,  or  divan,  with  their  feet  under  them,  shoes 
would  soil  both  couch  and  clothes,  and,  besides,  would  make  a  very 
uncomfortable  seat.  The  demands  of  propriety  and  comfort  in¬ 
troduced  and  enforced  the  custom  of  dropping  the  shoes  at  the 
entrance  into  the  sitting-room,  and  it  was  thence  extended  to  every 
place  entitled  to  respect.  From  this  to  the  idea  of  defilement  from 
the  shoe  was  but  a  step,  and  certain  to  be  taken.  Hence  the  strict 
requisition  to  put  it  off  on  entering  sacred  places  of  every  kind. 
Muhammedans  have  preserved  this  idea  in  all  its  force,  and  none 
can  enter  their  mosks  or  holy  shrines  with  shoes  on.  This  custom 
was  probably  established  in  Egypt  before  Moses  was  born,  and  he 
was  trained  up  to  regard  it  as  obligatory.  When,  therefore,  God 
appeared  to  him  in  the  burning  bush,  he  needed  only  to  be  re¬ 
minded  that  the  place  whereon  he  stood  was  holy  ground,  to  make 
the  direction  to  put  off  his  shoes  at  once  intelligible  and  reasonable.1 

Then  the  people  keep  their  head-dress  on,  both  because  the 
shaven  head  requires  to  be  concealed,  and  also  for  the  sake  of 
health.  Always  covered  and  closely  shaved,  the  head  becomes  ten¬ 
der,  and  liable  to  colds  on  the  least  exposure.  The  shaving  of  the 
head,  I  suppose,  had  reference,  originally,  to  cleanliness,  and  to  avoid 
scab  and  other  cutaneous  diseases,  which  are  generally  prevalent, 
and  difficult  to  cure.  It  is  undoubtedly  better  to  keep  the  head 

1  Exod.  iii.  5. 


86 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


clean  and  cool,  and  accustomed  to  bear  change  of  temperature,  with 
only  the  beautiful  covering  which  God  has  spread  over  it.  It  is 
also  best  and  most  becoming  to  keep  the  feet  covered  and  warm. 
But  in  this  climate  people  do  not  often  suffer  from  cold  feet,  and 
the  requirements  of  decency  are  secured  by  concealing  them  under 
their  loose  garments.  The  ablutions  which  Muhammed  required 
before  public  worship  have  as  much  reference  to  propriety  as  to 
spiritual  or  ceremonial  purity.  Becomingly  dressed  in  loose,  flowing 
robes,  and  thoroughly  cleansed  hands,  feet,  and  face,  their  prayers 
are  not  only  proper,  but  striking  and  solemn. 

In  the  time  of  Moses  “garments,”  I  presume,  had  attained 
nearly  their  present  form  and  shape  amongst  tribes  purely  Ori¬ 
ental  ;  I  mean  as  to  pattern,  not  as  to  the  number,  nature,  and 
quality  of  the  materials.  Those  have  greatly  multiplied  and  im¬ 
proved,  both  in  variety,  skilful  workmanship,  fineness  of  fabric,  and 
in  the  combination  of  brilliant  colors. 

The  costume  of  the  women  corresponded  in  most  respects,  I 
suppose,  to  that  of  the  men,  with,  of  course,  certain  additions.  As  * 
was  to  be  expected,  it  developed  faster  than  the  other.  Even 
during  the  life  of  Jacob  there  were  garments  appropriate  to  maid¬ 
ens,  others  to  married  women,  and  others  again  for  widows.  That 
implies  a  great  variety  in  female  attire ;  and  it  went  on  enlarging, 
until  their  toilets  became  as  complicated  and  mysterious  in  Jerusa¬ 
lem  as  they  now  are  in  the  capitals  of  Europe  and  America.  In 
the  third  chapter  of  Isaiah  we  have  a  catalogue,  about  as  intelligi¬ 
ble  to  the  English  reader  as  the  Hebrew  seems  to  have  been  to  our 
translators  :  “  Cauls,  round  tires  like  the  moon,  chains  or  sweet  balls, 
mufflers  or  spangled  ornaments,  tablets  or  houses  of  the  soul,”1  etc. 

The  female  costume  of  the  present  day  differs  from  that  of  the 
men  mostly  in  the  veils  and  in  the  head-dress,  which,  with  the  tar- 
bush  for  the  basis,  is  complicated  by  an  endless  variety  of  jewels 
and  other  ornamental  appendages ;  these,  however,  you  will  not 
easily  get  permission  to  inspect,  and  to  request  it  would  be,  in 
most  cases,  a  serious  affront. 

The  dress  of  Oriental  women  is  not  so  complicated  as  that 
of  European  ladies,  and  shows  more  the  shape  of  the  person,  and 

1  Isa.  iii.  18-23. 


SOCIAL  AND  DOMESTIC  CUSTOMS. 


s; 


they  are  not  expected  or  allowed  to  mix  in  society  with  men, 
nor  to  be  seen  by  them.  Their  in-door  dress  is  not  contrived  to 
meet  the  demands  of  a  public  thoroughfare,  and  when  they  go 
abroad  they  are  closely  veiled  from 
head  to  foot.  The  reasons — and 
such  there  are — for  confining  the 
women  very  much  to  their  homes, 
and  of  closely  veiling  them  when 
abroad,  are  found  in  the  character 
and  customs  of  Oriental  people ; 
and  the  veils  cannot  be  safely 
abolished,  nor  their  domestic  regu¬ 
lations  relaxed,  until  a  pure  and 
enlightened  Christianity  has  pre¬ 
pared  the  way.  When,  therefore, 
you  find  few  ladies  to  welcome  and 
entertain  you  at  your  calls,  and 
rarely  see  them  in  social  gather¬ 
ings,  you  may  moderate  your  re¬ 
gret  by  the  reflection  that  this  is 
the  result  of  a  great  moral  neces¬ 
sity.  The  same  necessity  forbids 
an  Arab  to  walk  arm-in-arm  with 
his  wife.  Neither  does  a  man  eat 
with  his  wife  and  daughters  in 
many  families,  because  the  meal  is 
in  the  public  room,  and  often  be¬ 
fore  strange  men.  So,  also,  the  ladies  are  accommodated  in  church 
with  a  part  railed  off,  and  latticed,  to  shield  them  from  public  gaze. 
Moslem  women  seldom  join  in  the  prayers  at  the  mosks. 

These  customs  are  often  carried  to  extremes  by  pride  and  jeal¬ 
ousy,  and  then  they  are  not  only  absurd,  but  unreasonable.  For 
example,  a  Druse  sheikh  or  wealthy  Moslem,  when  he  calls  a  phy¬ 
sician  for  any  of  his  harem,  makes  a  great  mystery  of  the  matter. 
The  patient  is  closely  veiled,  and  if  the  doctor  insists  upon  seeing 
her  tongue,  there  is  much  cautious  manoeuvring  to  avoid  exposing 
the  face.  I  ha've  known  cases  where  the  tongue  was  thrust  through 


HEAD-DRESS  OF  A  SYRIAN  LADY. 


88 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


a  rent  in  the  veil  made  for  the  purpose.  This  is  sufficiently  absurd, 
and  yet  I  am  acquainted  with  sheikhs  who  carry  these  jealous  pre¬ 
cautions  to  a  still  more  ridiculous  extreme.  They  never  allow  their 
wives  to  go  out  of  the  harem,  or  women’s  apartments,  except  at 
night,  and  not  even  then  until  servants  are  sent  in  advance  to 
clear  the  roads,  and  forbid  any  man  to  approach. 

The  reluctance  of  even  enlightened  Christian  men  to  speak  of 
the  females  of  their  families  is  amusing  to  us,  and  certainly  not  very 
complimentary  to  the  ladies.  For  example,  according  to  the  genu¬ 
ine  old  regime,  a  man,  when  absent  from  home,  never  writes  to  his 
wife,  but  to  his  son,  if  he  have  one,  though  not  a  month  old  ;  and 
often  he  addresses  his  letter  to  a  fictitious  son,  whom,  according  to 
precedent,  he  imagines  he  has  or  ought  to  have. 

This  has  its  origin  in  the  odd  custom,  that,  when  a  man  is 
married  and  has  no  son,  the  world  gives  him  one  by  a  courtesy 
peculiarly  Oriental,  and  then  calls  him  by  his  supposed  son’s  name. 
Even  unmarried  men  are  often  dignified  by  the  honorable  title  of 
Abu  somebody  or  other,  the  name  bestowed  being  decided  by  that 
which  he  previously  bore.  Elias  becomes  Abu  Nasif,  Butrus  is 
called  Abu  Salim,  and  so  on,  according  to  the  established  custom 
of  naming  first-born  sons.  Thus  Tannus,  the  father  of  the  infant 
Besharah,  for  example,  is  no  longer  Tannus,  but  Abu  Besharah,  and 
this  not  merely  on  all  occasions,  but  also  in  legal  documents.  It 
is,  in  fact,  no  longer  respectful  to  call  him  Tannus.  So,  also,  the 
mother  is  ever  afterwards  called  Um  Besharah,  mother  of  Besharah. 

Nearly  all  Bible  names  were  significant,  and  were  conferred  with 
reference  to  some  circumstance  connected  with  the  birth  of  the 
child.  Leah  called  her  first-born  Reuben — behold  a  son — “  for  she 
said,  Surely  the  Lord  hath  looked  upon  my  affliction  the  second 
was  named  Simeon — hearing — for  the  Lord  had  heard  her  prayer ; 
and  thus  it  was  with  Rachel  in  the  case  of  her  sons.1 

That  custom  is  still  observed  amongst  the  Arabs,  and  they  have 
other  names  to  which  they  are  very  partial.  All  sects  join  the 
name  of  God  to  one  of  his  attributes  or  qualities,  in  order  to  give 
appropriate  and  significant  names  to  their  children.  Thus,  Fudle 
Allah — God’s  bounty ;  ’Abd  Allah — servant  of  God.  So  the  word 

1  Gen.  xxix.  32,  33. 


* 


i 


SIGNIFICANT  NAMES.— GARMENTS  AND  SLEEPING. 


S9 


din — religion — enters  into  many  favorite  names,  as  Amin  ed  Din — 
faithful  in  religion  ;  Shems  ed  Din — sun  of  religion  ;  Salah  ed  Din 
— goodness  of  religion,  contracted  by  us  into  Saladin,  the  antago¬ 
nist  of  England’s  lion-hearted  Richard,  and  the  terror  of  Crusaders. 
And  as  the  parents  assume  the  names  of  their  eldest  son,  we  hear 
them  addressed  as  the  father  or  the  mother  of  God’s  bounty,  Abu 
or  Um  Fudle  Allah,  and  the  mother  of  the  servant  or  slave  of  God, 
Um  ’Abd  Allah,  or  Um  ’Abd  el  Kadir. 

For  their  daughters,  the  Arabs  are  fond  of  flowery  and  poetic 
names.  We  have  all  about  us,  amongst  the  rich  and  the  poor,  suns, 
stars,  and  moons,  roses,  lilies,  and  jessamines,  diamonds  and  pearls, 
and  other  beautiful  epithets;  but  the  parents  do  not  assume  the 
names  of  their  daughters. 

There  are  many  minor  matters  in  which  the  East  and  the  West 
are  as  far  apart  socially  as  they  are  geographically.  For  example, 
a  whole  family,  parents,  children,  and  servants,  sleep  in  the  same 
room,  and  with  slight  change  of  garments,  or  no  change  at  all. 
Such  customs  are  alluded  to  in  the  Bible.  The  latter  is  implied  in 
the  reason  assigned  by  Moses  for  the  return  of  a  garment  taken  in 
pledge  from  a  poor  man  before  the  sun  goes  down  :  “  It  is  his  rai¬ 
ment  for  his  skin:  wherein  shall  he  sleep?”1  and  the  former  in  the 
plea  of  the  lazy  man  in  the  parable  about  importunity :  “  My  chil¬ 
dren  are  with  me  in  bed;  I  cannot  arise  and  give  thee.”2  The  long, 
loose  garments  worn  by  these  people  remove,  or  at  least  mitigate, 
the  impropriety  of  this  practice ;  but,  still,  it  is  objectionable.  So, 
also,  a  whole  family  continue  to  reside  under  the  same  roof,  father, 
sons,  and  grandsons,  in  one  common  household.  This  also  is  an¬ 
cient  ;  but  it  is  repugnant  to  our  ideas,  and  has  many  disadvantages. 
Nor  does  the  fact  that  they  can  live  cheaper  by  such  “co-opera¬ 
tive”  house- keeping  compensate  for  the  confusion  and  want  of 
family  government  occasioned  by  the  system.  There  never  can 
be  well-regulated  households  until  this  custom  is  so  modified  as  to 
call  forth  greater  personal  responsibility  and  independence  in  the 
younger  branches  of  the  family. 

Such  customs  we  can  excuse,  but  there  are  others  which  admit 
of  no  apology.  They  are  degrading  to  both  sexes.  The  Arabs 
1  Exod.  xxii.  27.  2  Luke  xi.  5-8. 


90 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


have  a  word — “ajellack,”  an  equivalent  to  “  saving  your  reverence” 
— with  which  they  preface  the  mention  of  anything  offensive  or 
unclean.  Thus,  ajellack  a  donkey,  or  a  dog,  or  my  shoes;  so,  when 
compelled  to  speak  of  their  wives,  they  say,  “ajellack  my  wife  is  so 
and  so.”  These  and  similar  expressions  enable  us  to  understand 
why  it  is  that  acquaintance  before  marriage  is  ordinarily  out  of  the 
question.  It  could  not  be  secured  without  revolutionizing  an  ex¬ 
tended  system  of  domestic  regulations  and  compensations.  There¬ 
fore  the  present  plan  of  arranging  matters  matrimonial  through  the 
intervention  of  friends  and  relatives,  as  it  was  in  times  most  remote, 
will  be  continued,  with  all  its  evils,  until  a  change  is  brought  about 
in  the  condition  of  the  women.  This  can  only  be  effected  by  a 
Christian  education,  and  the  elevation  of  the  marriage  relation. 

Amongst  both  Moslems  and  Christians  the  birth  of  a  son  is 
always  a  joyful  event  in  a  family,  but  that  of  a  daughter  is  often 
looked  upon  as  a  calamity.  The  father  sometimes  refuses  to  see 
his  child,  or  speak  to  the  mother;  and  the  friends  and  relatives  con¬ 
dole  with  the  unfortunate  husband.  In  those  communities  where 
divorce  is  permitted,  that  is  often  the  only  reason  assigned  by  the 
husband  for  sending  away  his  wife.  This  accounts  for  the  desire 
which  many  wives  manifest  to  become  the  mother  of  sons,  not  a 
whit  less  vehement  than  that  of  Rachel.1  They  make  vows,  as 
did  Samuel’s  mother  in  Shiloh,  when  she  was  in  bitterness  of  soul, 
and  wept  sore,  and  vowed  a  vow  unto  the  Lord,  and  they  also  go 
on  pilgrimages  to  shrines  that  have  obtained  a  reputation  in  those 
matters.2  The  circumstance  mentioned  in  Genesis  xvi.  4,  which 
made  Hagar  insolent  towards  her  mistress,  has  the  same  effect  now; 
and  the  devices  which  produced  such  heart-burnings  in  the  families 
of  the  patriarchs,  are  equally  mischievous  at  the  present  day.  If 
the  first  wife  has  no  children,  the  husband  marries  another  or  takes 
a  slave.  And  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  the  fortunate  slave, 
when  the  mother  of  a  son,  is  promoted  to  the  post  of  honor  and 
authority,  and,  of  course,  she  becomes  insolent  towards  her  mistress. 

2  1  Sam.  i.  10,  11. 


1  Gen.  xxx.  1. 


THE  DOG  RIVER.— THE  SUBURBS  OF  BEIRUT. 


91 


III. 

THE  DOG  RIVER,  AND  THE  SUBURBS  OF  BEIROT. 

Excursion  to  the  Dog  River. — Eastern  Suburbs  of  Beirut. — The  View  from  Mar  Mitr. — 
The  Reservoirs. — Chapel  of  St.  George. — St.  George  and  the  Dragon. — The  Quaran¬ 
tine. — The  Beirut  River. — Jebel  Kemseh  and  Sunnm. — Bridge  over  Nahr  Beirut. — 
Emir  Fukhr  ed  Din. — The  Mulberry  Gardens. — St.  George’s  Bay. — Ride  along  the 
Beach. — The  River  of  Death. — Ant  Elias. — Narrow  Plain. — Fountain  and  River  of  Ant 
Elias. — Beirut  Water-works. — The  Tunnel. — The  Promontory  of  Nahr  el  Kelb. — The 
Ancient  Road. — View  from  the  Summit  of  the  Pass. — A  Roman  Mile-stone. — Sculptured 
Tablets. — Egyptian  Tablets  Described  by  Wilkinson. — Layard’s  Opinion  of  the  Assyrian 
Tablets. — Dr.  Robinson’s  Observations  on  the  Antiquity  of  the  Tablets. — Greek  Inscrip¬ 
tions. — Professor  J.  A.  Paine. — Cuneiform  Inscription. — Napoleon  III. — The  Dog,  and 
the  Rock  in  the  Sea. — Inscription  of  Marcus  Antoninus. — The  Greek  “Wolf”  and 
the  Arab  “Dog.” — Inscription  of  Sultan  Salim. — Scenery  of  Nahr  el  Kelb. — A  Wild 
Cabbage. — Bone  and  Flint  Deposits. — Canon  Tristram. — Mr.  Dawkins. — Fossil  Teeth 
and  Arrow-heads. — Prehistoric  Savages. — Lebanon  abounds  in  Caverns,  Fossils,  and 
Minerals. — Visit  to  the  Caverns  of  Nahr  el  Kelb  in  1836. — The  Caverns  Explored  by 
Mr.  Maxwell  and  Mr.  Huxley  in  1873. — Description  of  the  Caverns  of  the  Dog  River. 
— The  Screen. — Professor  Robertson’s  Account.* — The  Cathedral. — Maxwell’s  Column. 
— The  Hermit’s  Pillar. — The  Gallery. — The  Dome. — Willow-point  and  Light-house. 
— The  Elephant’s  Cave. — Bliss’s  Straits. — The  Draperies. — The  Pantheon. — Clayton’s 
Passage. — The  Styx. — Rustum  Pasha’s  Chandelier. — Chaos. — Huxley  and  Brigstocke’s 
Rapids. — Personal  Incident. — Attempt  to  Explore  the  Caverns  above  the  Rapids  De¬ 
scribed  by  Professor  Robertson. — Temperature  of  the  Air  and  Water  in  the  Caverns. 
— Depth  of  the  Water.  —  The  Caves  of  Nahr  el  Kelb  compared  with  Celebrated 
Caverns  in  other  Countries.  —  Ride  up  the  River  Gorge. — The  Aqueduct. —  Grand 
and  Picturesque  Scenery. — The  Weir. — The  Road  over  the  Tunnel  and  to  the  Sea. 
— Ride  around  the  Western  Suburbs  of  Beirut. — The  Barracks  and  Hospital. — The 
Capuchin  Monastery  and  Church. — Institute  of  the  Deaconesses. — German  Church. 
— Khan  Antun  Beg. — Ottoman  Bank. — Consulates. — Post-offices. — Moslem  Cemetery. 
— Hotels. — Remains  of  Ancient  Baths. — Modern  Bathing-houses. — Minat  el  Husn. — 
Sponge  Divers. — Petroleum  Warehouses. — Ship-building  Yard. — Potteries  and  Tan¬ 
neries. — Inhabited  Well. — The  Hospital  of  St.  John. — The  Medical  Hall. — Syrian 
Protestant  College. — Lee  Observatory. — Unequalled  Site  and  Magnificent  Prospect. — 
Jackals  and  Hyenas. — The  Light-house. — Extended  Outlook. — French  Company. — 
Numerous  Inlets. — Deep  Caverns. — Seals  or  Sea-cows. — The  Rousha. — Perpendicular 

G 


92 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Cliffs. — Ibrahim  Pasha. — The  Conscription. — Refugees. — Fugitives  in  the  Caves  and 
on  the  Rousha. — The  Rousha  in  a  Winter  Storm. — Petrified  Echini  in  the  Rocks. — 
The  Sand  Sea. — Gardens  and  Houses  Overwhelmed  by  the  Sand. — Woe-begone  Don¬ 
keys. — The  Quarries. — Narrow  Lanes. — Prickly-pear  Hedges. — Fruit  of  the  Prickly- 
pear. —  Pine-groves. —  Sowing  the  Pine. — Venerable  Pine-trees  Planted  by  Fukhr  ed 
Din. — The  Sycamore. — Zaccheus. — Sycamore  Figs. — Gatherers  of  Sycamore  Fruit. — 
The  Power  of  Faith  Illustrated  by  the  Sycamore. — The  Black  Mulberry. — The  Syca¬ 
more  in  Egypt. —  Biblical  References  to  the  Sycamore. — ’Assur. —  The  Cemetery. — 
The  Press. — The  Bible  Warehouse. — Anglo-American  Church. — Female  Seminary. — 
Mecca  Pilgrims. — Fanatical  Moslem  Dervishes  and  the  Priest  of  Baal. — The  Douseh. 
— Riding  over  Prostrate  Men  and  Boys. 

June  2d. 

The  cool  breeze  from  the  sea  this  morning  renders  our  ride  to 
the  Dog  River  very  pleasant. 

We  have  been  passing  for  half  an  hour  through  the  eastern  sub¬ 
urbs  of  Beirut,  and  appear  to  be  still  within  the  limits  of  the  town. 

From  the  top  of  that  hill,  called  Mar  Mitr,  the  very  best  view 
of  the  city,  the  surroundings,  and  the  boundless  sea  to  the  north 
and  west,  is  obtained.  Early  in  the  morning,  and  late  in  the  after¬ 
noon,  that  beautiful  prospect  is  seen  to  the  best  advantage.  At 
the  foot  of  the  hill  is  the  main  reservoir  which  receives  the  water 
brought  to  the  city  from  the  Dog  River,  a  distance  of  about  ten 
miles.  The  water  is  also  forced  up  a  steep  incline  to  the  top  of  the 
hill,  where  there  is  another  reservoir,  and  from  that  it  is  distributed 
through  the  suburbs  and  about  the  city. 

These  fragments  of  old  buttresses  on  the  roadside  are  said  to 
be  the  remains  of  the  traditional  chapel  of  St.  George,  the  tutelary 
saint  of  England,  and  they  are  associated  with  that  fabulous  ex¬ 
ploit  of  his  which  gave  to  Beirut  its  greatest  glory  in  the  days 
of  legendary  lore.  Here  it  is  believed  that  St.  George  washed  his 
hands  after  slaying  the  dragon,  and  the  deep  bay  of  St.  George 
down  yonder  owes  its  name  to  that  contest  on  its  shores.  There 
it  was  that  St.  George  killed  the  dragon  ;  exactly  when,  or  what 
particular  dragon,  is  not  known,  but  he  must  have  killed  him,  for 
he  has  not  been  seen  since,  and  all  agree  that  he  is  dead.  In  the 
gardens,  to  the  north-east  of  those  old  buttresses,  near  a  dilapidated 
mosk,  probably  built  on  the  actual  site  of  the  chapel,  is  an  old  pit 
or  well,  into  which  the  slain  monster  was  cast.  The  place  is  now 
in  the  hands  of  the  Moslems. 


THE  QUARANTINE.— NAHR  BEIRUT.— ST.  GEORGE’S  BAY.  93 

Those  extensive  buildings  covering  that  rocky  promontory, 
whose  cliffs  descend  almost  perpendicularly  into  the  sea,  belong 
to  the  Quarantine  department.  I  have  a  vivid  recollection  of  the 
dangers  and  discomforts  of  repeated  imprisonments  there  with 
plague-stricken  patients  in  alarming  proximity.  The  plague  has 
long  since  been  extirpated,  and  the  quarantine  buildings  are  now 
rarely  used  except  for  military  purposes. 

This  is  the  Beirut  River,  I  suppose,  which  you  have  mentioned 
in  connection  with  the  ruined  aqueduct? 

It  is  also  the  ancient  Magoras,  and  its  main  permanent  source 
is  a  remitting  fountain  in  the  bed  of  the  stream  below  Deir  el 
Kul’ah.  The  river  drains  a  portion  of  the  plain,  and  that  magnifi¬ 
cent  sweep  of  lofty  mountains,  including  Jebel  Keniseh  and  Sunnin 
— a  wild  and  wooded  region  abounding  in  scenery  of  great  natu¬ 
ral  beauty.  Nahr  Beirut,  as  you  see,  has  a  wide  channel,  requir¬ 
ing  this  long  bridge  of  seven  arches,  writh  broad  and  massive  piers, 
to  cross  it.  The  bridge  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Emir 
Fakhr  ed  Din,  but  he  probably  only  repaired  a  more  ancient  one. 
The  amount  of  water  is  now'  very  small,  but  in  the  rainy  season 
the  shallow  stream  is  swollen  to  a  broad  and  turbid  river,  sweep¬ 
ing  everything  before  it,  and  giving  to  the  water  of  the  bay  for 
miles  out  to  sea  a  pale  red  color. 

A  ride  of  nearly  half  an  hour,  through  the  most  flourishing  mul¬ 
berry  gardens  we  have  yet  seen,  has  brought  us  out  upon  the  sandy 
shore,  near  this  dismantled  wreck. 

St.  George’s  Bay  affords  comparative  shelter  to  vessels,  and  is 
the  safest  anchorage  for  ships  on  this  coast,  from  Egypt  to  Asia 
Minor.  Still,  many  foreign  vessels,  and  untold  numbers  of  native 
craft,  have  been  cast  high  and  dry  upon  this  beach  during  excep¬ 
tionally  severe  storms  in  winter. 

For  an  hour  or  more  we  can  ride  along  the  beach,  with  these 
noisy  wavelets  tumbling  over  the  feet  of  the  horses,  and  the  light 
surf  occasionally  wetting  our  own.  But  both  they  and  we  prefer 
the  dull,  unchanging  monotony  of  this  restless  sea  to  the  weary 
plodding  through  the  deep  sand  just  above  the  shore. 

That  ravine  on  our  right  is  the  dry  bed  of  Nahr  el  Maut,  the 
River  of  Death.  Its  source  is  in  those  mountains  below  the  vil- 


94 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


lage  of  Brummana,  and,  descending  to  the  plain,  it  has  hardly  the 
strength  to  force  its  way  through  the  sand  to  the  sea ;  hence  this 
stagnant  and  unhealthy  region  near  its  mouth,  and  thence,  also,  its 
very  significant  and  ominous  name. 

This  village  straggling  along  the  foot-hills  of  Lebanon  is  Ant 
Elias ;  and  the  narrow  stretch  of  plain  between  it  and  the  sea  is 
covered  with  mulberry  and  vegetable  gardens,  and  even  fruit-trees. 
The  fountain  of  this  river  of  Ant  Elias,  which  we  are  now  crossing, 
bursts  forth  from  the  roots  of  the  mountain,  but  not  at  a  sufficient 
elevation  to  carry  its  life-giving  contributions  to  all  parts  of  the 
plain.  As  it  is  a  never-failing  fountain,  and  very  copious,  its  waters 
drive  a  number  of  mills,  where  most  of  the  wheat  is  ground  that 
supplies  the  flour  dealers  of  Beirut. 

It  is  a  grateful  change  to  see  those  green  and  waving  wheat- 
fields,  and  to  leave  the  deep,  tiresome  sand  and  the  deafening  surf, 
and  tread  the  firm  earth  once  more. 

These  low  buildings,  on  our  right,  were  erected  a  few  years  ago 
by  the  Beirut  Water-works  Company;  and  there  is  the  machinery 
which  forces  the  water  around  the  bay,  under  the  Beirut  River, 
and  up  to  the  reservoir  on  Mar  Mitr — a  distance  of  over  six  miles. 
The  water  from  the  Dog  River  is  brought  through  the  mountain 
ridge  by  a  tunnel  half  a  mile  long,  and  that  portion  of  it  which  is 
used  to  drive  the  machinery  runs  uselessly  away  into  the  sea  be¬ 
low.  I  was  present  when  the  water  was  turned  on,  and  witnessed 
the  first  revolution  of  the  wheels  that  now  force  it  through  so 
many  miles  of  iron  pipe  up  to  the  reservoir. 

Over  that  rocky  promontory  ahead  of  us,  which  juts  out  into 
the  sea  for  about  half  a  mile,  is  the  famous  pass  of  Nahr  el  Kelb, 
cut  in  the  rock  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  a  hundred  feet  above 
the  water.  The  pavement  of  this  ancient  road  is  so  execrable  that 
timid  riders  prefer  to  walk.  Our  nerves,  however,  are  sufficiently 
educated  to  allow  us  to  retain  our  place  in  the  saddle  even  when 
descending  to  the  river  on  the  other  side  of  the  pass,  where  the 
winding  way — a  succession  of  broad,  rough,  and  slippery  steps — is 
really  dangerous  to  the  horse  and  his  rider. 

We  are  now  on  the  summit  of  the  pass,  and  can  rest  a  while, 
and  enjoy  this  extensive  and  varied  prospect  of  rugged  mountains 


ASSYRIAN  AND  EGYPTIAN  TABLETS. 


95 


U 

sfe- Z- 

v  \sr  -  -• 

'  k  i  1 

l 


and  fruitful  pla-ins,  the  river  gorge, 
the  crescent-shaped  bay,  the  dis¬ 
tant  city,  and  the  boundless  ex¬ 
panse  of  this  great  and  wide  sea. 

Here,  by  the  roadside,  on  this 
fragment  of  a  granite  column,  pro¬ 
bably  a  Roman  mile-stone,  is  a 
brief,  half -defaced  Latin  inscrip¬ 
tion,  and  there  are  others,  still 
more  obliterated,  cut  into  the 
limestone  rock  of  the  cliff.  The 
most  ancient  roadway  was  much 
higher  up  the  pass  than  the  pre¬ 
sent  one,  and  in  the  face  of  the 
rock  above  it  are  those  remarkable 
sculptured  tablets  of  the  Egyp¬ 
tians  and  Assyrians,  probably  com¬ 
memorating  their  presence  here, 
and  their  passage  over  this  for¬ 
midable  and  rocky  promontory. 

The  Egyptian  tablets  are  so 

w'orn  away  by  time  that  they  are  not  easily  decipherable.  The 

Assyrian  warriors  are  life  size,  and  re¬ 
presented  in  military  costume.  They 
are  in  better  preservation,  and  a  con¬ 
siderable  part  of  one  of  them  is  cov¬ 
ered  with  a  long  cuneiform  inscription, 
enough  of  which  remains  legible  to 
enable  the  expert  in  such  matters  to 
form  an  opinion  of  its  general  tenor. 

Regarding  the 
Egyptian  sculp- 
tured  tablets,  Sir 
J.  G.  Wilkinson 
supposes  that  the 
stelae  seen  by  He¬ 
rodotus  in  Syria 


ASSYRIAN  TABLET,  WITH  CUNEIFORM 
INSCRIPTION. 


EGYPTIAN  TABLET,  WITH  SUP¬ 
POSED  HIEROGLYPHICS. 


HIEROGLYPHICS  AND 
FIGURES. 


4 


g6  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

were  doubtless  those  on  the  rock  near  Berytus  [Beirut],  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Lycus  [Dog  River],  engraved  by  Rameses  II.  [Sesos- 
tris].1  One  is  dedicated  to  Ra,  another  to  Ammon,  and  a  third 
to  Phtha.  Almost  the  only  hieroglyphics  now  traceable  are  on  the 
jambs  of  the  tablets,  which  have  one  of  the  usual  formulas:  “The 
good  god  [Pharaoh],  the  powerful  king  of  kings,  Rameses;  to  whom 
life  has  been  given  like  the  sun.”  But  the  lines  below  the  figure 
of  the  king,  who  slays  the  foreign  chiefs  before  the  god,  and  which 
should  contain  the  mention  of  his  victories,  are  too  indistinct,  and 
so  greatly  defaced  as  to  be  entirely  illegible. 

The  Assyrian  tablets  Mr.  Layard  regards  as  all  referring  to  Sen¬ 
nacherib,  the  king  who  built  the  palace  at  Kouyunjik,  and  whose 
army  of  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  thousand  men  was  smitten  in 
the  night  by  “  the  angel  of  the  Lord.”2 

Altogether  there  are  three  Egyptian  tablets,  and  six  Assyrian. 
“  Looking  back  from  our  day,”  says  Dr.  Robinson,  “  the  Assyrian 
tablets  have  continued  to  commemorate  the  progress  of  the  As¬ 
syrian  hosts  for  more  than  five -and -twenty  centuries;  while  the 
Egyptian,  if  proceeding  from  Sesostris,  have  celebrated  his  prowess 
for  thirty-one  centuries.  They  reach  back  to  hoary  antiquity,  even 
to  the  earliest  days  of  the  Judges  of  Israel,  before  Jerusalem  was 
known.”3  Certainly  a  very  interesting  and  impressive  statement. 

Professor  J.  A.  Paine,  of  the  American  Palestine  Exploration 
Society,  “  discovered  three  Greek  inscriptions,  one  on  a  stone  in  a 
Roman  wall,  and  two  cut  in  the  rock.”  According  to  his  interpre¬ 
tation  it  would  appear  that  the  Phoenicians  first  made  this  road, 
and  that  the  Romans  afterwards  repaired  portions  of  it.  Across 
the  river,  on  the  face  of  the  cliff,  above  the  road,  and  below  the 
canal  that  conducts  the  water  to  the  mills,  a  long  cuneiform  in¬ 
scription  has  been  discovered  recently  by  Mr.  J.  Loytved,  Danish 
vice-consul,  but  its  purport  has  not  yet  been  ascertained.  We  must 
not  forget  to  mention  that  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  appropri¬ 
ated  one  of  the  Egyptian  tablets,  and  caused  to  be  engraved  there¬ 
on  an  inscription  commemorating  the  occupation  of  the  Lebanon 
district  by  a  French  army  in  i860,  after  the  massacres  of  that  year. 

1  Notes  on  Herodotus,  vol.  ii.,  p.  158. 

3  Rob.  Res.,  vol.  iii.  p.  622. 


2  2  Kings  xix.  35,  36. 


THE  DOG  RIVER.— INSCRIPTIONS.— BONE  DEPOSITS.  9 7 

Let  us  now  descend  to  the  khan  at  the  foot  of  the  pass,  where 
we  can  lunch  and  admire  at  our  leisure  the  extraordinary  scenery 
of  this  imposing  gorge  or  deep  chasm  between  the  mountains. 

That  rock,  lying  in  the  sea  below  us,  and  constantly  washed 
by  the  waves,  has  a  fanciful  resemblance  to  the  body  of  a  dog,  and 
native  tradition  ascribes  to  it  the  origin  of  the  name  Nahr  el  Kelb, 
the  Dog  River.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  image  of  a  dog  that  once 
stood  upon  a  pedestal  at  the  head  of  the  pass.  On  the  face  of 
this  rock,  above  the  road  to  our  right,  is  the  Latin  inscription  of 
Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus.  From  which  it  appears  that,  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  second  century,  at  the  time  when  the  Roman 
Emperor  made  or  mended  this  road,  the  river  was  called  Lycus. 
Account  for  it  as  we  may,  it  is  certain  that  since  then  the  Greek 
“Wolf”  has  disappeared  and  given  place  to  the  Arab  “Dog.” 

On  these  low  cliffs  above  the  road,  near  the  bridge,  is  a  much 
defaced  Saracen  inscription.  The  caligraphy  of  what  remains  is  so 
involved  that  not  even  the  most  skilful  native  scholars  can  de¬ 
cipher  more  than  that  Sultan  Selim  repaired  this  bridge. 

This  scene  is  altogether  unique  —  the  perpendicular  cliffs  on 
either  side  towering  to  the  sky,  with  the  river  and  the  bridge  be¬ 
tween  ;  those  ancient  roadways,  overhanging  the  sea,  and  winding 
zigzag  up  the  rocky  pass  ;  the  remarkable  tablets,  with  their  un¬ 
solved  hieroglyphics,  and  stern  warriors  clad  in  coats  of  mail — all 
these  fascinate  the  imagination,  and,  with  the  lofty  mountains,  the 
running  stream,  the  rolling  sea,  and  the  fleeting  clouds,  form  a 
vision  as  wild  as  it  is  picturesque  and  romantic. 

I  once  attempted  to  ascend  to  the  top  of  the  cliffs  on  the 
southern  side,  but  failed,  and  was  obliged  to  descend — a  much  more 
difficult  feat.  I  was  not  altogether  unrewarded,  for  I  found  a  verita¬ 
ble  cabbage  bush,  growing  out  of  a  crevice  in  the  rock,  half-way  up 
the  pass.  Leaf,  color,  smell,  and  taste  were  unmistakably  cabbage; 
but  the  stalk  was  slender  and  woody,  and  about  three  feet  high. 

Several  bone  and  flint  deposits  have  been  found  on  this  pro¬ 
montory.  The  bones  are  embedded  in  two  different  formations; 
one  a  soft,  tufaceous  deposit,  along  the  cliffs  on  the  west  side  of 
the  pass,  and  just  before  the  ascent  begins;  the  other  a  hard,  sta- 
lagmitic  floor,  probably  of  an  old  cavern,  on  the  top  and  over  the 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


98 

centre  of  the  pass.  Canon  Tristram,  who  first  discovered  the  for¬ 
mation,  submitted  specimens  of  the  deposit  to  W.  B.  Dawkins,  Esq., 
of  the  Geological  Survey  of  England,  who  determined  the  teeth  of 
an  ox  resembling  the  Bos  primigenius,  and  others  were  assigned  to 
the  reindeer  and  elk.  Such  are  the  facts,  briefly  stated. 

That  they  are  the  teeth  and  bones  of  animals  is  certain,  and 
they  were  probably  brought  there  gradually,  during  the  ages  in 
which  those  deposits  were  forming,  for  they  are  mingled  with  flint 
chippings.  The  flint  chips  are  innumerable,  and  vary  in  size  from 
a  finger-nail  to  an  average  hand.  I  picked  up  a  well-shaped  spear¬ 
head,  and  found  flints  which  seem  to  have  been  intended  for  ar¬ 
row-heads.  They  were,  however,  far  less  perfect  than  Indian  arrow¬ 
heads.  I  have  collected  hundreds  of  those  specimens  in  America. 

Those  flints  present  a  most  obscure  problem  to  solve  connected 
with  this  locality.  We  may  imagine  that  prehistoric  savages  se¬ 
lected  this  easily  defended  cape  for  their  permanent  home,  and 
that  they  pointed  their  spears  and  arrows  with  flint ;  and  conse¬ 
quently  there  would  be  brought  to  this  locality  great  quantities 
to  be  manufactured  into  weapons.  Whether  this  be  so  or  not,  it 
is  certain  that  the  Lebanon  abounds  in  caverns,  fossils,  and  minerals 
of  various  kinds,  and  will  well  repay  more  thorough  and  scientific 
exploration  than  has  hitherto  been  bestowed  upon  it.  I  have 
been  told  that  there  are  other  bone  deposits  higher  up  in  the  river 
gorge,  and  also  that  bones  have  been  discovered  in  the  caves  out 
of  which  the  river  itself  flows. 

How  far  are  those  caves  from  this  bridge? 

About  four  miles.  I  have  been  there  several  times ;  and,  while 
seated  in  this  cool  shade,  I  will  give  you  a  description  of  them. 
My  first  visit  was  made  in  September,  in  the  year  1836.  Having 
heard  from  the  natives  vague  accounts  of  those  caverns,  I  deter¬ 
mined  to  find  and  explore  them.  Mr.  Hebard  was  my  companion  ; 
and  as  we  were  to  penetrate  into  regions  then  unknown,  the  excur¬ 
sion  had  all  the  excitement  of  first  discoverv. 

Where  the  river  gorge  turns  to  the  south  the  ravine  becomes 
too  narrow,  wild,  and  rocky  for  any  but  a  goat-path,  and  the  road 
to  the  caves  leads  over  the  steep  shoulder  of  the  mountain  on  the 
north  side  for  an  hour  and  a  half.  It  then  descends  by  a  very 


THE  GROTTOES  OF  NAHR  EL  KELB. 


99 


slippery  track  to  the  river,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  caves. 
There  are  three  of  them,  and  all  on  the  north  side  of  the  ravine. 
Out  of  the  first  gushes  a  large  part  of  the  river,  but  without  a  boat 
it  cannot  be  explored.  A  few  rods  farther  up  the  valley  is  the 
second  cave.  It  runs  under  the  mountain  in  a  straight  line  for 
eighty  paces,  and  then  descends  into  an  abyss  of  water.  On  the 
west  side  of  the  main  entrance  is  a  passage  parallel  to  the  cave, 
and  of  about  the  same  dimensions,  with  which  it  communicates  by 
a  large  aperture.  This  tunnel  trends  round  to  the  west,  and  unites 
with  the  first  or  lower  cave  near  its  mouth.  Strike  or  jump  on  the 
floor  of  the  passage,  and  one  is  startled  by  a  dull,  hollow  sound 
beneath,  and  inclined  to  walk  softly  over  such  unknown  depths. 

About  forty  rods  higher  up  the  ravine  is  the  third  and  largest 
cave.  The  entrance  to  it  is  a  wide  and  low  opening  in  the  face 
of  the  rock,  and  is  so  concealed  by  large  rocks  that  one  might  pass 
within  a  few  feet  of  it  without  suspecting  its  existence.  Soon  the 
passage  becomes  high  enough  to  walk  erect,  and  turns  round  to¬ 
wards  the  west.  Torches  are  necessary,  as  the  interior  of  the  cave 
is  utterly  dark.  A  gallery  runs  round  three  sides  of  it,  and  the 
river,  which  crosses  the  lower  part  of  the  cavern,  disappears  at  the 
north-west  corner  with  a  loud  noise.  At  the  north-east,  where  it 
enters  the  cave,  there  is  a  pool  of  water,  clear  and  smooth  as  a  mir¬ 
ror,  and  deliciously  cool.  How  far  the  cavern  extended  under  the 
mountain  I  had  no  means  of  ascertaining.  I  fired  a  gun  there ;  the 
echoes  were  loud  and  oft-repeated.  That  cave  abounds  in  stalac¬ 
tites  and  stalagmites,  some  of  which  are  of  great  size,  reaching  from 
the  roof  to  the  floor,  and  were  grooved  like  fluted  columns.  They 
also  hang  like  inverted  candles  from  the  roof  above  the  pool.  I 
longed  for  a  boat  to  explore  the  mysteries  of  those  dark  and  wa¬ 
tery  labyrinths,  and  to  discover  the  hidden  sources  of  the  river  itself. 

This,  in  brief,  is  what  I  saw  in  those  caverns,  about  forty -five 
years  ago.  Long  after  that  I  had  my  desire  gratified  to  examine 
them  more  carefully.  In  September,  1873,  Messrs.  Maxwell  and 
Huxley,  agents  and  engineers  of  the  company  organized  in  London 
to  supply  Beirut  with  water  from  the  Dog  River,  resolved  to  ex¬ 
plore  the  caves,  and,  after  overcoming  many  difficulties,  they  finally 
succeeded.  They  had  small  boats,  or  rafts,  made  in  the  lower  cave, 


IOO 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


and  by  their  aid  soon  became  familiar  with  its  intricacies.  I  was 
invited  to  accompany  the  party,  consisting  of  Mr.  Huxley,  Dr. 
Brigstocke,  and  Mr.  Park¬ 
er,  on  one  of  their  explor¬ 


ing  excursions. 


Bliss’  Straits, 


We  reached  the 


^TVrappries^p  A  NTHEON 


■^Elephant  Cave 
030  yds. 


'MAXWELLS  PILLAR 

466  yds. 

nilow  Point  Light  House 

Hermit  Pillar  ^  ^Willow  Point 
_  jr.Jr  Hermit  Gallery 

Lul^ot,^g‘^C'''‘The  Dome 
23rd  Sept.  1873^ 

THE  SCREEN 

600  /. 


P.ustun  Tashas 
Chandelier 


yds. 


'  Bliss’ 


IIUXW  S  Br  1# 


Scale  of  Tee  t 


200 


400 


000 


MAP  OF  THE  GROTTOES. 


n?e  entrance  of  the  cavern  at  ten  o’clock, 

and  descending  to  the  river,  which  crosses 
the  cave,  as  described  in  the  account  of 
my  first  visit,  we  were  quickly  paddled, 
in  a  low  boat,  up  to  the  rock  called  the 
Screen.  The  Screen  is  one  mass  of 
rock,  that  appears  to  have  fallen  from  the  roof  above,  and  com¬ 
pletely  blocks  up  the  narrow  passage  of  the  river,  allowing  the 
water  to  pass  beneath  it.  It  is  about  fifteen  feet  high,  smooth 
and  slippery,  and  it  was 
with  some  difficulty  that 
we  climbed  to  the  top,  and 
descended  on  the  other 
side  to  where  the  boats 
were  in  which  our  excur¬ 
sion  was  to  be  made. 

Up  to  the  Screen  there 
was  nothing  very  striking 
to  be  observed,  except  the 
grand  vault  that  spanned 
the  deep  and  still  waters 
of  the  Dark  Lake,  as  the  ex¬ 
plorers  call  it.  Numerous 
stalactites  hung  from  the 
roof  of  the  vault,  and  the 
cool  and  clear  water  was 


THE  SCREEN. 


PROF.  ROBERTSON’S  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  GROTTOES. 


IOI 


twenty  feet  deep  on  the  lower  side  of  the  Screen.  Above  the 
Screen  a  great  cavern  extends  in  the  same  general  direction,  nearly 
north-east,  farther  than  our  lamps  and  candles  enabled  us  to  see. 
This  was  called  the  Cathedral  by  those  who  first  discovered  it — a 
party  consisting  of  Mr.  Maxwell  and  Mr.  Huxley,  of  the  Water¬ 
works  Company ;  Dr.  Bliss,  President  of  the  Syrian  Protestant  Col¬ 
lege  ;  and  Dr.  Brigstocke,  formerly  of  the  Royal  Navy. 

In  a  description  of  those  caverns,  written  by  Professor  James 
Robertson,  of  the  University,  Glasgow,  he  says:  “These  four,  to 
use  their  own  words,  ‘  bound  themselves  in  a  solemn  league  that 
they  would  either  explore  some  of  the  mysteries  mentioned  by 
Dr.  Thomson,  or  show  that  no  other  man  could.’  ”  When  the 
party  had,  with  great  difficulty,  scaled  the  top  of  the  Screen,  they 
“  could  discern,  by  the  dim  light  of  their  candles,  that  they  were 
in  the  presence  of  a  continuation  of  the  cavern,  of  much  vaster 
proportions  than  they  could  have  anticipated.  Groping  his  way 
along  the  lofty  ledge,  Mr.  Maxwell  reached  a  projecting  point  at 
the  farther  end  ;  and  as  he  fixed  his  candle,  and  took  out  his  note¬ 
book  and  compass  for  observation,  his  position  at  once  suggested 
to  his  companions  the  pulpit  in  a  great  cathedral,  the  screen  of 
which  was  the  barrier  of  rock  which  they  had  just  surmounted.” 

“  A  magnesium  wire  was  ignited,  and  the  beauties  of  this  sub¬ 
terranean  temple  of  Nature’s  workmanship  burst  upon  their  view. 
The  floor  was  a  lake  of  purest  water,  whose  reflection  intensified 
the  brightness  of  a  roof  and  walls  glistening  and  sparkling  as  with 
a  million  of  gems.  In  the  words  of  one  of  the  party,  ‘from  the 
lofty  vaulted  roof  and  precipitous  sides  hung  massive  stalactites, 
between  which  the  rocks  were  studded  with  others  of  a  more  slen¬ 
der  and  graceful  shape,  while  from  below  shot  up  in  wild  profu¬ 
sion  stalagmites  which  towered  aloft,  in  some  cases  almost  reaching 
their  pendent  companions.’ 

From  the  Cathedral  onwards  the  cavern  has  an  average  width 
of  forty  feet ;  but  the  roof  was  too  high,  in  most  places,  to  be 
seen  by  the  aid  of  our  brightest  lights.  There  are  many  strangely 
shaped  galleries  on  either  side,  and  stalactites  and  stalagmites  of 
every  possible  hue,  from  jet  black  to  pure  white,  and  of  every  size, 

1  Good  Words,  November,  1S75,  pp.  770,  771. 


102 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


MAXWELL  S  COLUMN. 


from  that  of  a  candle  up  to 
Maxwell’s  Column,  which  is 
fifty-five  feet  in  circumfer¬ 
ence,  and  rises  over  sixty 
feet  to  the  lofty  vault  above. 

That  splendid  column, 
“  standing  out  in  bold  re¬ 
lief,  with  fine  fluted  front, 
and  continued  to  the  rear 
in  a  mass  of  pendent  dra¬ 
pery,  like  a  great  curtain 
let  down  in  graceful  folds 
from  the  roof,”  is  an  emi¬ 
nently  appropriate  monu¬ 
ment  to  the  leader  of  that 
exploring  party.  It  is  four 
hundred  yards  from  the 
Pulpit,  and  between  them 
is  the  Hermit’s  Pillar,  and 
on  the  opposite  side  is  the  Hermit’s  Gallery.  The  lofty  roof  is 
called  the  Dome.  Then  follows  Willow  Point,  a  wonderful  sta¬ 
lactite  group  resembling  the 
drooping  branches  of  that 
tree;  and  near  to  it  is  Wil¬ 
low  Point  Light  -  house. 

About  two  hundred  yards 
farther  on  is  the  Elephant’s 
Cave,  beyond  which  is  Bliss’ 

Straits,  the  narrowest  and 
most  intricate  part  of  the 
cavern.  Some  three  hun¬ 
dred  yards  farther  eastward 
is  an  extraordinary  display 
of  pendent  stalactites  called 
the  Draperies. 

“  Still  another  two  hun¬ 
dred  yards,  and  the  explor- 


THE  PANTHEON. 


THE  GROTTOES  OF  NAHR  EL  IvELB.  103 

ers,  now  more  than  half  a  mile  under  ground,  find  themselves  in 
a  spacious  cavern,  whose  roof  is  lost  in  the  gloom.  Under  this 
dome,  standing  out  clear  as  alabaster  in  the  midst  of  the  darkness, 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  stalagmite  formations  of  the  grottoes, 
which,  from  its  resemblance  to  the  Pantheon,  has  been  distin¬ 
guished  by  that  name.”  Not  far  from  it,  where  the  cavern  is  nar¬ 
row,  and  the  roof  very  low,  is  Clayton’s  Passage.  “  Instead  of  the 
former  dazzling  whiteness,  the  walls  of  the  cavern  now  presented 
a  dull,  dark  appearance,  as  if  coated  over  with  pitch,  and  suggested 
for  the  waters  the  name  of 
the  Styx.”  A  peculiar  clus¬ 
ter  of  stalactites  is  called 
Rustum  Pasha’s  Chande¬ 
lier,  in  honor  of  the  Gover¬ 
nor-general  of  Lebanon. 

Above  the  place  where 
the  water  shoals,  and  the 
boat  was  brought  to  land, 
there  were  bowlders  and 
large  fragments  of  rock,  as 
black  as  Erebus,  piled  up 
in  one  confused  mass ; 
hence  the  name  Chaos. 

Through  that  debris  the 
river  finds  its  way  from 
above,  but  how  it  enters 
the  pool,  or  the  Styx,  we 
could  not  discover. 

After  lunch  we  climbed  up  the  slippery  rocks  of  Chaos  with 
great  caution,  each  of  us  having  a  long  stick  in  one  hand,  to  steady 
ourselves  by,  and  a  lighted  candle  in  the  other,  to  show  where  we 
could  safely  plant  our  feet.  Finally,  we  came  to  Huxley  and  Brig- 
stocke’s  Rapids,  where  the  river  rushes  down  to  and  amongst  the 
chaotic  mass  of  rocks  below.  We  groped  our  way  with  difficulty, 
some  on  one  side,  some  on  the  other.  The  stream  is  there  very 
narrow,  and,  in  attempting  to  leap  to  the  opposite  bank,  I  fell  in 
and  had  to  swim  out.  Though  we  reached  a  point  where  the  river 


104 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


again  expands  into  an  upper  lake,  there  was  no  practicable  passage 
along  its  banks,  and  we  were  obliged  to  retrace  our  steps  to  our 
boats  at  the  lower  end  of  Chaos. 

The  mystery  of  the  upper  lake  and  cavern  remains  yet  to  be 
solved.  Professor  Robertson  informs  us  that  “  in  the  autumn  of 
the  following  year  [1874]  three  of  the  party  attempted  to  find  out 
what  lay  beyond,  and  for  this  purpose  provided  themselves  with  a 
small  boat,  which  they  carried  in  pieces,  and  put  together  on  the 
rocks  at  the  foot  of  the  cataract.  But,  owing  to  a  severe  winter, 
the  water  was  found  running  at  double  the  speed  of  the  previous 
year,  and  it  was  evident  their  frail  craft  could  not  live  in  such  a 
torrent.  All  they  could  do,  by  scrambling  a  few  yards  along  the 
slippery  face  of  the  rock,  was  to  observe  that  there  was  smooth 
water  and  no  sound  on  the  other  side ;  but  future  explorers  must 
have  the  credit  of  making  known  what  lies  beyond  Huxley  and 
Brigstocke’s  Rapids.”1 

The  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  cave  was  sixty-two 
degrees,  the  air  pure  and  sweet,  and  that  of  the  water  sixty  de¬ 
grees.  In  some  places,  where  the  cavern  is  broad,  the  water  is 
not  more  than  two  feet  deep  ;  in  other  parts  the  depth  is  twenty, 
or  even  thirty  feet.  Though  I  was  for  several  hours  in  clothes  wet 
as  water  could  make  them,  I  experienced  no  inconvenience.  We 
emerged  from  the  mouth  of  the  cavern  after  sunset,  having  been 
underground  about  eight  hours. 

Professor  Robertson  closes  his  account  of  the  grottoes  of  Nahr 
el  Kelb  with  the  remark  that,  “  though  for  size  not  to  be  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  same  breath  with  the  Kentucky  Caves,  they  possess 
features  resembling  those  of  that  immense  labyrinth.  And  though 
devoid  of  animal  remains,  they  will  bear  comparison  with  any  of 
the  bone  caves  in  the  gorgeousness  of  their  draperies  and  the 
grandeur  of  their  stalactites.  The  caves  of  Derbyshire  will  bear 
no  comparison  with  them.  Adelsberg  has  been  explored  to  a 
greater  length  ;  but  the  distinctive  feature  of  the  Dog  River  caves 
is  that  the  river  itself  has  been  followed  three-fourths  of  a  mile 
underground  ;  for  from  Thomson’s  Cavern  to  the  Rapids  there  was 
no  perceptible  increase  or  diminution  of  the  waters.”2 

1  Good  Words,  November,  1875,  p.  773.  2  Good  Words,  November,  1875,  p.  773. 


THE  AQUEDUCT.— THE  WEIR. 


105 


Instead  of  returning  to  Beirut  by  the  way  we  came,  we  will 
pass  up  the  river  to  the  Weir,  constructed  by  the  Water-works 
Company  to  turn  so  much  of  the  stream  as  was  needed  into  their 
aqueduct.  This  detour  will  afford  a  good  view  of  the  wild,  rocky 
scenery  in  one  of  the  most  striking  specimens  of  a  picturesque 
river  gorge  to  be  found  even  on  goodly  Lebanon. 

That  aqueduct,  on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  appears  to  be 
carried  along  the  very  face  of  the  perpendicular  rock  overhanging 
the  north  bank  of  the  stream  ;  and  the  oleander  bushes  that  border 
its  course,  the  feathery  tufts  of  the  waving  cane,  and  the  festoons  of 
pendent  creepers  that  fringe  its  winding  way  are  all  very  beautiful. 

It  conveys  the  water  of  the  river  to  the  mills  both  above  and 
below  the  bridge.  From  a  point  a  short  distance  beyond  this  the 
view  westward  of  the  aqueduct  and  the  mills,  the  river  and  the 
bridge,  the  rocky  roadway  zigzagging  over  the  pass,  and  the  far- 
off  sea, -presents  a  picture  of  more  than  ordinary  attractions  to  the 
tourist  and  the  artist.  As  we  advance  up  the  glen  the  cliffs  on 
either  side  become  more  lofty  and  imposing ;  pine-groves  creep  up 
the  mountain-side,  and  here  and  there  a  Maronite  convent  crowns 
the  summit  of  the  gray  crags.  The  admirer  of  grand  and  roman¬ 
tic  scenery  will  be  amply  rewarded  for  the  loss  of  time,  and  the 
trouble  it  will  cost  in  order  to  reach  the  Weir. 

The  magnificent  mountain  scenery  above  and  around  this  weir 
makes  it  the  most  picturesque  dam  we  have  seen  in  the  country, 
and  the  strongest  and  best  built. 

The  engineers  of  the  Water-works  Company  desired  to  take  the 
water  direct  from  the  caverns,  but  the  land  there  belongs  to  the 
owners  of  the  mills  below  the  mouth  of  the  first  cave.  They  would 
not  sell  their  rights  upon  any  terms,  and  the  present  aqueduct  was 
necessarily  commenced  much  lower  down  the  river.  The  engineers 
found  great  difficulty  in  constructing  a  dam  capable  of  resisting  the 
winter  floods,  but  they  have  succeeded,  and  Beirut  is  now  provided 
from  here  with  the  pure  water  of  the  Dog  River. 

We  must  return  for  some  distance  by  the  same  watery  way, 
along  the  bank  and  through  the  river,  until  we  can  turn  out  of  the 
bed  of  the  stream  into  the  road  over  the  promontory  of  Nahr  el 
Kelb  made  by  the  engineers  of  the  company.  It  follows  the  line 


106  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

of  the  tunnel  through  the  mountain,  and  there  are  shafts  sunk  at 
intervals  to  the  water  below.  We  will  reach  the  sea  near  the  works 
which  they  constructed  to  force  the  water  through  the  iron  pipes 
up  to  the  reservoir  on  the  top  of  Mar  Mitr,  that  hill  above  the 
road  which  we  noticed  in  passing  this  morning. 

And  now  that  we  are  by  the  sad  sea  waves  once  more  we  may 
vary  the  monotony  of  this  tedious  ride  by  a  long  canter  over  the 
beach  ;  and  a  brisk  pace  through  the  mulberry  gardens  will  bring 
us  to  our  home  about  sunset,  in  the  cool  of  the  evening. 

June  5th. 

Beirut  has  spread  so  extensively  in  every  direction  over  the 
Ras,  or  cape,  and  through  the  mulberry  gardens,  that  one  must 
ride  around  it  before  he  can  form  any  adequate  idea  of  the  place. 
Our  horses  are  ready,  and  this  morning  we  will  descend  directly  to 
the  sea-shore  by  the  French  road  that  passes  along  the  west  side 
of  the  old  town,  near  the  line  of  the  ancient  wall. 

These  extensive  buildings  on  our  left  are  the  Government  bar¬ 
racks  and  the  hospital ;  and  this  edifice  across  the  way  is  the  Capu¬ 
chin  monastery  and  church,  built  against  a  portion  of  the  former 
land  castle  of  Beirut  in  this  vicinity. 

The  broad  road  on  our  left  leads  westward  along  the  ridge  to 
Ras  Beirut,  and  that  large  establishment  on  the  north  side  of  it, 
surrounded  by  a  high  wall,  and  embowered  in  trees,  is  the  institute 
and  high  school  of  the  Prussian  Deaconesses  of  Kaiserwerth,  and 
there  also  is  the  German  church. 

A  short  distance  down  that  narrow  street  is  Khan  Antun  Beg, 
the  most  attractive  public  building  in  Beirut.  Private  families  oc¬ 
cupy  the  upper  stories,  and  merchants  have  offices  and  warehouses 
in  the  lower  portions.  The  Imperial  Ottoman  Bank  and  the  Con¬ 
sulates  and  post-offices  of  several  foreign  countries  are  also  located 
there.  Here  on  the  right  is  a  Moslem  cemetery,  occupying  an  ex¬ 
ceedingly  valuable  site  for  business  purposes ;  and  there,  above  the 
sea  and  the  road,  and  commanding  a  fine  prospect  of  the  bay  and 
the  mountains,  are  some  of  the  principal  hotels  of  the  place. 

The  shore,  I  perceive,  is  quite  irregular,  rocky  and  precipitous 
in  some  parts,  having  numerous  coves  and  indentations  which  may 
have  been  utilized  as  harbors  in  ancient  times. 


THE  WEIR  ACROSS  NAHR  EL  KELB, 


THE  SUBURBS  OF  BEIRUT. 


107 


They,  no  doubt,  were ;  and  this  rubble-work,  these  old  founda¬ 
tions,  and  those  excavations  in  the  rock  are,  probably,  the  remains 
of  ancient  baths,  and  places  of  public  resort.  They  must  have  been 
as  generally  frequented  as  their  miserable  successors,  constructed 
of  wood  and  covered  over  with  mats,  are  at  this  day. 

This  inlet,  larger  and  better  protected  than  the  rest,  is  Minat 
Husein,  commonly  called  Minat  el  Husn,  “the  beautiful  harbor;’’ 
but  the  water  is  not  deep  enough  for  ships,  and  its  accommoda¬ 
tions  are  very  limited.  Even  these  picturesque  Greek  sloops,  or 
“sponge  divers,”  as  they  are  styled,  now  riding  at  anchor  so  closely 
and  quietly  there,  would  be  dashed  to  pieces  during  the  winter 
storms.  These  low  warehouses  are  mainly  used  for  the  storage  of 
cargoes  of  petroleum  from  America,  or  of  coal  for  the  steamers. 
And  on  the  point  opposite  that  coffee-shop  is  the  ship-building 
yard,  where  vessels  of  small  tonnage  are  repaired,  and  new  ones  con¬ 
structed  after  the  model  and  rig  of  the  old-fashioned  bomb-ketch. 

Here  are  the  potteries  and  tanneries,  but  as  we  have  seen  the 
same  industries  at  Jaffa,  Gaza,  and  elsewhere  we  need  not  turn 
aside  to  examine  them.  These  steps  cut  in  the  rock  lead  down, 
as  you  perceive,  to  the  water  in  this  well.  It  is  “  inhabited  ”  by  a 
saint  or  a  demon,  I  am  not  certain  which.  At  any  rate,  either  the 
well  or  the  spirit,  or  both,  are  “  possessed  ”  of  healing  virtues,  for 
the  walls  are  sometimes  dimly  illuminated  with  burning  rag-wicks 
in  small  oil-lamps,  votive  offerings  to  the  genius  of  the  place. 

That  building  on  the  hill  is  the  Hospital  of  St.John,  and  is  in 
charge  of  the  Prussian  Deaconesses  of  Kaiserwerth.  These  on  the 
ridge  above  us  are,  first,  the  Medical  Hall  of  the  Syrian  Protestant 
College ;  then  the  College  itself,  and  next  to  it  is  the  house  of  the 
President.  Beyond  that,  and  advantageously  situated  on  a  project¬ 
ing  spur  of  the  main  ridge,  which  descends  steeply  to  the  sea,  is 
the  Lee  Observatory,  erected  in  part  by  the  gift  of  the  Hon.  Henry 
Lee,  M.P.,  of  Manchester,  England. 

They  occupy  a  conspicuous  position,  and  must  command  a 
magnificent  prospect  far  out  to  sea,  over  the  city,  across  the  bay, 
and  up  to  the  lofty  summit  of  Lebanon. 

There  is  no  site  equal  to  it  at  the  head  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  extensive  grounds  are  becoming  more  attractive.  Fine 


io8 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


houses  are  being  built  in  this  neighborhood,  the  residences  mostly 
of  Europeans  and  Americans.  When  I  first  came  to  this  country 
there  was  not  a  house  on  all  the  cape  above  us.  I  have  seen  not 
only  foxes  and  jackals  but  hyenas  also  prowling  about  amongst 
the  rocks.  The  former  have  almost  entirely  withdrawn  to  the 
mountains,  and  are  now  rarely  seen  or  heard  in  this  region,  and 
the  latter  have  long  since  disappeared. 

We  will  continue  our  ride  westward  for  half  an  hour,  along 
the  shore,  to  Ras  Beirut,  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  cape. 

There  is  the  light-house,  I  suppose,  so  welcome  to  the  eyes  of 
sailors  approaching  this  cape  on  a  dark  and  stormy  night  ? 

It  is  called  el  Fanar,  and  it  commands  an  extended  outlook 
over  the  sea — north  as  far  as  Ras  esh  Shukah,  or  Theoprosopon, 
and  southward  down  to  the  Ladder  of  Tyre,  a  distance  of  more 
than  eighty  miles;  while  the  outlook  westward  over  this  “great 
and  wide  sea”  is  boundless.  The  light-house  system  on  this  coast 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  French  company. 

These  numerous  inlets  are  quite  peculiar,  and  seem  as  though 
made  specially  to  enable  fishermen  to  reach  the  land  along  this 
rocky  shore,  as  appears  from  these  small  boats  anchored  in  them. 

Some  of  them  lead  into  extensive  caverns.  I  have  often 
brought  my  boat  into  the  inlet  above  which  we  are  now  standing, 
and  landed  in  the  deep  and  dark  cave  beneath  our  feet.  There  are 
several  other  caverns  in  these  bold  and  precipitous  cliffs,  which  can 
be  easily  entered  and  explored  in  a  boat  when  the  water  is  calm. 
Aside,  however,  from  the  fact  that  they  have  been  formed  by  the 
action  of  the  waves,  there  is  nothing  within  them  of  special  inte¬ 
rest  to  see  or  to  discover.  Pigeons  and  swallows  are  generally  seen 
flying  in  or  out  of  these  caves,  and  on  one  occasion  I  was  startled 
and  astonished  by  the  floundering  past  me  of  two  seals,  or  sea-cows, 
as  they  are  called  by  the  natives.  They  must  have  entirely  lost 
their  reckoning  and  been  driven  upon  these  shores  by  the  winter 
storms,  and  had  taken  refuge  in  one  of  the  caves.  Some  fisher¬ 
men  subsequently  caught  one  of  them,  and  it  was  exhibited  to 
wondering  crowds  in  the  market-place  of  the  city. 

There  is  the  Rousha.  Those  two  gigantic  and  weather-beaten 
crags,  the  last  remnant  of  the  old  coast  line,  stand  out  alone  in  grim 


ER  ROUSHA—  PIGEON  ISLAND. 


IO9 


ER  ROUSHA — PIGEON  ISLAND. 


isolation,  as  if  in  defiance  of  the  elements  that  have  overthrown  and 
swept  away  all  that  once  rose  above  this  tumultuous  sea,  and  con¬ 
nected  them  with  the  main-land.  The  rock  of  which  they  are  com¬ 
posed,  being  harder  and  more  compact,  has  resisted  the  action  of 
the  water,  while  all  east  of  them  has  been  washed  away,  and  the 
waves  now  break  against  the  perpendicular  cliffs  in  wild  commo¬ 
tion.  It  is  possible  that  this  semicircular  and  rock-bound  bay  at 
our  feet  was  once  covered  by  a  series  of  deep  and  lofty  caverns, 
the  superincumbent  roof  of  which  was  shaken  down  by  earth¬ 
quakes,  and  the  fallen  rubbish  has  been  carried  out  to  sea  by 
storms  and  tempests  during  the  long  ages  of  the  past. 


I  10 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Ibrahim  Pasha,  after  the  conquest  of  this  country  by  the  Egyp¬ 
tians,  enforced  a  sweeping  conscription  amongst  the  Moslems,  in 
order  to  recruit  his  army  then  marching  northward  against  the 
Sultan.  The  people  regarded  such  a  conscription  with  abhorrence, 
and  to  escape  from  it  young  and  old  sought  the  protection  of  the 
European  consuls,  merchants,  and  foreign  residents.  Our  houses 
were  crowded  with  refugees.  Many  fled  to  the  mountains ;  others 
hid  in  old  wells,  empty  cisterns,  and  caves.  A  few,  pursued  by 
the  Egyptian  soldiers,  fled  to  this  place ;  and  while  some  vainly 
endeavored  to  conceal  themselves  in  the  caverns  below,  others 
threw  themselves  into  the  sea,  and,  swimming  to  the  Rousha, 
climbed  to  the  top  of  those  rocky  pinnacles.  There  they  were 
besieged,  however,  and  fired  upon  by  the  soldiers,  and  finally  hun¬ 
ger  and  thirst  compelled  them  to  surrender. 

These  perpendicular  cliffs  rise  to  a  height  of  about  two  hun¬ 
dred  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  Rousha  towers  still  higher. 
During  the  winter  storms  it  is  sometimes  dangerous  to  stand  here. 
Creeping  up  to  the  edge  and  looking  down,  the  scene  is  weird  and 
wild  beyond  description.  Far  as  the  eye  can  follow  tumultuous 
“white  caps”  advance  rank  on  rank.  The  fierceness  of  the  gale, 
the  dashing  of  the  great  waves  high  up  the  cliffs,  and  the  deafen¬ 
ing  roar,  are  but  features  in  tlie  great  struggle  below;  and  the 
Rousha,  swept  by  the  waves,  and  half  -  concealed  by  the  flying 
spray,  presents  an  appearance  as  grand  as  it  is  sublime. 

In  the  chalky  rocks  some  distance  to  the  south  of  this  are 
numerous  petrified  echini,  in  admirable  preservation,  like  those  in 
the  cliffs  below  Burj  el  Musheirifeh,  at  the  south-western  extremity 
of  the  Ladder  of  Tyre.  I  have  collected  many  specimens  of  them. 

We  will  now  ride  over  the  sandy  desert,  south-eastward  to  the 
quarries,  from  which  the  building-stone  of  Beirut  is  taken. 

This  sand-sea  is  the  same  which  spreads  southward  for  several 
miles,  I  suppose,  that  we  crossed  in  coming  from  Sidon  ? 

Its  origin  was  probably  in  this  vicinity,  and  its  billows,  some 
twenty,  some  forty,  and  some  even  sixty  feet  high,  have  rolled  in¬ 
wards  and  spread  themselves  far  and  wide  for  miles  over  the  plain. 
Were  it  not  for  the  modern  residences  and  broad  streets  on  Ras 
Beirut,  this  sea  of  sand  would  sweep  over  the  cape  northward  and 


QUARRIES.— CACTUS  HEDGES.— THE  PINES. 


I  I  I 


reach  the  sea  at  Minat  el  Husn.  It  has  already  overwhelmed  most 
of  the  mulberry  gardens,  and  half-buried  many  of  the  low  houses 
on  the  outskirts  of  the  city  in  that  direction. 

These  long  lines  of  stolid,  woe-begone  donkeys,  toiling  through 
this  deep  sand  with  such  heavy  loads  of  rough  stone  upon  their 
backs,  are  evidently  coming  from  the  quarries. 

All  the  houses  of  Beirut  have  thus  been  upon  the  backs  of 
donkeys.  The  quarriers  not  only  dig  down  these  high  ridges  on 
our  right,  but  penetrate  through  the  superincumbent  soil  to  a 
considerable  depth,  until  the  formation  gives  out,  or  becomes  so 
friable  as  to  be  useless.  This  entire  south-western  part  of  the 
plain  has  been  thus  ransacked,  and  the  mulberry-trees  which  you 
now  see  growing  above  quarries  were  planted  there  after  they 
had  been  worked  out,  and  the  soil  replaced  over  them. 

We  will  now  have  a  pleasant  ramble  eastward,  through  nar¬ 
row  lanes  with  low  walls,  surmounted  by  impenetrable  prickly-pear 
hedges,  an  example  of  what  all  the  pathways  around  the  city  were 
like  fifty  years  ago.  These  cactus  hedges  grow  to  a  very  large 
size  here,  and  the  prickly  pears  are  arranged  upon  the  thorny 
leaves  as  closely  as  they  can  be  packed.  I  have  counted  upwards 
of  fifty  “  pears  ”  on  a  single  leaf.  When  the  thorny  rind  of  the 
fruit  is  removed  the  “core”  is  a  mass  of  seeds  and  pulp,  about  the 
size  of  a  hen’s  egg.  In  July  and  August  great  quantities  of  prickly 
pears  are  eaten,  not  only  by  the  natives  but  also  by  foreigners,  who 
soon  become  extremely  fond  of  them.  Eaten  in  the  morning,  after 
they  have  lain  in  cold  water  over  night,  they  are  delicious. 

We  are  now  passing  along  the  pine-groves  south-west  of  Beirut 
which  we  saw  on  our  way  from  Sidon. 

They  are  all  alike,  with  no  mixture  of  any  other  kind  of  tree, 
and  quite  the  feature  in  this  neighborhood. 

They  were  sown  just  as  wheat  or  corn  would  be.  The  pine 
seeds,  brought  from  the  forests  on  Lebanon,  were  scattered  over 
the  sandy  soil,  and  ploughed  under  during  the  rainy  season.  The 
young  plants  were,  of  course,  too  close  together,  and  were  gradu¬ 
ally  thinned  out,  and  the  rest  pruned  as  they  grew  up.  I  saw  this 
grove  thus  sown  in  the  winter  of  1846,  by  Mahmud  Beg,  the  Egyp¬ 
tian  Governor  of  Beirut.  Farther  south  are  extensive  groves  of 


» 


I  12 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


EL  HORSH — THE  PINES. 

these  trees  only  a  few  years  old.  Above  that  dense  forest  of  larger 
trees  to  the  eastward  towered  many  splendid  old  pines,  which  were 
said  to  have  been  sown  by  Fakhr  ed  Din,  the  famous  Druse  emir. 
They  rose  without  a  limb  to  a  height  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  and 
then  spread  out  their  branches  like  an  immense  parasol,  covered 


THE  SYCAMORE-TREE.— THE  PROPHET  AMOS.  1 1 3 

over  with  green  leaves.  They  added  greatly  to  the  picturesque 
appearance  of  that  grove ;  but  year  after  year  one  or  more  of  them 
was  struck  by  lightning  and  killed,  or  thrown  down  by  the  wind, 
and  now  but  few  of  those  venerable  patriarchs  remain. 

I  am  always  expecting  to  look  upon  sights  and  scenes  that 
suggest  topics  of  Biblical  interest,  and  here  is  one.  This  large  old 
tree  is  a  striking  specimen  of  the  Syrian  sycamore.  I  once  heard 
an  itinerant  preacher  in  the  “  backwoods  ”  puzzle  himself  and  his 
hearers  with  a  doubtful  criticism  about  the  tree  into  which  Zac- 
cheus  climbed  to  see  Jesus.1  He  and  his  audience  were  familiar 
only  with  the  sycamores  of  our  flat  river  bottoms,  tall  as  a  steeple, 
and  smooth  as  hypocrisy.  “Why,”  said  the  orator,  “a  squirrel 
can’t  climb  them.”  The  conclusion  reached  was  that  the  syca¬ 
more  must  have  been  a  mulberry-tree. 

Nothing  is  easier  than  to  climb  these  sycamores;  and,  in  fact, 
boys  and  girls  are  often  seen  in  them.  The  sycamore  is  found 
by  the  way-side,  and  in  open  spaces  where  several  roads  meet,  just 
where  Zaccheus  found  it ;  and  as  its  giant  branches  stretch  quite 
across  the  roadway,  those  on  them  can  look  directly  down  upon  the 
crowd  passing  beneath.  It  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose 
for  which  he  selected  it.  It  is  a  remarkable  tree.  It  not  only  bears 
more  than  one  crop  of  figs  during  the  year,  but  the  fruit  grows 
on  short  stems  along  the  trunk  and  large  branches,  and  not  at  the 
end  of  twigs,  as  in  other  fruit-bearing  trees.  The  figs  are  small, 
and  of  a  yellow  color.  At  Gaza  and  Askelon  they  are  of  a  purple 
tinge,  and  much  larger  than  in  this  part  of  the  country.  They  are 
carried  to  market  in  great  quantities,  and  appear  to  be  more  valued 
there  than  here.  Still,  they  are,  at  best,  very  insipid,  and  only  the 
poorer  classes  gather  sycamore  figs  and  eat  them.  This  agrees 
with  and  explains  the  allusion  of  Amos.  He  had  aroused  the 
wrath  of  Jeroboam  by  the  severity  of  his  rebukes,  and,  being 
advised  to  flee  for  his  life,  excuses  himself  by  a  statement  which 
implies  that  he  belonged  to  the  humblest  class  of  the  community : 
“  I  was  no  prophet,  neither  was  I  a  prophet’s  son  ;  but  I  was  an 
herdman,  and  a  gatherer  of  sycamore  fruit.”2 

The  sycamore  is  easily  propagated  merely  by  planting  a  stout 
1  Luke  xix.  1-6.  a  Amos  vii.  14.  See  illustration  on  page  115. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


1 14 


EL  JIMAIS — THE  SYCAMORE. 


branch  in  the  ground,  and  watering  it  until  it  has  struck  out  roots, 
which  it  does  with  great  rapidity,  and  in  every  direction.  It  was 
probably  with  reference  to  this  latter  fact  that  our  blessed  Lord 

selected  it  to  illustrate  the  power  of  faith. 
“  If  ye  had  faith  as  a  grain  of  mustard  seed, 
ye  might  say  unto  this  sycamine  tree,  Be 
thou  plucked  up  by  the  root,  and  be  thou 
planted  in  the  sea;  and  it  should  obey  you.”1 
Now,  look  at  this  tree — its  ample  girth,  its 
widespread  limbs,  branching  off  from  the 
trunk  only  a  few  feet  above  the  ground ; 
then  examine  its  roots,  almost  as  thick,  as 
numerous,  and  as  wide-spread  into  the  deep 
soil  as  the  branches  extend  into  the  air — a  very  type  of  invincible 
steadfastness.  What  power  can  pluck  up  such  a  tree?  Heaven’s 

1  Luke  xvii.  6. 


SYCAMORE  FIGS. 


THE  POWER  OF  FAITH. —THE  SYCAMINE  -  TREE.  1 1  5 

thunder-bolt  may  strike  it  down,  the  wild  tornado  may  tear  it  to 
fragments,  but  nothing  short  of  miraculous  power  can  fairly  pluck 
up  these  Syrian  sycamores  by  the  roots. 

I  have  but  faint  ideas  of  a  faith  that  could  pluck  up  and  plant 
in  the  sea  such  a  tree  as  that ;  and  these  facts  certainly  add  great 


SELLER  OF  SYCAMORE  FRUIT. 


emphasis  to  the  “parable  of  our  Lord.”  You  are  doubtless  aware, 
however,  that  most  critics  maintain  that  the  sycamine-tree  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  New  Testament  was  the  black  mulberry. 

I  have  ventured  to  adopt  the  rendering  of  the  Arabic  Bible, 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


ii6 

where  the  sycamine  is  translated  sycamore,  believing  that  there  is 
no  certain  evidence  that  the  mulberry  was  known  in  this  country 
in  Biblical  times,  although  our  translators  have  mentioned  it  in  one 
or  more  places.  The  mulberry,  whether  black  or  white,  is  more 
easily  plucked  up  by  the  roots  than  other  trees  of  the  same  size 
in  the  country,  and  that  is  oftener  done.  Hundreds  of  them  are 
uprooted  every  year  in  this  vicinity  and  brought  to  the  city,  where 
the  trunks  are  sold  to  carpenters,  and  the  roots  and  branches  are 
used  for  firewood.  Many  are  also  undermined  by  the  winter  tor¬ 
rents  and  swept  away  into  the  sea.  It  is  not  probable  that  He 
who  spoke  as  “  never  man  spake  ”  would  select  a  mulberry-tree, 
even  if  it  existed  at  that  time,  with  its  short,  feeble  roots,  to  illus¬ 
trate  the  irresistible  power  of  faith. 

In  regard  to  the  sycamore,  it  may  be  well  to  notice  that  in  the 
dry,  hot  climate  of  Egypt  the  wood  was  very  durable,  and  was  ex¬ 
tensively  used  for  boxes,  idols,  and  mummy  cases.  In  this  country 
neither  the  wood  nor  the  fruit  are  of  much  value,  and  the  tree  can¬ 
not  bear  the  cold.  A  sharp  frost  will  kill  it ;  and  this  agrees  with 
the  fact  that  they  were  so  killed  in  Egypt.  Amongst  the  wonders 
wrought  by  the  Lord  “in  the  field  of  Zoan,”  David  says,  “  He  de¬ 
stroyed  their  vines  with  hail,  and  their  sycamore  trees  with  frost.”1 
A  frost  keen  enough  to  kill  the  sycamores  would  be  a  great 
“wonder”  at  the  present  day  in  that  same  field  of  Zoan. 

The  sycamore  flourishes  best  in  sandy  plains  and  warm  vales. 
In  the  time  of  David  they  appear  to  have  been  planted  in  groves, 
like  the  olive,  for  we  read  that  he  appointed  an  overseer  “  over  the 
olive  trees  and  the  sycamore  trees  that  were  in  the  low  plains.”2 
They  must  have  been  esteemed  of  little  value  in  the  days  of  Solo¬ 
mon,  for,  when  even  silver  was  nothing  accounted  of  in  Jerusalem, 
he  made  “  cedars  to  be  as  the  sycamore  trees  that  are  in  the  vale, 
for  abundance.”3  In  the  time  of  the  prophet  Isaiah  the  cedar 
takes  the  place  of  the  sycamore,  and  “  Ephraim  and  the  inhabitants 
of  Samaria  say,  in  pride  and  stoutness  of  heart,  the  sycamores  are 
cut  down,  but  we  will  change  them  into  cedars.”4 

Our  road  has  brought  us  into  ’Assur,  as  this  sandy  open  space 
just  south  of  the  old  wall  of  the  city  is  called.  It  was  formerly 
1  Psa.  lxxviii.  43,  47.  2  1  Chron.  xxvii.  28.  9  1  Kings  x.  27.  4  Isa.  ix.  9,  10. 


THE  PROTESTANT  CEMETERY.— THE  MISSION  PREMISES.  I  1 7 

much  larger  than  now,  and  shaded  by  a  number  of  wide-spreading 
sycamore-trees,  but  they  have  nearly  all  disappeared. 

The  Protestant  Cemetery,  where  rest  in  peace  many  who  were 
greatly  beloved  in  their  day  and  generation,  even  by  the  natives 
of  every  class  and  creed,  and  whose  memory  is  revered  by  all,  is 
directly  above  the  west  end  of  ’Assur.  The  printing  establishment 
of  the  American  Mission  overlooks  the  cemetery,  and  adjoining  it 
is  the  Bible  House.  The  Anglo-American  church  edifice  is  far¬ 
ther  up,  on  the  same  premises,  and  back  of  that  is  the  large  and 
flourishing  Female  Seminary  of  the  Mission. 


ANGLO-AMERICAN  CHURCH. 


I  am  reminded  by  the  locality  of  a  most  extraordinary  scene 
which  I  saw  enacted  in  this  ’Assur.  Early  on  the  morning  of  May 
9th,  1847,  the  Pe°ple  °f  Beirut  were  seen  hurrying  along  the  road 
towards  Sidon,  evidently  to  participate  in  some  great  pageant.  I 
soon  ascertained  that  two  venerated  pilgrims  were  returning  from 
Mecca,  and  that  the  dervishes  and  their  sheikhs,  who  make  some 
bold  attempts  at  supernatural  manifestations,  and  sometimes  with 


I  is 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


singular  success,  were  to  perform  extraordinary  feats  on  that  occa¬ 
sion.  The  whole  city,  male  and  female,  rushed  along  the  road  to 
meet  the  pilgrims,  with  banners,  tambourines,  cymbals,  and  other 
musical  instruments,  singing,  dancing,  and  clapping  their  hands. 
In  about  an  hour  they  returned.  The  crowd  was  now  very  large, 
and  the  countenances  of  many  exhibited  signs  of  the  most  intense 
excitement  and  eager  expectation. 

In  front  of  the  procession  which  now  appeared  came  four  flags, 
green,  yellow,  white,  and  black,  the  staffs  being  surmounted  with 
a  double  crescent  of  metal.  Behind  these  were  a  number  of  der¬ 
vishes  from  a  distance,  dancing  with  all  their  might,  and  performing 
their  most  fantastic  and  fanatical  feats  of  legerdemain.  They  were 
naked  to  the  waist,  wore  tall,  conical  caps  of  felt,  and  were  the 
vilest  and  most  savage -looking  creatures  I  ever  saw.  Some  of 
them  carried  short  iron  pikes,  the  heads  of  which  were  balls  as 
large  as  oranges,  with  many  spikes  and  chains  attached  to  them. 
The  sharp  end  of  these  instruments  they  struck  with  great  vio¬ 
lence  into  their  cheeks  and  about  their  eyes,  and  so  deeply  that 
they  hung  suspended  without  being  held  by  the  hand.  I  do  not 
know  how  this  is  performed,  though  I  have  seen  it  done  since,  and 
have  examined  the  instrument.  Others  had  long,  spindle-like  spikes 
thrust  through  from  cheek  to  cheek.  I  saw  that  done  also  by  a 
dervish  in  my  house  ;  but  he  had  long  before  made  holes  in  his 
cheeks,  which  had  healed  up,  like  those  through  the  ears  for  rings. 
These  his  bushy  beard  completely  concealed. 

The  frantic  behavior  of  the  officiating  fanatics  in  that  ceremony 
reminded  me  of  the  conduct  of  the  priests  of  Baal  on  Mount  Car¬ 
mel,  who  leaped  upon  the  altar  and  “  cried  aloud,  and  cut  them¬ 
selves  after  their  manner  with  knives  and  lancets,  till  the  blood 
gushed  out  upon  them.”1  I  have  seen  the  blood  streaming  from 
wounds  self-inflicted  by  Moslem  dervishes  and  fanatical  sheikhs. 

After  those  dervishes  came  four  more  flags;  then  two  very  holy 
sheikhs,  riding  on  small  horses.  They  pretended  to  be  altogether 
absorbed  and  wrapped  up  in  devotion,  prayed  incessantly,  with  their 
eyes  closed,  and  took  no  notice  of  the  large  and  tumultuous  crowd 
around  them.  The  frantic  people  prostrated  themselves  on  the 

1  I  Kings  xviii.  26,  28. 


THE  DOUSEH  UPON  'ASSUR.  1 19 

ground  before  them,  kissed  their  broad  stirrups  or  the  flags,  but 
most  of  all  the  two  pilgrims  from  Mecca,  who  now  made  their  ap¬ 
pearance,  and  seemed  to  be  tired  out,  and  in  danger  of  being  kissed 
to  death  by  relatives,  friends,  and  acquaintances. 

Just  at  the  entrance  into  ’Assur  a  long  pavement  of  men  and 
boys  was  formed  in  the  following  manner :  the  first  lay  on  his  face, 
with  his  head  to  the  south  ;  the  next  with  feet  to  the  south,  and  so 
on,  heads  and  feet,  to  the  end  of  this  living  corduroy  causeway,  the 


ED  DOUSEH — THE  TREADING. 


people  crowding  them  along  the  line  as  close  to  one  another  as 
possible.  A  dense  mass  of  spectators  on  either  side  formed  a  lane, 
along  which  the  two  sheikhs  actually  rode,  from  end  to  end,  on  top 
of  the  men  and  boys.  I  stood  on  a  terrace  directly  above  them, 
and  witnessed  the  whole  performance,  and  saw  the  men  and  boys 
jump  up  again  apparently  unhurt.  My  Moslem  servant  was  one  of 
them,  and  he  assured  me  that  the  sheikhs’  horses  were  not  heavier 


120 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


than  cats.  The  thing  is  not  difficult  to  explain.  The  men  and 
boys  were  close  together,  the  ground  soft  and  sandy,  the  horses 
small,  their  shoes  flat  and  smooth,  and  they  walked  as  if  treading 
on  eggs ;  and  yet  many  of  the  lads  were  really  bruised,  and  some 
seriously  injured.  The  whole  scene,  however,  was  demoniacal  in 
the  extreme.  It  is  called  ed  Douseh,  the  treading,  and  is  accom¬ 
panied  with  many  superstitious  ceremonies. 

We  have  completed  the  circuit  of  that  part  of  Beirut  and  its 
suburbs  lying  west  of  the  Damascus  road,  and  have  now  returned 
to  the  gate  of  our  house  from  whence  we  started  this  morning. 


MOVING  TO  THE  MOUNTAINS. 


1 2  I 


IV. 

BEIRUT  TO  SHEMLAN. 

A  Mountain  House. — Moving  to  the  Mountains. — Modern  Summer  Residences. — Leba¬ 
non  a  Favorite  Summer  Retreat. — Dames  de  Nazareth. — The  Sisters  of  Charity. — 
Silk  Factory. — Cocoons. — Export  of  Silk. — The  Pines. — The  Damascus  Road. — No 
Trace  of  an  Ancient  Highway  over  Lebanon. — ’Areiya. — El  Mughiteh. — Jebel  el 
Keniseh. — El  Buka’a. — Shtora. — Mejdel  ’Anjar. — Anti-Lebanon. — Diligences. — Bag¬ 
gage-wagons. — The  Carriage-drive. — Canals. — Rustem  Pasha’s  Bridge. — Khan  el  Has- 
miyeh. — The  Plain. — The  Palm-tree. — Phoenicia. — Hebrew  Women  Named  after  the 
Palm-tree. — Biblical  Allusions  to  the  Palm-tree. — Palm-branches  an  Emblem  of  Re¬ 
joicing. —  Bethany,  the  House  of  Dates. —  Clusters  of  Dates. — El  Hadeth. —  Shehab 
Emirs. — As’ad  esh  Shediak. — History  of  Lebanon. — B’abda. — Geodes  of  Quartz. — 
Blind  Beggar  by  the  Way-side. — The  Carob-tree. — St.  John’s  Bread. — “The  Husks.” 
— Syrup. — Dukkan  el  Wurwar. — Nahr  el  Ghiidir. — Wady  Shahrur. — Kefr  Shima. — 
Terraced  Hill-sides. — Sarcophagi. — Protestant  Chapel. — Soap. — Ascent  of  the  Moun¬ 
tain. — Deir  el  Kurkufeh. — Anemones  and  Cyclamens. — Pine-grove. — Sandstone  For¬ 
mation. — Road  to  Aitath. — ’Ain  Bsaba. — Mountain  Scenery. — ’Ain  ’Anoub. — Village 
Fountain. — Road  to  Shemlan. — Summer  Eve  on  Lebanon. — Shemlan. — Lebanon  a 
Range  of  Mountains. — Dean  Stanley. — “The  White  Mountain.” — Rains  and  Snows 
on  Lebanon. — Geological  Characteristics  of  Lebanon. — Conspicuous  Summits  of  Leb¬ 
anon. — The  Rivers  of  Lebanon. — The  Natural  Bridge. — Temple  of  Venus. — Birth¬ 
place  of  Adonis. —  Cedar-groves. —  Convent  of  Kanobin. —  Orthosia. —  The  Seaward 
Face  of  Lebanon. — The  Orontes. — The  Eastern  Side  of  Lebanon. — El  Berduny. — 
Fountains  at  Meshghurah. — Villages  on  Lebanon. — Biblical  Allusions  to  Lebanon. — 
Moses,  David,  Solomon,  Isaiah. — Goodly  Lebanon. — The  Province  of  Tripoli  and  that 
of  Sidon. — Districts  of  Lebanon. — Emir  Beshir  Shebah. — Ibrahim  Pasha. — The  Allied 
Powers. — Civil  Wars  and  Massacres. — The  Present  Form  of  Government. — Population 
of  Lebanon. — The  Muhammedans  and  Metawileh. — The  Greeks  and  Greek  Catholics. 
— The  Maronites  and  Druses. 

July  2d. 

We  move  to  our  summer  residence  on  the  mountains  to-day, 
and  the  confusion  brings  to  mind  the  way  such  removals  were  ac¬ 
complished  half  a  century  ago,  and,  indeed,  until  quite  recently.  In 
1836  I  rented  a  house  in  Brummana  for  the  small  sum  of  one  dollar 
and  a  half  a  month.  It  had  three  rooms,  such  as  they  were,  with 
I 


122 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


but  one  door,  and  a  small  window  without  glass,  in  each  room. 
The  low  roofs  were  black  with  smoke,  festooned  with  dusty  cob¬ 
webs,  and  infested  with  a  lively  colony  of  fleas.  The  rooms  were 
used  for  raising  silk-worms,  and  possession  of  them  could  not  be 
obtained  until  the  cocoons  had  been  removed,  which  was  done 
about  the  1st  of  July.  The  earthen  floors  were  then  covered  with 
a  thin  coating  of  clay,  and  rubbed  smooth  with  a  large  pebble. 
The  walls  were  roughly  “  whitewashed”  with  clay,  but  without  lime, 
and  then  the  premises  were  pronounced  ready  for  occupation.  It 
is  needless  to  add  that  all  the  work  was  done  by  the  women  of 
the  family,  who  appear  to  be  natural  adepts  in  such  occupations. 

Every  article  needed  for  keeping  house,  bedding  and  bedsteads, 
tables  and  chairs,  miscellaneous  furniture,  kitchen  utensils,  stores  of 
provisions,  and  the  many  et  caeteras  which  our  mode  of  life  on  the 
mountains  renders  necessary,  had  to  be  transported  on  donkeys, 
mules,  or  camels,  and  sad  havoc  of  such  articles  was  always  made 
in  the  transfer.  Broken  dishes,  dislocated  chairs,  and  crippled  ta¬ 
bles  rendered  “  moving  to  the  mountains  ”  not  only  an  aggravation, 
but  also  a  source  of  considerable  expense.  Of  course  the  tables 
and  chairs  soon  made  large  holes  in  the  soft  earthen  floors,  not¬ 
withstanding  the  protection  of  mats  and  carpets,  and  they  had  to 
be  frequently  repaired,  not  merely  to  mend  the  broken  places,  but 
also  to  expel  the  fleas  that  increased  in  almost  countless  numbers 
and  found  a  congenial  element  in  the  fine  clay  dust. 

All  these  things  have  now  passed  away.  As  the  number  of 
families  seeking  summer  quarters  increased  the  villagers  began  to 
improve  their  houses,  in  order  to  obtain  higher  rents.  New  houses 
were  also  built.  Earthen  floors  gave  place  to  concrete  cement 
or  polished  marble,  and  glass  windows  became  common.  Quite  re¬ 
cently  commodious  residences  have  been  constructed  in  the  larger 
villages,  such  as  Bhamdun,  ’Aleih,  Suk  el  Ghurb,  ’Aitath,  Shemlan, 

A 

’Abeih,  and  some  others.  Not  a  few  foreign  residents  of  Beirut 
now  possess  commodious  dwellings,  and  gather  about  them  all  that 
is  required  to  render  their  summer  residences  both  comfortable 
and  attractive.  Good  roads  have  also  been  made  by  the  Governor- 
general  of  the  Lebanon,  and  families  can  now  reach  their  mountain 
homes  in  private  carriages  or  in  those  hired  in  the  city. 


LEBANON  A  FAVORITE  SUMMER  RESORT. 


123 


These  improvements  have,  of  course,  largely  increased  the  cost 
of  living,  during  the  summer  months,  on  Lebanon  ;  but  the  benefit 
to  health  and  personal  enjoyment  abundantly  compensate  those 
who  are  able  to  afford  the  expense.  This  is  emphatically  true  of 
families  with  small  children.  In  many  instances  moving  to  the 
mountains  is  the  only  means  left  to  save  the  lives  of  the  little  ones 
when  they  have  been  attacked  by  those  fatal  summer  complaints 
which  sometimes  defy  all  medical  skill.  It  is  surprising  to  see  how 
speedily  the  cool,  invigorating  air  of  the  mountains  will  revive  not 
only  the  little  sufferers,  but  also  the  emaciated  victims  of  the  ma¬ 
lignant  Syrian  fevers.  Lebanon  is  destined  to  become  erelong  a 
favorite  summer  retreat  for  invalids  and  for  those  who  occupy  the 
sultry  valley  of  the  Nile,  the  sea-board,  and  the  hot  plains  around 
the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean. 

But  it  is  time  to  start.  Salim  has  taken  the  tents  and  our  per¬ 
sonal  baggage,  with  all  the  necessary  supplies  for  the  table  and.  the 
kitchen,  in  one  of  the  wagons  belonging  to  the  Damascus  Road 
Company;  and  when  we  arrive  at  our  summer  home  in  Shemlan 
we  shall  find  everything  comfortably  arranged  for  our  reception 
and  convenience.  We,  however,  will  keep  to  the  saddle,  not  only 
because  I  prefer  this  mode  of  travelling  to  any  other  in  the  land, 
but  also  because  in  that  way  we  shall  see  more  of  the  country  and 
its  productions  than  if  shut  up  in  a  carriage. 

What  is  the  distance  to  Shemlan? 

About  ten  miles,  and,  at  our  usual  rate  of  travel,  it  will  take  us 
three  hours.  The  elevation  of  the  village  above  the  sea  is  a  little 
more  than  two  thousand  feet,  which  gives  an  average  temperature 
considerably  below  that  of  the  plain  and  the  city. 

This  road  is  leading  us  through  a  part  of  the  suburbs  of  Beirut 
which  we  have  not  seen  before.  That  large  establishment  on  the 
hill  east  of  us  occupies  a  very  conspicuous  position. 

It  is  the  French  educational  institution  for  girls,  and  belongs  to 
the  Dames  de  Nazareth.  It  is  not  as  large,  nor  does  it  accommo¬ 
date  as  many  pupils,  as  the  extensive  buildings  of  the  Sisters  of 
Charity,  which  we  noticed  just  before  passing  Canon  Square;  but 
the  well-kept  grounds  and  the  beautiful  garden  testify  to  their  skill 
and  good  taste  in  horticultural  pursuits. 


124 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


That  bustling  and  crowded  establishment  on  the  roadside  is  one 
of  the  many  silk-reeling  factories  which  have  sprung  up  recently 

in  this  vici¬ 
nity.  This 
is  the  busy 
time  of  the 
year,  and, 
as  you  see, 
the  factory 
has  a  very 
animated, 
picturesque  . 
and  emi¬ 
nently  Ori¬ 
ental  appearance  —  groups  of  men,  wom¬ 
en,  and  children  weighing,  bargaining,  and 
selling  cocoons;  horses,  mules,  and  donkeys 
loaded  with  cocoons ;  boxes,  sacks,  and  bags 
filled  with  cocoons.  There  are  great  heaps  of 
cocoons,  white  and  golden,  protected  by  awnings, 
and  thousands  of  cocoons  spread  out,  tier  above 
tier,  in  those  large  temporary  drying-houses,  open 
to  the  breeze  on  all  sides.  Indeed,  the  very  at¬ 
mosphere  is  permeated 
with  a  strong  odor  of 
cocoons,  and  it  is  any¬ 
thing  but  faint  and 
delicate. 

The  people  come 
from  all  parts  of 
the  plain,  and  from 
distant  villages  on 
these  mountains, 

THE  SILK-WORM,  COCOON,  BUTTERFLY,  AND  CHRYSALIS.  ...  .  . 

bringing  their  co¬ 
coons  to  the  factories.  Many  cocoons  are  merely  “  stifled  ”  in  a 
furnace  or  “  steamed  ”  in  large  quantities,  to  kill  the  grub,  and  are 
then  shipped  to  Europe.  Most  of  them  are  taken  to  Lyons  to  be 


THE  CARRIAGE-ROAD  TO  DAMASCUS. 


125 


reeled,  and  the  silk  manufactured  there  is  then  exported  to  Lon¬ 
don  and  New  York.  In  fact,  it  is  sent  over  the  world,  and  even 
returns  to  its  native  land  to  deck  out  in  gay  colors  these  very 
people  who  are  so  anxious  now  to  rid  themselves  of  it  for  the 
French  gold  with  which  they  must  ultimately  buy  it  again.  Silk- 
culture  is  the  great  and  absorbing  industry  of  this  part  of  Syria, 
and  in  a  favorable  season  the  crop  is  very  remunerative. 

Here,  on  our  right,  is  el  Hursh,  or  the  pines  —  a  part  of  the 
same  grove  which  we  saw  the  other  day ;  but  the  trees  are  many 
years  older  and  much  larger  than  those  on  the  western  side  of  the 
forest.  There  is  a  young  grove  a  short  distance  farther  on  which 
I  remember  to  have  seen  sown  some  twenty  years  ago. 

This  French  road  to  Damascus,  which  we  are  now  following,  is 
certainly  well  made,  and  kept  in  excellent  repair. 

It  is  all  that,  and  as  good  as  any  in  France  itself.  Not  only 
was  it  the  first  carriage-road  of  importance  in  this  country,  but  also 
it  is  the  only  one  ever  constructed  over  Lebanon.  There  is  no¬ 
where  the  slightest  indication  of  an  ancient  highway  of  this  kind 
to  be  seen  on  the  mountains.  After  passing  by  the  eastern  border 
of  “  the  pines,”  it  stretches  in  a  straight  line  across  the  plain,  rising 
gradually  till  it  reaches  the  foot-hills  of  Lebanon  at  Khan  el  Has- 
miyeh,  from  thence  it  winds  up  the  steep  declivities  of  the  moun- 
tain  to  the  pretty  little  village  of  ’Areiya.  It  then  passes  above 
the  southern  cliffs  of  the  Beirut  River  to  the  last  wild  ascent  over 
the  pass  of  el  Mugheiteh,  about  five  thousand  feet  above  the  sea, 
having  below  it,  on  the  north,  the  magnificent  scenery  around  the 
head -waters  of  that  picturesque  river,  dominated  by  the  exalted 
majesty  of  Jebel  el  Keniseh.  From  the  top  of  the  Mugheiteh  the 
road  descends  steeply  to  the  Buka  a,  and  then  stretches  across  the 
plain  from  Shtora  to  Mejdel  ’Anjar.  Thenceforward  the  grading  is 
less  difficult,  and  the  ascent  over  Anti-Lebanon  is  comparatively 
easy.  Th-e  distance  from  Beirut  to  Damascus  is  about  seventy 
miles,  and  is  accomplished  in  twelve  or  thirteen  hours.  Diligences 
run  daily  between  the  two  cities,  and  long  lines  of  baggage-wagons 
are  constantly  seen  passing  to  and  fro  along  this  broad  highway. 

This  long  and  sloping  stretch  of  road  across  the  plain  and  up 
to  the  foot-hills  of  Lebanon  appears  to  be  the  fashionable  carriage- 


126 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


drive  from  the  city,  and  I  am  surprised  to  see  so  many  of  those 
vehicles  evidently  owned  by  natives. 

Carriages  made  their  first  appearance  in  Beirut  with  the  comple¬ 
tion  of  this  road  to  Damascus,  and  already  they  are  as  common  as 
in  many  European  cities  of  the  same  size.  There  are  quite  a  num¬ 
ber  of  coffee-shops  along  this  drive  and  on  the  bank  of  the  Beirut 
River,  to  our  left ;  and  every  evening  they  are  frequented  by  the 
elite  of  the  city,  who  spend  a  passing  hour  discussing  the  news  and 
gossip  of  the  day,  smoking  cigarettes  and  nargilehs,  sipping  black 
coffee,  and  drinking  ’arak  and  sherbet. 

These  canals  convey  the  water  from  the  river  at  different  eleva¬ 
tions,  and  by  them  the  whole  plain  west  of  us  is  irrigated.  Rustem 
Pasha,  Governor-general  of  the  Lebanon,  has  recently  constructed 
a  fine  bridge  over  the  river  in  this  vicinity  by  which  to  reach  his 
large  and  attractive  garden.  He  has  also  made  a  drive  on  the  op¬ 
posite  bank  down  to  the  bridge  on  the  road  to  the  Dog  River. 
That  new  bridge  is  a  great  convenience  to  the  people  of  this  neigh¬ 
borhood  during  the  floods  of  winter. 

This  place  to  which  we  are  now  coming  is  Khan  el  Hasmiyeh, 
and  here  most  of  the  carriages  stop  and  then  return  to  the  city. 
Here,  also,  the  road  to  Damascus  begins  to  wind  up  the  mountain¬ 
side,  and  other  roads  turn  off  in  different  directions. 

We  will  now  keep  along  the  base  of  the  mountains  to  the 
south,  having  in  full  view,  below  us  on  the  right,  the  entire  plain, 
or  es  Sahil,  and  the  olive-groves  westward  to  the  Mediterranean. 

What  a  sea  of  variegated  verdure  stretches  away  to  the  south¬ 
west  far  as  the  eye  can  follow ! 

This  is  one  of  the  richest  plains  in  the  country — a  perfect  wil¬ 
derness  of  mulberry  and  fruit  trees ;  and  beyond  spread  the  vast 
olive-groves  of  Shuweifat.  There  is  nothing  on  the  Syrian  coast 
equal  to  it.  It  lies  between  the  mountains  and  the  far-off  sea,  pro¬ 
tected  by  the  city  and  the  pine-forests,  and  hedged  in  by  the  dis¬ 
tant  sand-hills.  Its  climate  and  fruits  are  almost  tropical,  and  one 
never  wearies  gazing  upon  its  varied  beauties,  or  riding  along  its 
shady  lanes  and  through  its  green  alleys. 

Those  palm-trees — the  loftiest  and  most  stately  we  have  seen — 
add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  prospect.  They  stand  here  and 


HEBREW  WOMEN  NAMED  AFTER  THE  PALM-TREE 


127 


there  over  the  plain 
like  sentinels,  with 
feathery  plumes  wav¬ 
ing  gracefully  upon 
their  proud  heads. 

This  part  of  Syria 
was  called  Phoenicia, 

“  the  land  of  palms,” 
by  the  Greeks ;  and 
in  the  time  of  the 
Romans,  the  medal 
of  Vespasian,  com-  en  nCkhl-the  palm. 

memorating  the  cap¬ 


ture  of  Jerusalem,  represents  Judea  as  a  woman  mourning  under  a 
palm-tree.  As  the  tree  is  tall,  slender,  and  graceful,  the  daughters 
of  the  Hebrews  were  sometimes  named  after  it.  The  wife  of  Er, 
the  firstborn  son  of  Judah;  the  daughter  of  David,  and  the  only 
daughter  of  Absalom— both  remarkable  for  their  beauty— were  all 
called  Tamar;  and  the  name  is  still  not  uncommon  in  the  country. 
Erect  as  rectitude  itself,  the  palm-tree  suggests  to  the  Arab  poets 
many  a  symbol  for  their  lady-love;  and  Solomon,  long  before 


128 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


them,  has  sung,  “  How  fair  and  how  pleasant  art  thou,  O  love,  for 
delights!  This  thy  stature  is  like  to  a  palm-tree.”1 

Yes;  and  Solomon’s  father  says,  “The  righteous  shall  flourish 
like  the  palm-tree.  Those  that  be  planted  in  the  house  of  the  Lord 
shall  flourish  in  the  courts  of  our  God.  They  shall  still  bring  forth 
fruit  in  old  age.  They  shall  be  fat  and  flourishing.” 2 

The  royal  poet  derived  that  illustration  with  which  he  adorns 
his  sacred  ode  from  the  habits  of  this  tree.  The  palm  grows  slowly, 
but  steadily,  from  generation  to  generation,  uninfluenced  by  those 
alternations  of  the  seasons  which  affect  other  trees.  It  does  not 
rejoice  overmuch  in  winter’s  copious  rain,  nor  does  it  droop  under 
the  drought  and  the  burning  sun  of  summer.  Neither  heavy 
weights  which  men  place  upon  its  head,  nor  the  importunate 
urgency  of  the  wind,  can  sway  it  aside  from  uprightness.  There 
it  stands,  looking  calmly  down  upon  the  world  below,  and  patiently 
yielding  its  large  clusters  of  golden  fruit  from  season  to  season. 
They  still  bring  forth  fruit  in  old  age. 

The  allusion  to  those  planted  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  was  pro¬ 
bably  due  to  the  custom  of  planting  beautiful  and  long-lived  trees 
in  the  courts  of  temples  and  palaces,  and  in  all  “  high  places  ”  used 
for  worship.  This  is  still  common  ;  nearly  every  palace,  and  mosk, 
and  convent  in  the  country  has  such  trees  in  the  courts,  and,  being 
well  protected  there,  they  flourish  exceedingly.  Solomon  covered 
all  the  walls  of  the  Temple  “round  about  with  carved  figures  of 
cherubim  and  palm-trees  and  open  flowers,  within  and  without.”3 
Their  presence  there  was  not  only  ornamental,  but  appropriate  and 
highly  suggestive.  The  Jews  used  palm-branches  as  emblems  of 
rejoicing  during  the  feast  of  ingathering  and  of  tabernacles.4  Chris¬ 
tians  do  the  same  on  Palm  Sunday,  in  commemoration  of  our  Sa¬ 
viour’s  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem  from  Bethany;  for  we  read, 
in  John  xii.  12,  13,  that  “much  people,”  on  that  occasion,  “took 
branches  of  palm  trees,  and  went  forth  to  meet”  Jesus.  Dean 
Stanley  supposes  that  Bethany,  “  the  house  of  dates,”  derived  its 
name  from  the  palm-trees  that  grew  on  Olivet.5  Palm  branches 
are  often  woven  into  an  arch  and  placed  over  the  head  of  the 

1  Song  vii.  6,  7.  2  Psa.  xcii.  12-14.  3  1  Kings  vi.  29. 

4  Lev.  xxiii.  40;  Neh.  viii.  15.  5  Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  143. 


CLUSTERS  OF  DATES.— EL  HADETH.— AS’AD  ESH  SHEDIAK.  129 

bier  which  carries  man  to  his  long  home,  emblematic  not  only  of 
patience  in  well-doing,  but  of  the  rewards  of  the  righteous  —  a 
flourishing  old  age  and  a  glorious  immortality. 

In  this  country  the  fruit  of  the  palm-tree  is  neither  so  abun¬ 
dant  nor  so  sweet  and  luscious  as  in  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  some  other 
regions.  But  I  have  seen  very  large  clusters  of  dates  on  many  of 


THAMR — DATES. 


the  tallest  of  these  trees ;  and  the  owners  protect  the  fruit  from 
hornets  and  birds  by  fastening  round  the  clusters  parts  of  old 
garments  and  rice  baskets  made  from  the  palm-leaf  itself. 

That  village  stretching  along  the  foot  of  the  hills  for  a  mile  or 
more  is  called  el  Hadeth.  It  was  the  residence  of  a  branch  of  the 
family  of  Shehab  emirs.  When  I  first  came  to  this  country  I  was 
acquainted  with  one  of  the  emirs  whose  eyes  had  been  put  out  by 
order  of  his  relative,  the  Emir  Beshir  of  Bteddin.  El  Hadeth  was 
also  the  home  of  As’ad  esh  Shediak,  the  learned  and  able  writer, 
and  the  first  Protestant  martyr.  His  brother  Yusuf  was  also  one 
of  the  few  native  scholars  of  those  days,  and  his  history  of  Leba¬ 
non  and  its  feudal  families  contains  much  valuable  information. 

Directly  above  and  east  of  el  Hadeth  is  B’abda,  a  large  and 


130 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


flourishing  village.  An  old  palace,  picturesquely  situated  on  a  hill 
west  of  the  village,  about  eight  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  is  now 
occupied  as  a  winter  residence  by  the  Government  of  the  Lebanon, 
to  escape  the  severe  cold  of  Bteddin.  The  cretaceous  hills  east  of 
B’abda  abound  in  geodes  of  quartz,  whose  interior  is  thickly  stud¬ 
ded  with  perfect  and  brilliant  crystals.  Some  of  them  are  very 
large,  and  when  first  broken  open  the  pointed  crystals  sparkle  like 
diamonds,  and  are  so  intensely  hard  as  to  cut  glass. 


EL  KHARNUB — THE  CAROB. 


There  is  a  blind  beggar  “sitting  by  the  highway  side  begging.”1 
The  tree  under  which  he  sits  is  called  the  Blindman’s  Tree,  and 
on  the  ridge  above  us  are  many  such  kharnub-trees,  loaded  with 

1  Mark  x.  46. 


ST.  JOHN’S  BREAD.— “THE  HUSKS.’— NAHR  EL  GHUDIR.  131 


long  flat  husks  or  pods.  It  is  an  evergreen,  and  casts  a  most 
delightful  and  refreshing  shade  over  the  weary  traveller.  In  this 
country  the  kharnub-trees  do  not  yield  very  large  crops,  but  in 
Cyprus,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  Grecian  Islands  full-grown  trees  bend 
under  half  a  ton  of  green  pods. 

The  kharnub  is  sometimes  called  St.  John’s  Bread,  and  also 
Locust-tree,  from  a  mistaken  tradition  concerning  the  food  of  the 
Baptist  in  the  wilderness.  Its  botanical  name  is  Ceratonia  Siliqua, 
and  there  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  it  was  the  tree 
which  bore  “  the  husks  that 
the  swine  did  eat,”  and  with 
which  the  poor  prodigal 
“  would  fain  have  filled  his 
belly.”1  The  “husks”  —  a 
misnomer — are  fleshy  pods 
somewhat  like  those  of  the 
locust-tree,  from  six  to  ten 
inches  long,  containing  seve¬ 
ral  seeds,  and  lined  with  a 
gelatinous  substance,  sweet 
and  pleasant  to  the  taste 
when  thoroughly  ripe.  I 
have  seen  large  gardens  of 
kharnub-trees  in  Cyprus, 
where  it  is  still  the  food  that 
the  swine  do  eat.  In  Syria, 
where  there  are  no  swine,  or 
next  to  none,  the  pods  are  . 

ground  up  and  a  syrup  expressed,  which  is  much  used  in  mak¬ 
ing  certain  kinds  of  sweetmeats  and  refreshing  beverages. 

Dukkan  el  Wurwar,  which  we  are  now  approaching,  is  one  of 
those  “shops”  along  the  way-side,  where  coffee  and  refreshments, 
food  and  fodder,  can  be  obtained.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  above 
the  valley  of  Nahr  el  Ghudir,  a  small  stream  which  comes  down 
from  Wady  Shahrur,  and  finds  its  way  to  the  sea  through  the  olive- 

1  Luke  xv.  16. 


CAROB  PODS — THE  HUSKS. 


* 


132 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


groves  below  Shuweifat.  That  large  village  on  the  foot-hills  to  the 
south-west,  and  directly  across  the  valley,  is  Kefr  Shima.  To  the 
east  of  it  the  mountain  declivities  rise  with  great  regularity ;  and, 
owing  to  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  abundant  supply  of 
water,  the  entire  hill -sides  are  terraced  tier  above  tier,  presenting 
to  the  view,  in  every  direction,  a  varied  expanse  of  olive-groves,  fig- 
orchards,  mulberry- gardens,  and  vineyards,  seldom  seen  to  better 
advantage,  even  on  this  “  goodly  Lebanon.” 

Before  turning  down  the  hill -side  and  crossing  the  Ghudir,  I 
wish  to  point  out  a  place  here  on  our  right,  where  many  years  ago 
I  saw  uncovered  a  number  of  ancient  tombs,  excavated  in  the  soft 
cretaceous  rock.  In  each  tomb  there  was  a  sarcophagus  made, 
like  common  pottery,  of  baked  clay.  Those  sarcophagi  were  of  all 
sizes,  from  two  to  six  feet  in  length.  There  were  no  inscriptions 
on  any  of  them  ;  and  as  they  appeared  to  be  of  no  value  to  the 
owners  of  the  field  they  were  destroyed,  and  the  mulberry-trees 
that  now  cover  the  hill-side  were  planted  in  their  place. 

Here  on  our  right  is  a  small  Protestant  chapel,  one  of  many 
which  are  now  seen  all  over  this  part  of  Lebanon.  The  inhabitants 
of  Kefr  Shima,  Shuweifat,  and  other  neighboring  villages  are  chiefly 
engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits  and  the  manufacture  of  soap  from 
the  oil  produced  by  the  extensive  olive-groves  in  this  region. 

From  here  the  ascent  commences,  and  we  must  address  our¬ 
selves  in  earnest  to  this  steep  and  steady  climb  up  the  mountain  for 
about  an  hour.  The  path  winds  round  and  up  the  eastern  side  of 
that  bold  rocky  promontory,  the  summit  of  which  is  covered  with 
a  small  pine-grove,  and  crowning  the  very  top  is  the  picturesque 
Convent  or  Deir  of  Mar  Antanus  el  Kurkufeh.  In  early  spring 
the  rude  stone  walls  that  sustain  these  terraces  are  almost  con¬ 
cealed  under  the  green  leaves  and  beautiful  flowers  of  scarlet  ane¬ 
mones  and  pink  and  white  cyclamens. 

We  have  risen  above  the  hard  limestone  rock,  over  which  our 
horses  have  been  stumbling ;  and  here,  at  this  dukkan,  we  may  rest 
for  a  few  moments,  and  refresh  ourselves  with  the  cool  breeze  that 
is  wafted  up  the  valley  from  the  distant  sea. 

This  pine-grove,  through  which  we  are  now  riding,  grows  upon 
a  soft,  many-colored  sandstone,  curiously  worn  and  cut  up  by  the 


1 


’AIN  BSABA.— MOUNTAIN  SCENERY.— ’AIN  ’ANOUB.  1 33 

winter  rains.  It  is  a  fair  specimen  of  the'  pine-forests  all  over  Leba¬ 
non  ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  notice  that  wherever  on  these  moun¬ 
tains  there  is  a  pine-grove,  there,  also,  the  formation  is  sandstone. 

A 

The  road  up  the  mountain  to  ’Aitath,  and  thence  to  Shemlan, 
has  always  been  considered  the  shortest,  but  it  is  rough  and  unin¬ 
teresting.  We  will  take  this  path  that  turns  off  here  to  the  right, 
and  go  by  the  way  of  ’Ain  ’Anoub.  That  road  winds  round  val¬ 
leys  and  hills,  and  up  the  mountain-side,  and  the  view  is  eminently 
characteristic  of  Lebanon  and  its  scenery. 

Let  us  water  our  thirsty  horses  at  this  fountain.  I  have  taken 
many  a  lunch  and  quiet  rest  beneath  that  magnificent  oak-tree 
above  the  birkeh,  or  reservoir,  into  which  the  water  is  gathered  that 
irrigates  those  vegetable  gardens  below  the  road.  ’Ain  Bsaba  is 
one  of  those  delicious  fountains  of  cold  water  for  which  Lebanon  is 
so  justly  celebrated;  and  like  some  of  them  it  has  its  dark  legends 
of  highway  robbery  and  even  murder. 

The  boundless  expanse  of  that  beautiful  sea  ever  widens  as  we 
rise  higher  and  higher,  until  it  seems  as  if  the  sea  and  the  sky  met 
in  one  unbroken  line,  from  the  far  north  to  the  distant  south. 

There  are  hundreds  of  such  limitless  prospects  on  Lebanon, 
and  others  far  more  imposing  and  sublime.  The  character  of  the 
scenery  varies  with  the  scene ;  sometimes  it  is  historic,  at  other 
times  romantic,  but  always  impressive  even  to  fascination. 

Opposite  to  us,  across  this  profound  valley,  is  ’Ain  ’Anoub,  seen 
in  profile  against  the  sky.  Its  houses,  clinging  one  above  the  other 
to  the  mountain-side,  are  half  concealed  by  the  dense  foliage  of  the 
oak,  the  olive,  and  the  green  leaves  of  the  mulberry  and  the  vine ; 
while  of  fruit  trees  the  apple,  the  apricot,  the  peach,  and  even  the 
orange  and  lemon,  are  found  growing  in  sheltered  nooks. 

Although  this  is  the  first  village  fountain  I  have  seen  on  Leba¬ 
non,  my  horse  seems  to  be  well  acquainted  with  its  main  purpose, 
so  far,  at  least,  as  he  is  concerned. 

Hereafter  it  may  be  well  for  you  to  consider  your  associates  at 
such  fountains,  or,  in  the  impetuous  rush  for  the  water-trough,  you 
and  your  horse  will  get  too  warm  a  welcome  from  some  friendly 
mule,  which  both  of  you  will  soon  regret  and  long  remember. 

Passing  through  ’Ain  ’Anoub,  we  will  take  the  path  that  climbs 


134 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


i 

EL  ’AIN — THE  FOUNTAIN. 

the  ridge  above  the  village,  instead  of  following  the  longer  road, 
through  the  olive-groves,  and  which  zigzags  up  the  rocky  cliffs 
below  Shemlan.  The  distance  is  not  over  twenty  minutes. 

This  may  be  the  shortest  road  ;  but  it  is  very  steep,  and  these 
broken  and  rocky  steps  are  not  only  extremely  worn  and  slippery, 
but  actually  dangerous  to  life  and  limb. 


AN  ORIENTAL  SUMMER  EVE— LEBANON  A  MOUNTAIN-RANGE.  1 35 


It  has  always  been  so,  and  the  numberless  attempts  to  mend  it 
have  only  aggravated  the  evil.  But  the  worst  is  past,  and  we  are 
coming  near  the  lower  part  of  the  village,  and  will  soon  reach  our 
house  on  the  hill-side  above  the  fountain. 

The  varied  sounds  and  scenes  of  a  summer  eve  on  Lebanon  are 
strangely  impressive.  Birds  are  singing  in  the  highest  branches 
of  the  bushes  and  the  trees,  and  shepherds  call  to  their  flocks  on 
the  rocky  hill-sides,  and  hurry  them  towards  the  fold.  Boys  and 
girls  are  driving  the  cattle  homeward  from  the  field  ;  and  men  and 
women  are  on  the  house-tops,  protecting  the  wheat  that  was  ex¬ 
posed  to  the  sunlight  during  the  day  from  the  dew  by  night. 
And  over  the  hills  and  across  the  valleys  the  deep,  rich  tones 
of  the  convent  bells  at  Deir  el  Kurkufeh  are  wafted,  vibrating 
through  the  air. 

The  glorious  sun  is  setting  in  the  far  west, 

And  its  golden  rays  are  gleaming  across  the  silver  sea  ; 

And  as  the  mountain  shadows  lengthen,  and  the  sunlight  dies  away, 

The  purple  haze  in  the  valley  deepens,  and  night  succeeds  the  day. 


July  29th. 

I  am  delighted  with  the  commanding  situation  of  this  village 
and  the  simplicity  of  our  mountain  life;  it  has  all  the  freedom  and 
independence  of  tent-life,  without  many  of  its  uncertainties. 

Certainly  it  is  a  happy  escape  from  the  blazing  sun  and  blinding 
glare  of  the  city  and  the  plain.  I  love  the  mountains,  all  of  them, 
and  most  of  all  these  noble  mountains  of  “  goodly  Lebanon,”  with 
which  I  have  been  familiar  for  more  than  half  a  lifetime.  Over 
their  rugged  ranges  I  have  rambled  and  scrambled  by  day  and  by 
night,  until  I  can  recall  at  will  each  peak  and  crag,  their  shapes 
and  features,  and  give  to  each  its  special  name. 

I  anticipate  both  pleasure  and  profit  from  our  sojourn  on  this 
mountain,  which  Moses  so  longed  to  see,  but  could  not ;  and  I  am 
impatient  to  begin  our  rambles  over  “  sainted  Lebanon  but  first 
of  all  I  should  like  to  obtain  a  comprehensive  description  of  it. 

You  are  aware  that  Mount  Lebanon  is  a  misnomer,  and  conveys 
.  an  erroneous  impression.  It  is  not  a  single  mount  at  all,  but  a  lofty 
range,  or  chain,  of  mountains.  Commencing  in  the  rolling  hills  of 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


136 

Belad  Besharah,  and  rising  higher  and  higher,  the  ridge  extends  for 
about  one  hundred  miles,  from  Jebel  er  Rihan,  south-east  of  Sidon, 
to  a  profound  cliff  east  of  Sir,  in  the  district  of  ed  Dunniyeh,  a 
day’s  ride  north  of  the  Cedars.  Beyond  that  are  the  lower  but 
rugged  ridges  and  wild  ravines  of  Jebel  ’Akkar.  The  average 
breadth  of  Lebanon,  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  plain  of  el 
Buka’a,  Coelesyria,  is  not  more  than  twenty-five  miles. 

According  to  Dean  Stanley,  White,  or  Snow  Mountain,  “  is  the 
natural  and  almost  uniform  name  of  the  highest  mountains  in  all 
countries.”1  The  ancient  Hebrew  name,  Lebanon,  and  the  modern 
Arabic  one,  Jebel  Libnan  —  White  Mountain  —  was,  probably,  sug¬ 
gested  by  the  magnificent  appearance  of  this  mountain-range  when 
covered  with  the  snows  of  winter,  rather  than  by  the  whitish  aspect 
of  its  limestone  formation,  as  some  have  supposed. 

Lebanon  is  so  situated  relatively  to  “this  great  and  wide  sea” 
as  to  attract  to  itself  the  moist  winds  from  the  Mediterranean  in 
winter,  and  the  balmy  breezes  from  the  sunny  South  in  early 
spring.  During  half  the  year  copious  rains  water  its  terraced 
sides,  and  its  lofty  summits  and  profound  ravines  are  then  buried 
under  deep  snow,  which  remains  there  to  cool  the  air  of  summer, 
and  sustain  the  countless  fountains  that  give  life  and  beauty  to 
the  valleys  and  fields  below. 

The  geological,  as  well  as  the  physical,  characteristics  of  this 
mountain  contribute  essentially  to  its  beauty  and  fertility.  Were 
the  rocks  stern  granite,  barren  sandstone,  or  lifeless  gypsum,  no 
amount  of  rain  and  soft  breezes  would  make  them  fertile.  But  the 
great  mass  of  Lebanon  is  cretaceous  limestone,  soft  and  highly  fos- 
siliferous,  with  just  enough  of  friable  sandstone  and  volcanic  rock 
here  and  there  to  mingle  with  and  modify  the  soil. 

The  range  of  Lebanon  has  a  number  of  conspicuous  summits, 
the  most  remarkable  of  which  are  Taumat  Niha,  above  Jezzin,  five 
thousand  six  hundred  feet  high;  Jebel  el  Keniseh,  east  of  Beirut, 
six  thousand  six  hundred  feet  high  ;  Sunnin,  farther  north,  eight 
thousand  five  hundred  feet  high;  Fum  el  Mizab,  nine  thousand 
nine  hundred  feet  high;  and  Dahar  el  Kudhib,  above  Tripoli  and 
north  of  the  Cedars,  over  ten  thousand  feet  high. 

1  Sinai  and  Palestine,  Note  5,  pp.  399,  400. 


THE  RIVERS  ON  THE  WESTERN  SIDE  OF  LEBANON.  1 37 

The  rivers  of  Lebanon,  beginning  at  the  south,  are  ez  Zahera- 
ny,  which  rises  at  the  south-western  end  of  Jebel  er  Rihan,  and 
reaches  the  sea  between  Sarepta  and  Sidon  ;  The  Auwaly,  the  an¬ 
cient  Bostrenus,  has  two  main  branches ;  the  southern  proceeds 
from  the  fountain  of  Jezzin,  and  the  stream  plunges  over  a  preci¬ 
pice  below  the  town  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  perpen¬ 
dicular  height.  The  northern  branch  comes  from  the  fountains, 
above  the  village,  of  el  Baruk,  north-east  of  el  Mukhtarah.  The 
Auwaly  enters  the  sea  two  miles  north  of  Sidon.  The  Damur,  the 
Tamyras  or  Damuras  of  the  ancients,  also  has  two  branches  ;  but 
its  main  permanent  source  is  below  ’Ain  Zahalteh.  It  empties  into 
the  sea  midway  between  Sidon  and  Beirut.  The  river  of  Beirut, 
the  ancient  Magoras,  drains  the  western  slopes  of  Jebel  el  Keniseh 
and  the  southern  end  of  Sunnin,  and  enters  St.  George’s  Bay. 

North  of  Beirut  is  the  Dog  River,  the  Lycus,  famous  for  the 
ancient  tablets  in  the  cliffs  over  the  pass  near  its  mouth,  and  for 
the  marvellous  caverns  out  of  which  it  flows.  Above  the  caves  it 
has  two  large  fountains,  which  burst  out  directly  under  the  snows 
of  Sunnin.  The  Natural  Bridge  spans  the  deep  chasm  of  Neb’a 
el  Leben,  the  most  southern  of  those  fountains.  Nahr  Ibrahim, 
the  Adonis,  flows  out  of  the  cavern  at  ’Afka,  near  which  are  the 
ruins  of  the  temple  dedicated  to  Venus.  That  river  enters  the 
sea  a  few  miles  south  of  Jebeil,  the  Biblical  Gebal,  or  Byblus,  of 
the  Greeks,  said  to  be  the  birthplace  of  Adonis. 

Several  smaller  streams  reach  the  sea  north  of  Jebeil,  but  they 
need  not  be  described.  Nahr  el  Jauzeh  descends  from  Tannurin 
el  Foka,  between  which  and  el  Hadith  there  are  groves  of  cedars. 
That  stream  reaches  the  sea  near  el  Batrun,  south  of  the  con¬ 
spicuous  cape  anciently  called  Theoprosopon,  the  face  of  God,  and 
now  Ras  esh  Shukah.  The  next  river  is  the  Kadisha,  the  holy, 
because  it  comes  down  from  near  the  sacred  grove  of  the  Cedars. 
It  is  pre-eminently  distinguished  for  the  gigantic  cliffs  of  its  gorge 
below  Bsherreh.  Clinging  to  one  of  them,  about  four  hundred  feet 
above  the  river,  is  the  historical  Convent  of  Kanobin,  the  chief  seat 
of  the  Maronite  patriarch.  The  Kadisha,  augmented  by  its  main 
tributary,  the  Abu  ’Aly,  passes  through  the  city  and  the  luxuriant 
gardens  of  Tripoli,  and  enters  the  bay  north  of  it. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


138 

Nahr  el  Barid  descends  from  the  highest  ridges  of  Lebanon, 
above  the  village  of  Sir,  through  a  region  of  wild  and  magnificent 
scenery,  and  empties  into  the  bay  or  Jun  of  ’Akkar,  about  ten 
miles  north  of  Tripoli.  It  forms  the  southern  boundary  of  the  dis¬ 
trict  of  ’Akkar,  and  on  its  left  bank  are  the  remains  of  a  large  city, 
probably  the  ancient  Orthosia.  It  is  these  numerous  rivers,  with 
their  countless  tributaries  and  their  magnificent  gorges,  that  impart 
such  variety,  beauty,  and  life  to  the  western,  or  seaward,  face  of 
Lebanon.  “  He  sendeth  the  springs  into  the  valleys,  which  run 
among  the  hills.  .  They  give  drink  to  every  beast  of  the  field,” 
and  “  by  them  shall  the  fowls  of  the  heaven  have  their  habitation, 
which  sing  among  the  branches.”1 

At  the  north-eastern  base  of  Lebanon  Nahr  el  ’Asy,  or  the 
Orontes,  flows  out  from  the  great  fountain  beneath  the  cliffs  near 
Mugharat  er  Rahib,  and  passing  northward  by  Ribleh,  the  Riblah 
of  the  Old  Testament,  it  waters  the  great  plain  of  the  Biblical 
kingdom  of  Hamath.  The  eastern  sides  of  the  mountain  are  far 
less  imposing  than  the  western  and  northern  slopes.  The  range 
descends  abruptly  to  the  plain  of  el  Buka’a,  and  is  comparatively 
destitute  of  brooks  and  streams  of  any  considerable  size  ;  but  along 
the  south-eastern  parts  there  are  some  noble  fountains  and  many 
flourishing  villages.  A  considerable  stream,  called  el  Berduny, 
descends  from  Sunnin,  and  passing  through  the  towji  of  Zahleh,  it 
enriches  the  central  portions  of  the  Buka’a.  And  the  large  foun¬ 
tains  at  Meshghurah,  south  of  Taumat  Niha,  send  their  noisy 
brooks  to  the  Litany,  in  the  valley  below.  These  complete  the 
list  of  brooks,  streams,  and  rivers  around  the  entire  circuit  of  this 
goodly  mountain  ;  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  nearly  all  of  them  are 
on  the  seaward  side.  There,  too,  are  situated  most  of  the  villages 
seen  from  the  Mediterranean  as  one  approaches  this  coast. 

The  earliest  mention  of  this  mountain  in  the  Bible  implies  that 
Lebanon  was  then  considered  exceptionally  beautiful.  It  was  the 
one  name  mentioned  in  the  earnest  prayer  of  Moses :  “  I  pray  thee, 
let  me  go  over,  and  see  the  good  land  that  is  beyond  Jordan,  that 
goodly  mountain,  and  Lebanon.”2  Moses  had,  no  doubt,  heard  of 
its  “  glory,”  in  Egypt,  for  we  know  that  long  before  his  day  this 
1  Psa.  civ.  10-12.  2  Deut.  iii.  25. 


DISTRICTS  OF  LEBANON.— NUMBER  OF  INHABITANTS.  1 39 

country  had  been  traversed  by  Egyptian  armies,  the  records  of 
whose  expeditions  are  even  now  read  by  learned  Egyptologists. 

Lebanon  is  also  mentioned  by  David,  Solomon,  Isaiah,  and  other 
sacred  poets  and  prophets,  who  refer  to  its  most  striking  features 
and  characteristics.  They  speak  of  the  head,  the  countenance,  the 
sides,  the  roots  of  Lebanon  ;  and  of  the  snow,  and  the  streams  that 
run  amongst  the  valleys.  They  sing  of  the  glory  of  Lebanon,  and 
the  smell  of  its  forests  —  the  cedar,  the  fir,  the  pine,  and  the  box 
together;  and  of  the  birds  that  sing  amongst  the  branches.  To 
the  ancient  seer,  poet,  and  prophet  Lebanon  was  a  goodly  moun¬ 
tain,  which  they  delighted  to  praise ;  and  goodly  is  still  its  most 
appropriate  title  of  distinction.  The  Arabs  say  that  Lebanon  bears 
winter  on  his  head,  spring  on  his  shoulders,  and  autumn  in  his  lap, 
while  summer  lies  at  his  feet. 

Lebanon  has  been  divided  into  two  provinces,  generally  recog¬ 
nized  as  such  by  the  Turkish  Government.  They  are  named 
Mu’amalet  Tarablus  and  Mu’amalet  Saida,  from  the  respective  cities 
of  Tripoli  and  Sidon.  The  dividing  line,  commencing  at  the  north¬ 
eastern  end  of  the  Bay  of  Juneh,  is  carried  up  a  ravine  called 
Mu’amaltein  eastward,  over  the  mountains  to  the  Buka’a.  Of  those 
provinces  the  southern,  that  of  Sidon,  is  far  the  largest  and  most 
important.  Both  are  subdivided  into  districts  of  very  unequal  size 
called  mukata’at,  or  akalim.  The  northern  division  has  eight,  and 
the  southern  sixteen  of  those  districts ;  and  the  population  of  the 
latter  is  fully  double  that  of  the  former.  In  the  absence  of  an 
accurate  government  census  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the  exact 
number  of  the  inhabitants,  but  the  province  of  Tripoli  is  supposed 
to  contain  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand,  and  that 
of  Sidon  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand,  or,  in  all,  nearly  three 
hundred  thousand  for  the  entire  population  of  Lebanon. 

Very  little  change  has  been  attempted  in  the  old  divisions  and 
subdivisions  of  these  mountains.  The  inhabitants  cling  to  them 
with  tenacity,  and  for  the  administration  of  government  they  are 
convenient  and  even  necessary.  But  the  various  sects  have  often 
asserted  and  maintained  a  semi-independence,  and  the  actual  rulers 
then  regulated  the  affairs  of  this  region  to  suit  their  own  conve¬ 
nience.  Such  was  the  case  during  the  long  rule  of  the  Emir  Be- 


140 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  LOOK. 


shir,  of  the  Shehab  family.  In  i830-’3i  Ibrahim  Pasha,  the  warlike 
son  of  Muhammed  ’Aly  of  Egypt,  subdued  the  whole  of  Syria;  but 
he  continued  the  Emir  Beshir  in  his  government  of  the  Lebanon. 

The  Allied  Powers  restored  Syria  to  the  Sultan  in  1840,  who 
banished  the  emir,  and  he  died  in  exile.  Since  that  time  the 
civil  government  of  these  mountains  has  undergone  some  modi¬ 
fications,  mainly  brought  about  through  the  intervention  of  the 
European  governments,  and  consequent  upon  the  calamitous  wars 
between  the  Maronites  and  the  Druses.  The  existing  regime  was 
established  by  the  same  foreign  interference  after  the  massacres  of 
i860,  and  the  temporary  occupation  of  this  country  by  the  French. 
It  has  succeeded  admirably,  and  comparative  peace  and  prosperity 
are  assured  to  this  long  distracted  region. 

Religiously,  the  people  of  Lebanon  are  divided  into  Muham- 
medans  and  Metawileh,  Christians  and  Druses.  The  two  first  are 
found  in  both  the  provinces,  chiefly  at  the  northern  and  southern 
extremities  of  each,  and  may  exceed  thirty-five  thousand  in  num¬ 
ber.  The  Christians  of  various  denominations  reside  in  all  parts  of 
Lebanon,  and  constitute  the  great  body  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
Greeks  and  Greek  Catholics  are  found  mostly  in  the  province  of 
Sidon,  and  in  the  district  or  aklim  of  el  Kurah,  near  Tripoli.  They 
number  about  seventy-five  thousand.  The  Maronites  are  by  far 
the  most  numerous  of  the  Christian  sects — over  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  thousand — and  occupy  almost  exclusively  the  northern 
half  of  Lebanon.  Their  great  stronghold  is  Aklim  el  Kesrawan. 
The  Druses  are  intermingled  with  the  Christians  of  all  denomina¬ 
tions  in  the  southern  half  of  these  mountains,  and  they  do  not 
number  more  than  forty  thousand. 


SOUTHERN  LEBANON. 


141 


V. 

TOUR  THROUGH  SOUTHERN  LEBANON. 

Southern  Lebanon. — The  Bells  of  the  Mules,  and  the  Song  of  the  Muleteers. — Wander¬ 
ing  about  the  Mountains. — ’Ainab. — Natural  Tells. — Perpendicular  Strata. — Dukkan 
’Ainab. — Beit  Tulhuk. — Original  Inhabitants  of  Lebanon. — The  Phoenicians. — Rock- 
cut  Tombs. — ’Ain  Kesur. — The  Wady  below  ’Abeih. — ’Abeih. — Old  Palaces. — Burn¬ 
ing  of  ’Abeih  in  1845. — Escape  of  the  Christians  in  i860. — Mutaiyar  ’Abeih. — Mag¬ 
nificent  Prospect. — Kefr  Metta. — Villages  and  Houses  on  Lebanon. — Beit  el  Kady. 
— El  Fiizur. — Traces  of  Glacial  Action. — Tropical  Climate  and  Fruits. — Cloud-bursts. 

.  — Jisr  el  Kady. — Mills. — Nahr  el  Gabun  and  Nahr  el  Kady. — Villages  Inhabited  by 
Druses  and  Maronites. — Bridges,  Ancient  and  Modern. — Adventure  with  a  Panther. 
—  Wild  Beasts  in  the  Holy  Land  in  Bible  Times.  —  Bshetfin.  —  Stagnation  of  the 
Druses  and  Enterprise  of  the  Christians. — Luxuriant  and  Fertile  Fields. — Deir  el 
Kamar. — The  Massacres  of  i860. — A  Border  Land  of  Antagonistic  Tribes. — Revenge¬ 
ful  Spirit  of  the  Maronites. — Beit  Abu  Nakad. — Bteddin. — The  Emir  Beshir. — Beit 
Shehab. — Palace  at  Bteddin. — B’aklin. — Simekaniyeh. — Battle-field  of  the  Druses. — 
Esh  Shuf. — Civil  Wars. — Description  of  the  Scenery  and  Geology  of  Lebanon  by  Dr. 
Anderson. — El  Judeideh. — Beit  Jumblat. — Sheikh  Beshir. — Palaces  at  Mukhtareh. — 
Vicissitudes  of  Fortune. —  Sa’id  Beg  Jumblat. — ’Ammatur. —  Gray  Squirrels. —  Oak- 
grove  and  Fountain  of  Bathir. — Fountains  and  Cliffs  between  Bathir  and  Jezzin. — 
The  Auwaly. — Merj  Bisry. — Ruins  of  an  Ancient  Temple. — Emir  Fakhr  ed  Din  Be¬ 
sieged  and  Captured  in  a  Cavern. — Cascade  below  Jezzin. — The  Ambassador  and  his 
Family. — Jeba’ah. — Neby  Safy. — Jerju’a. — Neby  Sijud. — Jermiik. — Jebel  er  Riham. 
— Globular  Iron-ore. — High-places,  Ancient  and  Modern. — Jezzin. — Hunting-ground 
of  the  Shehab  Emirs. — Taumat  Niha. — Ancient  Highway  from  Sidon  to  Damascus. 
— Kefr  Huneh. — Smuggling  Tobacco. — Circular  Lake. — Descent  to  the  Litany. — Jisr 
Burghiiz. —  Magnificent  Prospects. —  Meshghiirah. — Villages  upon  the  South-eastern 
Slopes  of  Lebanon. — Rapid  Restoration  to  Prosperity  after  Civil  Wars. — Schools. — 
Jisr  Kur’un. — Geodes. — The  Btika’a  originally  a  Lake. — Kamid  el  Lauz. — Luz. — 
Sughbin. — Jisr  Jubb  Jenin. — Geodes  of  Chalcedony  and  Agate. — Vineyards. — Ascent 
of  Lebanon.  —  View  over  the  Btika’a. —  Manna.  —  The  Cedars  of  el  Baruk  and  el 
Ma’asir. — Hiram  and  Solomon. — Fountains  of  el  Baruk. — Aqueduct  of  Sheikh  Be¬ 
shir. — Description  of  Wady  el  Fureidis  and  Wady  'Ain  Zahalteh  by  Dr.  Anderson. 

_ Scenery  around  ’Ain  Zahalteh. — Fountains  of  Nahr  el  Kady. — Avalanche  at  Kefr 

Nebrakh. — Burj  el  ’Amad. — Beit  el  ’Amad. — Sheikh  Khuttar. — Cedars  at  ’Ain  Za¬ 
halteh. — Sources  of  the  Damur  and  the  Auwaly. — Problem  of  Fountains. — Sandstone 


142 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Formation  and  Pine-groves.— Btathir. — Beit  ’Abd  el  Melek. — Silk  Factories. — Vine¬ 
yards. — Bhamdun  during  the  Civil  Wars. — Fossils. — Wady  el  Ghabun. — Bhauwarah, 
the  Residence  of  Colonel  Churchill. — Churchill’s  History  of  Lebanon. — A  Glorious 
Prospect. 

August  nth. 

As  yet  we  have  seen  only  a  small  part  of  this  goodly  moun¬ 
tain,  while  Northern  Lebanon,  Ccelesyria,  Anti-Lebanon,  Damascus, 
and  the  regions  “beyond  Jordan,”  eastward,  remain  to  be  traversed. 

Southern  Lebanon  does  not  lie  within  the  line  of  our  travels, 
but  we  will  make  a  short  preliminary  excursion  through  that  sec¬ 
tion.  The  ride  will  lead  us  over  mountain  scenery  of  great  beauty 
and  fertility  seldom  visited  by  travellers,  and  that  will  add  greatly 
to  the  charm  of  the  present  tour. 

It  is  pleasant  to  listen  again  to  the  tinkling  bells  of  the  mules 
and  the  echoing  song  of  the  muleteers,  and  to  hear  their  familiar 
call  of  encouragement  or  caution  to  the  loaded  animals,  as  they 
wind,  one  after  the  other,  in  Indian  file,  up  and  down  the  rough 
mountain-paths.  There  is  a  peculiar  fascination,  also,  in  wandering 
about  these  grand  mountains,  now  climbing  perilous  heights,  now 
descending  into  profound  depths  ;  at  one  time  looking  into  dark 
ravines  from  giddy  pinnacles,  and  at  another  clinging  to  the  sides 
of  narrow  wadies  dominated  by  frowning  cliffs,  with  just  enough 
of  the  uncertain  or  the  dangerous  to  keep  one  upon  the  alert. 

We  have,  at  the  very  outset  of  our  trip,  a  striking  example  of 

A 

Lebanon  scenery.  In  front  and  above  us  is  Mutaiyar  ’Ainab,  three 
thousand  feet  high,  with  the  pretty  village  of  ’Ainab  rising,  house 
above  house,  up  the  mountain-side,  and  half  concealed  in  verdure. 
On  our  right  are  gigantic  cliffs,  descending  abruptly  to  the  high¬ 
way  below  us,  while  on  every  side  are  terraces  of  the  vine,  the  fig, 
and  the  olive  extending  from  the  very  summit  of  the  mountains 
far  down  to  those  long,  rolling  ridges,  clothed  with  groves  of  the 
silvery  olive,  and  dotted  here  and  there  with  villages  nearly  hidden 
away  amongst  the  trees,  and  beyond  them  is  the  boundless  expanse 
of  that  bright  and  beautiful  sea. 

Are  those  singular  mounds,  stretching  northwards  parallel  to 
the  sea-shore,  natural  or  artificial  ? 

They  are  natural  tells ;  and  if  you  examined  the  one  opposite 
to  us,  that  has  upon  its  summit  a  dilapidated  Druse  chapel,  or 


ORIGINAL  INHABITANTS  OF  LEBANON. 


143 


khulweh,  you  would  discover  that  the  rock  strata  stand  perpen¬ 
dicular  to  the  horizon,  suggesting  the  idea  that,  when  the  central 
ridge  of  the  mountain  was  raised  up  from  below,  that  part  of  it 
was  broken  off  and  thrust  out  seawards,  -turning  the  strata  per¬ 
pendicular  in  the  mighty  upheaval. 

We  have  now  reached  the  Sikeh  Sultaneh,  or  regular  road  from 
Beirut  to  Deir  el  Kamar,  the  largest  Maronite  village  of  Lebanon  ; 

A. 

and  this  dukkan  of  ’Ainab  is  the  half-way  coffee-shop,  where  the 
wayfarers  generally  rest  and  lunch.  The  water  of  the  village  foun¬ 
tain  is  pure  and  deliciously  cold. 

There  seem  to  be  remains  of  ancient  buildings,  both  below  the 
road  and  upon  the  cliffs  above  the  village. 

-A. 

They  may  be  of  any  age,  and  are  certainly  not  modern.  ’Ainab 
belonged  to  the  Druse  sheikhs  of  the  Tulhuk  family,  who  were  the 
feudal  chiefs  of  the  upper  Ghurb.  It  has  escaped  pillage  and  con¬ 
flagration  during  the  civil  wars  that  so  often  desolated  Southern 
Lebanon,  owing  to  the  protection  afforded  it  by  those  sheikhs. 

Who  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  inhabitants  of  these  moun¬ 
tains  at  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  conquest? 

Under  one  name  or  another,  various  tribes  of  Canaanites  occu¬ 
pied  the  northern  parts  of  Palestine,  including  Hermon,  and  in  all 
probability  the  southern  part  of  Lebanon,  which  was  generally 
associated  with  Hermon.  When  Joshua  overthrew  the  army  of 
the  confederate  kings,  gathered  from  all  those  tribes  “  by  the  wa¬ 
ters  of  Merom,”  it  is  highly  probable  that  many  of  the  fugitives 
escaped  to  these  mountains,  and  established  themselves  here  per¬ 
manently ;  for  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  Hebrews  ever  again 
interfered  with  them,  or  attempted  to  penetrate  into  this  region.1 
The  western  face  of  Lebanon,  overlooking,  as  it  does,  the  plain 
and  the  sea-board,  and  in  close  connection  with  them,  may  have 
been  governed  by  the  Phoenicians  in  ancient  times,  and,  in  part, 
at  least,  inhabited  by  them.  Many  of  them  were  wealthy  and 
refined,  and  such  would  naturally  resort  to  these  mountains  to 
escape  the  heat  of  summer,  and  for  reasons  of  health,  just  as  the 
present  inhabitants  of  the  coast  do  now. 

The  Phoenicians  held  possession  of  the  seaboard  for,  perhaps, 

1  Josh.  xi.  1-18. 


144 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


two  thousand  years,  but  of  their  sojourn  on  these  beautiful  moun¬ 
tains  they  have  left  no  trace.  Like  the  Hebrews,  they  seldom  in¬ 
scribed  any  record  upon  their  monuments  or  tombs.  The  sarco¬ 
phagus  of  Ashmanezer,  found  at  Sidon,  had  a  long  inscription  ;  but 
that  tomb  was  evidently  of  Egyptian  origin,  and  neither  before  nor 
since  its  discovery  have  I  seen  a  single  word  on  any  sarcophagus  or 
tomb  made  by  the  Phoenicians.  The  Greeks  and  Romans,  on  the 
contrary,  placed  a  record  upon  almost  everything  they  constructed. 
So  did  the  Saracens,  and  especially  the  Arabs. 

Almost  the  only  indications  of  former  inhabitants  on  these 
mountains  are  the  ancient  rock -cut  tombs,  and  even  those  are 
comparatively  few  and  very  rude.  They  are  simply  graves  excavated 
near  the  edge  of  the  cliffs,  or  hewn  out  of  detached  blocks,  or 
sunk  into  the  flat  surface  of  single  rocks.  They  are  from  five  to 
seven  feet  long,  two  feet  broad,  and  eighteen  inches  deep,  and  were 
originally  covered  with  heavy  stone  lids,  about  eight  feet  long,  three 
feet  broad,  and  two  feet  thick,  having  the  corners  raised  more  or 
less.  Generally  those  rock-cut  tombs  are  found  in  groups.  There 
is  such  a  group  above  Shemlan,  and  another  near  the  road  between 
it  and  ’Aitath  ;  but  none  of  them  have  any  ornamentation,  nor  are 
there  any  inscriptions.  Hence  it  is  impossible  to  discover  anything 
in  regard  to  those  who  made  them.  The  present  inhabitants  of 
Lebanon  are  a  mingled  race  of  uncertain  origin — Maronites,  Greeks, 
Druses,  and  Metawileh — and  none  amongst  them  can  tell  who  were 
their  ancestors  or  from  whence  they  came. 

That  hamlet  of  ’Ain  Kesur,  with  its  small  church,  which  we  are 
approaching,  is  literally  founded  on  the  rock,  being  built  upon  the 
exposed  surface  of  an  unbroken  layer  of  limestone  which  underlies 
the  entire  village.  The  church  occupies  an  ancient  site,  and  below 
it  are  several  of  those  rock-cut  tombs  already  described.  Along  the 
road  between  this  and  ’Aramon,  in  the  valley  west  of  us,  are  some 
larger  graves,  hewn  out  of  isolated  blocks,  all  empty,  of  course. 

This  long  wady  below  ’Abeih,  around  which  we  have  been  rid¬ 
ing,  with  its  well-cultivated  terraces  rising,  rank  above  rank,  from 
depths  a  thousand  feet  and  more  quite  up  to  the  village,  forms 
one  of  Nature’s  striking  and  beautiful  amphitheatres,  and  chal¬ 
lenges  the  admiration  of  the  beholder  from  every  point  of  view. 


’ABEIH. — OLD  PALACES.— VIEW  FROM  THE  MUTAIYAR.  145 

It  does  indeed,  and  I  seldom  pass  this  way  without  stopping, 
now  and  then,  to  enjoy  the  prospect.  It  is  seen  to  the  best  advan¬ 
tage  late  in  the  day,  when  evening  verges  towards  night.  Then  the 
whole  valley  is  filled  with  the  golden  light  of  the  setting  sun,  and 
as  the  darkness  deepens  the  little  pools  far  below  in  the  terraced 
vineyards  and  gardens  gleam  ‘Tike  stars  on  the  sea.”  The  village 

A 

of  ’Abeih  itself  is  quite  pretty,  with  its  large,  attractive  houses 
and  curious  old  palaces.  It  is  situated  on  the  northern  side  of 
the  mountain,  and  commands  a  noble  outlook  over  valley,  hill, 
and  plain  and  the  wide,  wide  sea,  sweeping  round  to  Beirut,  and 
extending  towards  Tripoli  far  as  the  eye  can  follow. 

Those  old  palaces  were  mainly  erected  by  the  Emir  Nusr  ed 
Din  in  1315,  but  have  been  several  times  partially,  destroyed  and 
again  rebuilt.  Many  tragedies  have  been  enacted  in  and  around 
them  during  the  five  or  six  centuries  of  their  existence.  In  1845 

A 

the  Druses  under  Sheikh  Hammud  Abu  Nakad  attacked  ’Abeih  in 
force,  and  quickly  set  on  fire  the  houses  of  the  Maronites  who  had 
fled  into  the  palaces,  killing  those  of  the  men  who  were  not  able 
to  escape  in  time.  An  officer  of  the  Pasha,  who  was  then  in  the 

A 

Lebanon,  came  to  ’Abeih,  and  finally  put  an  end  to  the  fight  just 
in  time  to  save  from  indiscriminate  slaughter  the  whole  Maronite 
population.  I  was  in  the  village  at  the  time,  an  unwilling  witness  to 
that  shocking  scene.  During  the  massacres  of  i860  the  Christians 
of  this  place  fled  to  the  plain,  and  escaped  to  Beirut,  where  they 
found  an  asylum  in  the  houses  of  native  and  foreign  residents. 

It  is  quiet  and  peaceful  enough  at  present,  and  had  we  the  time 
we  might  visit  the  Druse  High-school  here,  on  the  left,  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Mission  Seminary,  the  old  palaces,  and  other  places  of  interest. 
We  will  pass  through  the  village  to  ’Ain  ’Ali,  as  the  fountain  is 
called,  and  from  there  ascend  the  mountain-ridge  to  the  celebrated 
outlook  near  a  ruined  Khulweh,  on  the  top  of  Mutaiyar  ’Abeih. 

It  is,  indeed,  well  worth  the  climb  to  stand  upon  this  overhang¬ 
ing  cliff  and  gaze  upon  that  wonderful  prospect !  Notwithstand¬ 
ing  your  repeated  allusions  to  it,  I  am  taken  wholly  by  surprise, 
and  give  up  the  attempt  to  comprehend  depths  so  profound,  and 
scenery  so  vast  and  so  varied.  One  can  see  down  to  the  banks 
of  the  Damur,  and  faintly  hear  the  roar  of  that  foaming  river;  and 


146 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


then  that  sublime  assemblage  of  mountains,  and  wadys,  and  ravines, 
of  gorges,  and  chasms,  and  cliffs,  who  can  describe  it !  In  winter, 
when  the  entire  range  of  Lebanon  is  buried  under  the  deep  snow, 
this  prospect  must  be  magnificent. 

Mutaiyar  ’Abeih  is  more  than  three  thousand  feet  above  yon¬ 
der  sea,  and  commands  a  panorama  of  almost  unequal  extent  in 
this  region,  and  also  of  great  historical  interest.  Not  to  dwell  upon 
the  mighty  sweep  of  that  beautiful  sea  on  the  west,  and  of  the 
magnificent  mountain  scenery  of  the  Lebanon  range  on  the  east, 
extending  from  the  far  south  to  the  distant  north,  and  culmina¬ 
ting  in  Jebel  el  Keniseh  and  Sunnin,  nearly  the  entire  seaboard  of 
ancient  Phoenicia  lies  outstretched  before  the  beholder.  Though 
Tyre  itself  is  hidden  from  view  by  a  projecting  point  of  land,  the 
Ladder  of  Tyre,  south  of  it,  is  clearly  seen ;  while  old  Sidon  ap¬ 
pears  surprisingly  near.  To  the  north  are  the  plain  and  the  city 
of  Beirut,  the  coast  of  Jebeil  and  el  Batrun,  the  ancient  Gebal  and 
Botrys,  and  the  bold  promontory  of  Theoprosopon,  beyond  which 
is  the  city  of  Tripoli,  with  its  spacious  bay;  and  farther  still  is  the 
island  of  Ruad,  the  famous  seat  of  the  Arvadites.  I  have  counted 
more  than  sixty  villages  and  towns  from  this  lofty  stand-point. 

But  we  cannot  linger  here,  and  must  proceed  on  our  way. 
Lead  your  horse  carefully  along  the  edge  of  the  cliff,  and  down 
these  low  terraces,  and  in  half  an  hour  we  shall  reach  the  village 
of  Kefr  Metta,  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  ridge,  and  from  there 
a  steep  and  winding  descent  through  groves  of  pine  will  bring  us, 
in  about  an  hour,  to  the  Damur,  at  Jisr  el  Kady.  There  we  will 
lunch  near  one  of  those  khans  and  dukkans,  found  everywhere,  at 
convenient  stopping  places,  along  the  roads  in  these  mountains. 

With  the  difference  in  size  and  situation  the  villages  on  Leba¬ 
non  are  very  much  alike,  and,  I  should  suppose,  that  distance 
always  lends  enchantment  to  their  appearance. 

They  are  naturally  built  around  the  fountain  as  a  centre,  and  to 
it  all  roads  and  paths  converge.  The  houses  are  low,  square,  and 
solidly  built,  rarely  of  more  than  one  story,  and  seldom  exceeding 
three  rooms,  with  one  door  and  two  windows  to  each.  The  roofs 
are  flat  and  covered  with  earth,  which  is  “  rolled  ”  in  winter,  to  make 
it  water-proof.  Such  houses  are  as  much  a  part  of  the  mountain 


BEIT  EL  KADY.— EL  FUZUR. 


147 


as  the  terraced  fields,  vineyards,  and  cliffs  by  which  they  are  sur¬ 
rounded,  and  upon  which  they  are  built ;  and  it  is  this  grouping 
together  of  house  and  vine,  terrace  and  cliff,  that  gives  to  these 
mountain  villages  and  the  magnificent  scenery  which  they  com¬ 
mand  their  peculiar  beauty  and  special  attractiveness. 

Kefr  Metta  has  long  been  the  home  of  Beit  el  Kady,  a  family 
that  has  furnished  most  of  the  judges  for  the  Druse  nation  on 
Lebanon.  I  have  been  acquainted  with  several  of  those  judges, 
some  of  whom  were  learned  and  dignified,  and  their  legal  record 
was  an  honor  to  their  position  and  their  people.  The  younger 
branches  of  the  family,  who  lived  in  Kefr  Metta  in  i860,  were  said 
to  have  participated  in  the  massacres  of  the  Christians  at  Deir  el 
Kamar,  and  were  obliged  to  leave  the  country  to  escape  condign 
punishment  for  their  part  in  that  horrible  tragedy. 

About  an  hour’s  ride  below  this  village  there  is  a  remarkable 
group  of  cliffs  and  fissures,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  gorge, 
called  el  Fuzur,  which  is  well  worth  visiting.  The  ride  from  Kefr 
Metta  down  to  the  Fuzur  is  interesting,  particularly  to  geological 
students  of  Lebanon.  Passing  on  the  west  side  of  the  village,  and 
descending  by  a  rough  path  for  half  a  mile,  one  comes  upon  a  large 
formation  of  amorphous  trap  and  globular  basalt.  That  formation 
extends  northward  under  the  limestone  ridges  upon  which  are  situ¬ 
ated  Kefr  Metta,  ’Abeih,  ’Ain  Kesur,  ’Ainab,  Shemlan,  ’Aitath,  Suk 
el  Ghurb,  and  other  villages.  It  is  at  least  one  hundred  feet  thick; 
above  it  is  limestone,  and  below  it  generally  sandstone,  which  rests 
upon  limestone.  Through  that  lower  limestone,  which  is  very  hard 
and  compact,  the  Damur  has  worn  its  way ;  and  in  the  cliffs  on  the 
north  side  are  the  fissures  of  el  Fuzur,  near  the  bottom  of  the  river 
valley,  and  about  five  miles  above  its  entrance  into  the  sea. 

The  Fuzur  itself  is  a  great  rift,  extending  down  southward 
through  the  cliff.  At  the  upper  end  the  perpendicular  sides  are 
about  twenty -five  feet  apart;  but  they  gradually  approach  each 
other,  in  the  descent,  until  they  are  only  five  feet  asunder  at  the 
lower  end.  The  fissure  is  about  three  hundred  feet  long  and  nearly 
one  hundred  feet  high.  The  descent,  through  the  fissure,  down 
which  the  path  winds  to  the  mill,  which  is  some  two  hundred  feet 
above  the  bed  of  the  river,  is  exceedingly  steep.  The  water  is 


14B 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


brought  from  the  river  to  the  mill  by  a  canal,  which  winds  pictu¬ 
resquely  along  perpendicular  cliffs  for  half  a  mile.  A  little  to 
the  south  of  the  main  fissure  just  described  is  another,  paral¬ 
lel  to  it,  but  in  no  place  are  the  sides  more  than  six  feet  apart. 
Unlike  the  other,  it  narrows  upwards,  and  the  sides  meet  above. 
Rocks  have,  at  some  time,  fallen  into  it,  upon  which  one  can  pene¬ 
trate  the  chasm  for  thirty  or  forty  feet ;  and  a  stone  dropped  into 
the  abyss  is  heard  for  some  seconds  rolling  away  far  below.  Be¬ 
sides  these  two  fissures  there  are  others  running  transversely,  and 
descending  directly  south  towards  the  river. 

Although  that  labyrinth  of  rocks  and  clefts  is  interesting  in 
itself,  yet  it  would  not  on  that  account  alone  be  entitled  to  special 
notice.  It  is  what  certain  parts  of  the  Fuzur  indicate  and  suggest 
that  imparts  to  it  peculiar  interest.  The  sides  of  the  main  fissure, 
throughout  its  entire  length  and  from  top  to  bottom,  have  been 
polished  by  the  action,  as  I  believe,  of  a  glacier.  In  that  process 
the  polishing  body,  during  its  passage  through  the  fissure,  has 
drawn  lines  and  scratches  and  fine  striae  with  surprising  regularity, 
descending  with  the  descent  of  the  cleft  itself.  As  the  fissure  nar¬ 
rows  downwards  towards  the  lower  end,  where  it  opens  out  on  to 
the  river-bed,  the  glacier  would  necessarily  assume  the  shape  and 
form  of  a  huge  wedge.  That  would  render  its  passage  through  the 
cleft  very  slow  and  regular,  which  accounts  for  the  beauty  of  the 
polish  and  the  regularity  of  the  striae. 

The  rock,  being  intensely  hard  and  unstratified,  received  a  uni¬ 
form  polish ;  and,  being  protected  by  a  remarkable  curve  of  the 
cliff  on  the  upper  side,  like  the  moulding  of  an  immense  cornice, 
by  which  the  fissure  was  overarched  and  sheltered  from  the  sun, 
the  polish  would  remain  as  long  as  the  everlasting  mountain  itself. 
In  certain  places  below  that  natural  cornice  water  has  trickled 
down,  on  the  upper  side  of  the  fissure,  coating  the  surface  with  a 
stalagmitic  incrustation,  whose  lines  are  nearly  perpendicular  to 
the  striae  of  the  polished  surface.  Where  that  incrustation  has 
peeled  off  the  striae  are  shown  in  unbroken  continuity. 

During  my  rambles  over  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  I  had  not 
discovered  any  traces  of  the  action  of  glaciers  which  appeared  dis¬ 
tinct  and  unmistakable.  I  had  not  seen  the  Fuzur,  with  its  po- 


INDICATIONS  OF  GLACIAL  ACTION  ON  LEBANON.  149 

lished  surfaces,  more  perfect  and  extensive  than  any  I  had  visited 
either  in  Europe  or  America.  It  is  this  glacial  action  which  im¬ 
parts  special  interest  to  that  locality,  and  which  is  corroborated  by 
the  appearance  of  the  parallel  fissure.  That  one  is  widest  at  the 
bottom,  and  narrowest  at  the  top,  where  it  is  also  so  covered  over 
by  rocks  that  no  glacier  could  have  possibly  entered  it.  Hence 
its  sides  are  as  rough  as  when  first  split  apart.  The  same  is  true 
of  all  the  neighboring  fissures,  where  glacial  action  was  equally  im¬ 
possible.  If  we  have  there  sufficient  proof  that,  in  some  former 
period  in  the  earth’s  history,  el  Fuzur  was  filled  with  a  glacier,  the 
conclusion  is  certain  that  at  that  time  the  greater  part,  if  not  the 
whole,  of  Lebanon,  down  to  the  sea  itself,  was  buried  under  enor¬ 
mous  accumulations  of  snow  and  ice. 

El  Fuzur  is  in  the  secluded  and  sheltered  gorge  of  the  river, 
and  but  five  hundred  feet  above  the  sea-shore.  In  the  immediate 
neighborhood  are  two  or  three  houses  and  the  mill.  The  place  is 
known  as  el  Muwafukah,  or  the  fortunate.  The  climate  in  that 
sheltered  nook  being  almost  tropical,  everything  planted  there 
grows  with  surprising  luxuriance,  and  is  well  watered  by  the  canal 
which  turns  the  mill.  In  the  present  condition  of  our  earth  nei¬ 
ther  frost  nor  snow  ever  invade  that  spot,  and  the  orange-tree  and 
the  taro-plant  flourish  all  the  year  round  in  the  open  air.  If  these 
mountains  have  been  covered  with  thick  ice  since  the  cliffs  of  el 
Fuzur  were  rent  asunder,  the  geological  phenomena  and  features 
of  Lebanon,  as  well  as  its  natural  history  and  productions,  present 
a  most  interesting  problem  for  science  to  solve.  Apparently,  it 
has  required  a  great  extent  of  time  and  many  physical  convulsions 
to  bring  hills,  ridges,  valleys,  and  plains  to  their  present  fertile  con¬ 
dition  ;  and  during  those  countless  ages  the  forces  of  nature  have 
accomplished  an  amount  of  abrasion,  excavation,  and  degradation 
which  astonishes  even  the  imagination. 

Careful  search  may  yet  discover  other  indications  of  the  action 
of  glaciers  in  these  mountains ;  but,  from  the  nature  of  the  rock, 
they  will  be  found  only  in  places  protected  from  the  frost,  snow, 
rain,  and  sun.  The  cliffs  of  Lebanon  are  continually  adding  to  the 
accumulations  of  debris  along  their  bases  by  the  breaking  off  of 
large  masses  of  rock  and  rubbish ;  and  thus  all  traces  of  glacial 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


150 

action  are  obliterated  from  their  sides  or  buried  deep  by  the  talus 
at  the  base.  There  is  also  another  agency  constantly  operating  in 
this  country  to  obliterate  all  traces  of  glaciers.  The  extraordinary 
cloud-burst,  called  seil  by  the  Arabs,  sweeps  away  everything  that 
opposes  its  overwhelming  floods.  I  have  often  examined  the  tracks 
of  those  cloud-bursts,  and  been  appalled  at  the  wild  havoc  they 
make.  As  hardly  a  season  now  passes  without  some  part  of  the 
mountains  being  swept  by  them,  they  would,  in  the  long  lapse  of 
ages  since  glaciers  disappeared  from  Lebanon,  have  either  washed 
away  or  buried  up  all  traces  of  terminal  moraines. 

But  here  we  are  at  Jisr  el  Kady,  which,  I  suppose,  derives  its 
name  from  one  of  the  family  of  el  Kady,  by  whom  it  was  built. 
We  will  see  what  kind  of  refreshments  the  dukkanjy  has  to  offer, 
while  we  take  our  noonday  rest,  with  the  noisy  river  at  our  feet, 
and  those  clattering  mills  on  either  side  of  us.  We  have  now 
returned  to  the  regular  road  between  Beirut  and  Deir  el  Kamar. 

The  two  main  branches  of  the  Damur  here  unite;  Nahr  el 
Ghabun  comes  from  the  north-east,  Nahr  el  Kady  from  the  east, 
augmented  by  the  streams  from  the  region  around  Btathir  and 
’Ain  Dara.  The  great  fountains  of  Nahr  el  Kady  below  -  ’Ain 
Zahalteh  are,  however,  the  true  permanent  source  of  this  river. 

Those  valleys,  with  their  tributaries,  are  studded  with  villages, 
clinging  to  the  declivities  on  both  sides,  and  embowered  in  vine¬ 
yards  and  mulberry-gardens.  They  enhance  the  beauty  and  inte¬ 
rest  of  this  wild  and  picturesque  scenery. 

They  are  inhabited  by  Druses  and  Maronites,  the  former  being 
in  the  majority;  and  it  is  owing  to  that  fact  that,  during  civil 
wars,  the  Druses  get  the  upper  hand  and  commit  atrocious  crimes 
upon  the  Christians,  as  exemplified  in  the  massacres  of  i860. 

It  is  time  for  us  to  leave  this  cool  and  refreshing  retreat,  above 
the  noisy,  rushing  river,  and  commence  the  steep  ascent  of  the 
mountain.  We  have  nearly  three  hours  yet  to  ride  before  reach¬ 
ing  our  tents  pitched  in  the  western  suburb  of  Deir  el  Kamar. 

Jisr  el  Kady  is  not  likely  to  be  swept  away  by  any  torrents 
with  which  the  Damur  can  assault  it,  for  its  buttresses,  on  either 
side,  are  founded  upon  the  everlasting  rock. 

Substantial  as  it  is,  and  high  above  the  foaming  river  that  now 


ROMAN  BRIDGE-BUILDERS.— WILD  BEASTS  ON  LEBANON.  1 5 1 

darts  down  the  smooth  and  worn  channel  below  its  ample  arches, 
there  have  been  times,  even  within  my  experience,  when  the  Da- 
mur  overflowed  the  topmost  stone  on  the  parapet  of  that  bridge. 
To  resist  such  winter  floods  and  summer  cloud-bursts,  or  seils, 
bridges,  in  this  mountainous  country,  must  not  only  be  solidly 
built,  but  the  arches,  also,  must  be  wide  and  high.  The  Roman 
bridge-builders  were  aware  of  this  necessity,  and  hence  the  strong 
and  lofty  arches  which  they  constructed  over  even  insignificant 
streams,  specimens  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen  at  Nahr  Abu  el 
Aswad,  between  Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  at  Mu’amaltein,  north  of  the 
Bay  of  Juneh,  on  the  road  to  Tripoli. 

That  group  of  rocky  pinnacles,  on  the  right  of  our  path,  recalls 
a  curious  incident  which  occurred  in  this  vicinity  a  few  years  ago. 
Passing  this  way  to  Deir  el  Damar  with  her  servant,  one  of  the 
American  missionary  ladies  was  astonished  to  see  a  nimr,  or  pan¬ 
ther,  stretched  out  upon  a  rock  not  far  from  the  road.  Not  de¬ 
siring  a  closer  interview,  they  did  not  disturb  the  quiet  of  his 
rest,  and  were  glad  to  pass  on  unmolested. 

It  is  surprising  that  such  wild  animals  can  hold  their  own  in  a 
region  so  thickly  populated  as  this. 

They  are  still  found  in  a  few  places,  and  occasionally  shot  and 
killed  by  parties  who  go  out  in  pursuit  of  them.  When  Ibrahim 
Pasha  disarmed  the  inhabitants  of  this  country,  the  wild  beasts  be¬ 
came  so  numerous  and  destructive  in  certain  districts  that  he  was 
obliged  to  restore  arms  to  those  who  were  specially  exposed  to 
their  depredations.  Such  facts  serve  to  illustrate  the  divine  pro¬ 
mise  to  the  Hebrews:  “I  will  not  drive  them  [the  Canaanites]  out 
from  before  thee  in  one  year ;  lest  the  land  become  desolate,  and 
the  beasts  of  the  field  multiply  against  thee.”  1  They  also  render 
altogether  credible  the  Biblical  accounts  of  the  presence  of  wild 
beasts  in  Palestine  in  ancient  times,  when  the  people  had  no  more 
formidable  weapons  than  the  bow,  the  sword,  and  the  spear. 

Formerly  this  road  was  very  rough  and  the  ascent  fatiguing, 
but  Rustum  Pasha,  the  Governor- general  of  the  Lebanon,  has 
greatly  improved  it,  and  before  long  carriages  will  be  able  to  drive 
all  the  way  from  Beirut  to  Deir  el  Kamar  and  Bteddin. 

1  Exod.  xxiii.  2g. 


152 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


There  can  scarcely  be  finer  scenery  on  Lebanon  than  this — 
above,  around,  and  far  below  us  —  the  mountains,  the  wadys,  the 
Damur  valley,  and  the  distant  sea. 

The  prospect  is,  indeed,  as  grand  as  it  is  beautiful,  and  as  varied 
as  it  is  verdant ;  but  your  progress  through  the  Lebanon  will  be  a 
continual  advance  from  glory  to  glory,  and  you  will  find  it  difficult 
to  decide  which  is  the  most  beautiful  view. 


DURZY  AND  DURZIEH. 


That  small  Druse  village,  called  Bshetfin,  which  we  have  just 
passed  through,  remains  in  appearance  just  what  it  was  when  I 
came  to  this  country.  It  has  not  increased  in  size  nor  advanced 
in  any  degree.  If  half  the  inhabitants  had  gone  to  sleep  fifty  years 


1 


DRUSE  STAGNATION.— CHRISTIAN  ENTERPRISE.  I  53 

ago  and  awoke  up  to-day,  they  would  have  noticed  but  little  change 
about  the  place  since  they  began  their  long  slumber.  Even  the 
picturesque  oak-trees  that  surround  the  village  do  not  appear  to 
have  grown  much  in  half  a  century. 

In  these  respects  Bshetfin  is  a  fair  representative  of  many  other 
Druse  villages.  They  are  stagnant,  and  make  very  little  progress 
in  any  direction.  Some  of  them  have  declined  both  in  population 
and  property.  That  may  be  ascribed,  in  part,  to  the  social  and 
religious  customs  of  the  people,  and  partly  to  those  civil  wars  and 
massacres  which  desolated  Lebanon  at  different  times  from  1842 
to  i860.  Many  Druses  became  deeply  implicated  in  those  ruinous 
conflicts,  and  found  it  necessary  to  emigrate  to  the  Hauran  to 
escape  punishment  for  their  crimes.  Not  a  few  villages  were  thus 
almost  deserted,  and  the  Druse  population  of  this  part  of  Leba¬ 
non  is  probably  not  greater  now  than  it  was  fifty  years  ago.  Their 
feudal  sheikhs  and  emirs  have  also  lost  their  ancient  position  and 
power,  and  can  no  longer  protect  and  support  the  numerous  rela¬ 
tives,  retainers,  and  servants  that  formerly  depended  upon  them. 

The  Druses  will  not  become  artisans,  and  few  of  them  learn  any 
mechanical  trade ;  neither  will  they  “  open  shops  ”  in  the  markets. 
Their  one  occupation  is  agriculture,  and  that  on  a  small  scale. 
Hence  they  have  become  poor,  while  the  native  Christians  eagerly 
pursue  every  kind  of  profitable  occupation,  and  are  rapidly  growing 
in  wealth,  intelligence,  and  numbers. 

We  have  now  reached  the  top  of  this  long  ascent  from  Jisr  el 
Kady,  and  turning  eastward  we  will  ride  through  mulberry,  fig,  and 
olive  gardens  for  half  an  hour  along  the  north  side  of  this  deep  val¬ 
ley.  Our  tents  are  awaiting  us  in  an  enclosed  field  at  the  west  end 
of  Deir  el  Kamar,  where  I  have  often  pitched  on  former  occasions. 

Nowhere  in  all  Palestine  have  we  seen  such  luxuriant  and  fer¬ 
tile  fields,  or  such  carefully  cultivated  terraces. 

That  is  due  to  the  abundance  of  water,  brought  from  a  con¬ 
siderable  distance,  whose  little  rills  come  foaming  down  the  ter¬ 
races  like  miniature  *  cascades,  and  irrigate  every  available  spot 
where  a  tree,  a  vine,  or  a  vegetable  can  be  made  to  grow.  We 
shall  soon  come  in  sight  of  the  palaces  at  Bteddin,  situated  across 
the  wady,  and  higher  up  the  mountain-side. 

L 

ft 


i54 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


August  nth.  Evening. 

Your  friend,  Mu’alim  Daud,  kindly  accompanied  me  through  the 
town,  in  the  cool  of  the  evening,  and  during  our  walk  he  gave  me  a 
graphic  account  of  the  varied  fortunes  of  his  family  in  connection 
with  the  civil  wars,  conflagrations,  and  massacres  which  have  oc¬ 
curred  in  Deir  el  Kamar  within  the  last  forty  years.  I  was  sur¬ 
prised  at  the  appearance  of  the  town,  and  could  hardly  believe  that 
the  houses,  churches,  and  convents  had  all  been  burnt  so  recently 
and  again  rebuilt.  Mu’alim  Daud,  however,  informed  me  that  the 
stone  of  which  they  were  constructed  was  of  a  kind  which  suffered 
very  little  from  fire,  so  that  the  walls  were  generally  left  standing. 

That  is  true  of  nearly  all  the  houses  on  these  mountains,  and 
hence  the  work  of  reconstruction  is  greatly  facilitated.  Deir  el 
Kamar  was  rebuilt,  after  the  massacres  of  i860,  at  the  expense  of 
the  Turkish  Government,  and  the  houses  are  now  about  as  good 
as  ever.  But  the  population  is  much  reduced  ;  a  large  proportion 
of  men  and  boys  were  murdered  in  i860,  and  of  those  who  escaped 
not  a  few  have  settled  elsewhere,  nor  will  they  again  make  Deir 
el  Kamar  their  home.  Who  can  wonder  at  that,  in  view  of  the 
terrible  calamities  which  have  befallen  them  and  their  families? 

Mu’alim  Daud  estimated  the  present  inhabitants  at  six  thou¬ 
sand,  which  he  said  was  considerably  less  than  what  it  was  before 
the  massacre.  That  seemed  to  me  below  the  actual  number,  for 
the  town  extends  more  than  a  mile  along  the  southern  slope  of  the 
mountain.  But  the  Mu’alim  said  that  some  of  the  houses  were 
still  uninhabited.  Pointing  to  a  broad  terrace  overlooking  the  val¬ 
ley,  he  assured  me  that,  in  the  summer  of  i860,  over  five  hundred 
of  his  fellow-townsmen  were  slaughtered  in  cold  blood  in  one  of 
the  large  houses  there,  and  their  bodies  thrown  into  the  yard  be¬ 
low.  The  number  of  the  Christians  that  were  killed  by  the  Druses, 
in  Deir  el  Kamar  alone,  Mu’alim  Daud  said,  was  over  one  thousand. 
It  is  evident,  from  all  I  learned  of  the  massacre,  that  it  was  the  de¬ 
termined  purpose  of  the  Druses  to  exterminate  the  male  popula¬ 
tion  of  the  town  ;  and  the  details  of  that  ferocious  butchery,  given 
on  the  spot  by  an  eye-witness,  recalled  to  my  mind  some  of  the 
accounts  in  the  Bible  of  similar  slaughter,  often  recurring  in  the 
history  of  this  strange  country  in  ancient  times. 


A  BORDER-LAND.— CIVIL  WARS.— PALACES  AT  DEIR  EL  KAMAR.  I  55 

This  has  always  been  a  border-land,  and  peopled  by  many  an¬ 
tagonistic  tribes,  now  dwelling  amicably  together,  now  engaged  in 
bloody  feuds,  subjugating,  expelling,  or  exterminating  one  another 
in  endless  succession.  And  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  massacre  of 
i860  was  not  the  last  enacted  on  these  mountains. 

So  I  apprehend  ;  for  even  my  kind  guide — when  showing  me 
the  Druse  quarter,  elevated  above  the  rest  of  the  town,  and  now 
covered  with  shapeless  ruins — said  :  “  There  is  all  that  remains  of 
the  habitations  of  our  enemies.  Thank  God,  no  Druse  can  now  put 
his  foot  in  Deir  el  Kamar,  and,  if  God  will,  we  shall  yet  have  far 
greater  revenge  for  our  kindred  and  the  desolation  of  our  homes/’ 

Such,  no  doubt,  is  the  cherished  hope  of  all  his  co-religionists ; 
and  the  realization  of  it  will  be  left  to  their  children,  as  a  family 
legacy  never  to  be  forgotten.  But  all  their  attempts  hitherto  have 
proved  failures.  Three  times  have  I  seen  the  effort  to  subjugate 
or  annihilate  the  Druses  set  all  the  Lebanon  in  a  blaze,  and  each 
succeeding  defeat  of  the  Maronites  was  more  crushing  and  disas¬ 
trous  than  the  one  before  it.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  timely  inter¬ 
vention  of  the  European  Powers,  and  the  occupation  of  the  country 
by  the  P'rench  after  the  massacres  of  i860,  not  only  the  Maronites, 
but  the  Christian  population  of  these  mountains,  would  have  been 
nearly  annihilated  by  the  Druses  and  Moslems,  assisted,  as  they 
were,  by  the  Turkish  Government.  Let  us  hope  that  a  better  re¬ 
ligion,  better  education,  and  a  better  government  will  ultimately 
eradicate  these  fierce  passions,  so  that  Druse  and  Maronite  may 
dwell  together  in  harmony  and  peace  on  this  goodly  mountain. 

Amongst  the  ruins  you  saw  were  those  of  the  houses  and  pal¬ 
aces  of  the  sheikhs  and  begs  of  Beit  Abu  Nakad,  an  ancient  family 
from  the  Hejaz  that  aided  in  the  conquest  of  Egypt  and  the  north 
of  Africa  in  the  seventh  century.  From  thence  they  emigrated  to 
the  south  of  Lebanon  about  the  twelfth  century ;  but  they  are 
rarely  mentioned  in  the  confused  annals  of  the  mountains  until 
about  two  hundred  years  ago.  From  that  time  onward  they  fig¬ 
ure  largely  in  all  the  wars  which  desolated  Lebanon.  They  have 
been  a  fierce  and  turbulent  “  family,”  and  their  story  is  a  perpet¬ 
ual  repetition  of  bloody  feuds,  in  which  they  have  often  been 
nearly  exterminated.  Their  residences  in  Deir  el  Kamar  have  been 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


156 

burnt  several  times  and  their  property  destroyed.  Owing  to  the 
leading  part  which  they  took  in  the  recent  massacres,  they  have 
been  forbidden  to  enter  the  town,  their  habitations  were  levelled 
with  the  ground,  and  the  very  materials  carried  away  to  rebuild 
the  houses  of  their  enemies. 

August  1 2th. 

Instead  of  passing  through  the  town  we  will  take  the  road 
below  it,  which  leads  along  the  base  of  the  hill,  and  then  across 
the  valley  and  up  the  mountain  to  the  famous  palace  of  the  Emir 
Beshir  at  Bteddin.  The  smaller  palace  which  he  built  for  his 
mother  is  seen  in  the  mulberry-gardens,  and  that  of  his  eldest  son 
is  higher  up  the  hill  to  the  south-west.  The  only  thing  worthy 
of  notice  near  them  is  the  canal  which  supplies  the  palaces  and 
the  surrounding  gardens  with  water  brought  from  the  fountains  at 
’Ain  Zahalteh,  about  eight  miles  to  the  north-east  of  Bteddin. 

The  Emir  Beshir  resided  at  Bteddin  in  great  dignity  and  state, 
and  for  many  years  governed  all  Lebanon  as  an  independent  prince. 
He  ruled  with  a  strong  will  and  an  iron  hand,  but  was  expelled 
from  the  country  in  1840,  when  Syria  was  restored  to  the  Sultan 
by  the  allied  powers  of  Europe,  and  he  died  an  exile  in  Constanti¬ 
nople.  He  was  the  last  of  a  long  line  of  governing  emirs  of  the 
Shehab  family.  Their  genealogical  record  extends  through  more 
than  forty  generations.  But  their  day  is  over,  and  their  glory  has 
departed  ;  nor  is  there  any  probability  that  another  Shehab  will 
ever  again  rise  to  power  either  in  Lebanon,  in  Wady  et  Teim,  or 
in  the  Hauran,  where  they  originally  dwelt,  and  from  whence  they 
long  ago  passed  over  into  these  mountains. 

Forty  generations!  Do  the  Shehab  emirs  carry  up  their  pedi¬ 
gree  to  an  antiquity  so  high  as  that? 

There  are  other  things  about  Lebanon  besides  magnificent  sce¬ 
nery  quite  worthy  of  attention.  Not  the  least  remarkable  is  the 
history  and  the  character  of  its  inhabitants.  There  were  no  less 
than  twenty-four  feudal  families  in  these  mountains,  and  some  of 
them  boasted  of  a  pedigree  which,  for  antiquity,  puts  to  the  blush 
that  of  the  most  aristocratic  dynasties  in  Europe.  The  emir  who 
called  on  us  in  Shemlan  traces  his  genealogical  tree  to  Paradise, 
where  its  roots  were  nourished.  He  claims  direct  descent  from  the 


THE  SHEHAB  PRINCES.— PALACE  AT  BTEDDIN.  1 57 

Prophet ;  and  from  Muhammed  any  Moslem  chronologer  will  carry 
the  line  up  to  Ishmael,  from  whence  to  Adam  in  Eden  they  follow 
the  Biblical  list.  The  accuracy  with  which  such  long  chronologies 
and  pedigrees  are  kept  not  only  illustrates  Biblical  genealogies,  but 
increases  our  confidence  in  their  reliability. 

And  thus  the  chronicles  of  the  Shehab  family  run  through 
forty-one  successive  generations  of  governing  emirs  to  the  death  of 
the  Emir  Beshir.  There  are  several  points  of  resemblance  between 
those  emirs  and  the  judges  and  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel.  Some 
were  good  and  wise ;  others  were  wicked  and  did  evil  in  the  sight 
of  the  Lord,  and  were  punished.  There  were  family  feuds,  rival¬ 
ries,  and  murders  not  a  few;  and  there  were  various  incidents,  acci¬ 
dents,  and  anecdotes  to  diversify  the  uniformity  of  their  history. 
As  amongst  the  Hebrews,  there  was,  at  first,  but  one  line  of  princes; 
afterwards  the  Shehab  family  was  divided  into  two,  and  finally 
three  branches — one  in  Upper  Wady  et  Teim  at  Rasheiya,  another 
in  Lower  Wady  et  Teim  at  Hasbeiya,  and  the  third  on  Lebanon. 
The  governing  families  of  the  Hebrews  passed  away  long  ago,  but 
the  Shehabs  are  still  in  the  land,  though  greatly  impoverished  and 
fallen  from  their  former  position  of  dignity  and  power. 

This  esplanade,  or  medan,  as  you  call  it,  presents  some  idea  of 
the  wealth  and  power  of  the  Emir  Beshir;  and  the  view  is  not  only 
grand,  it  is  magnificent.  The  palace  occupied  one  side,  covered 
arcades,  retainers’  and  servants’  rooms,  kitchens  and  stables  the 
other  two,  and  it  is  open  towards  the  valley,  Deir  el  Kamar,  and 
the  distant  sea  on  the  fourth  side.  The  palace  is  built  upon  the 
cliff,  and  is  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  valley,  and 
three  thousand  feet  above  the  Mediterranean.  Below  it  the  de¬ 
clivities  of  the  mountain  sink  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  wady 
which  lies  between  Bteddin  and  Deir  el  Kamar.  The  decorations 
about  the  palace,  its  carved  doors  and  windows,  its  marble  floors 
and  halls,  its  inlaid  walls  and  painted  ceilings,  its  courts,  fountains, 
and  baths,  retain  the  mere  semblance  of  their  former  glory.  The 
palace  was  used  by  the  Government  for  many  years  as  a  barracks, 
and  most  of  the  fine  marble  has  been  carried  away  by  the  officers, 
and  the  whole  establishment  was  allowed  to  go  to  ruin.  Since  the 
massacres  of  i860  it  has  become  the  summer  residence  of  the  Gov- 


158 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


PALACE  AT  BTEDDIN. 


ernor-general,  and  it  has  been  repaired  and  enlarged.  The  water 
from  the  canal  supplies  the  palace  and  the  gardens,  and  then 
plunges  down  the  cliff  into  the  valley — a  foaming,  noisy  cataract. 

Mukhtarah  is  the  next  place  we  are  to  visit  this  morning. 
Being  two  hours  distant,  it  is  time  we  were  on  our  way  there. 


DISTRICT  OF  ESH  SHUF.— BATTLE-FIELD  OF  THE  DRUSES.  1 59 

That  beautifully  wooded  village  of  B’aklin,  some  two  miles  west 
of  Bteddin,  is  the  stronghold  of  the  Druses,  in  the  Shuf,  as  this  dis¬ 
trict  is  called  ;  and  there  many  a  battle  has  been  fought  in  the  past, 
between  the  rival  sheikhs  and  emirs  of  Lebanon.  A  short  distance 
ahead  of  us  is  another  celebrated  battle-field,  near  the  small  hamlet 
of  es  Simekaniyeh.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  that  region 
should  have  been  the  chosen  theatre  of  so  many  contests,  except 
that  it  is  situated  nearly  midway  between  el  Mukhtarah  and  Bted¬ 
din ;  and  yet  several  fights  have  occurred  there  during  the  present 
generation.  Indeed,  we  are  surrounded  with  battle-fields,  and  nearly 
every  hamlet  and  village  has  its  tragic  story. 

Native  historians  speak  of  long  periods  in  which  this  district  of 
esh  Shuf  was  reduced  to  a  howling  wilderness  by  the  contests  for 
its  possession  between  rival  chiefs  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon. 
Not  only  were  the  villages  burnt,  and  the  people  butchered  or 
driven  away,  but  the  olive -groves,  the  mulberry  fields,  and  other 
species  of  property  were  purposely  destroyed.  And  it  is  one  of 
the  best  possible  proofs  of  the  natural  fertility  of  this  part  of  the 
mountain  that  it  recovered  so  rapidly  from  those  ruinous  visita¬ 
tions.  Most  of  these  picturesque  villages,  with  their  olive  and 
mulberry  plantations,  their  fig  and  walnut  trees,  their  poplar  and 
oak  groves,  their  vine -clad  terraces  climbing  to  the  clouds,  have 
been  desolated  by  the  fires  of  civil  war  more  than  once  since  I  first 
saw  them.  And  yet  that  wide  expanse  of  mountain  and  valley, 
drained  by  the  river  Auwaly  from  the  fountains  at  el  Baruk,  on  the 
north,  to  Jezzin,  on  the  south,  is  about  the  best  wooded,  most  popu¬ 
lous,  and  the  most  flourishing  on  Lebanon. 

Dr.  H.  J.  Anderson,  of  Lieutenant  Lynch’s  Expedition  to  the 
Dead  Sea,  thus  speaks  of  the  scenery  which  now  opens  out  before 
us :  “  After  passing  es  Simekaniyeh  the  country  assumes  an  aspect 
of  grandeur  not  surpassed  in  any  part  of  the  Libanus.  The  noble 
scenery  of  el  Mukhtarah  now  presents  itself,  with  its  vast  masses 
and  startling  contrasts,  its  turreted  cliffs  and  dark  defiles,  its  sud¬ 
den  barriers  and  winding  outlets,  conducting  the  traveller  gradu¬ 
ally  down  into  the  singular  valley  of  Nahr  el  Baruk.”  And  of  the 
geology  of  this  region,  which  we  are  to  traverse  for  the  next  five 
hours,  he  says:  “Vertical  sections  of  the  mountain-side  show  an 


160  the  land  and  the  book. 

alternation  of  massive  and  stratified  limestone,  resembling  at  first 
view  the  successive  deposits,  sometimes  so  difficult  to  account  for, 
in  the  distribution  of  materials  derived  from  the  detritus  of  plu- 
tonic  rocks.  In  the  neighborhood  of  el  Judeideh  the  plough  of  the 
husbandman  frequently  turns  up  casts  of  enormous  Strombi  and 
Naticae.  In  general  it  may  be  said  of  the  Lebanine  groups  between 
Deir  el  Kamar  and  Jezzin  that  they  possess  every  variety  of  appear¬ 
ance,  from  the  most  porous  to  the  most  compact,  and  from  the  most 
thoroughly  silicified  to  the  most  completely  disintegrated  and  bro¬ 
ken  down.  The  colors  are  as  various  as  the  consistence,  running 
from  a  pale  yellow  to  a  dark  blue  and  purplish  black.”1 

Dr.  Anderson  found  this  vicinity  exceptionally  rich  in  casts  of 
a  great  variety  of  fossils ;  and  here,  above  the  road,  you  see  them 
protruding  from  the  perpendicular  bank  in  countless  numbers. 
The  strombi  are  extremely  compact,  and  I  have  collected  speci¬ 
mens  weighing  several  pounds.  These  geological  phenomena  form 
but  one  of  the  many  attractions  for  the  traveller  through  this  mag¬ 
nificent  region  of  Southern  Lebanon. 

The  long  descent  from  el  Judeideh,  through  olive-groves  and 
under  walnut-trees,  down  to  this  bridge  over  the  Baruk  River,  is 
very  picturesque ;  and  so  is  the  bridge,  with  its  noisy  cascades 
above  and  below,  while  all  around  it  is  embowered  and  nearly  con¬ 
cealed  by  a  forest  of  waving  silver  poplar  and  wide-spreading  syca¬ 
more,  and  the  stream  is  almost  hidden  from  view  by  thick  bushes 
and  twining  vines.  Not  having  expected  a  scene  so  romantic,  I 
gaze  upon  it  with  as  much  delight  as  though  I  was  the  first  to  dis¬ 
cover  it.  Shall  we  ride  up  to  that  conspicuous  palace  of  the  Jumb- 
lats,  so  beautifully  situated  in  this  wild  valley? 

By  no  means.  We  should  not  be  able  to  decline  the  hospita¬ 
lity  of  the  young  begs  without  positive  rudeness.  I  have  spent 
more  than  one  agreeable  night  there,  and  if  time  permitted  we 
might  pass  a  pleasant  week  with  the  present  representatives  of 
Beit  Jumblat,  who  now  occupy  that  palace  at  el  Mukhtarah. 

Beit  Jumblat  was  the  most  wealthy  and  influential  “house” 
amongst  the  Druses ;  and,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  Emir 
Falchr  ed  Din  Ma  an,  Sheikh  Beshir  Jumblat  was  the  most  illustri- 

1  Ex.  to  the  Dead  Sea,  pp.  92,  94. 


PALACES  AT  MUKHTARAH.— FORTUNES  OF  BEIT  JUMBLAT.  l6l 

ous  prince  of  that  singular  people.  Though  the  Jumblats  were 
celebrated  for  many  generations  in  the  region  about  Aleppo  and 
Killis,  and,  subsequently,  at  Ma’arret  en  N’aman  and  Jebel  el  A’alah, 
they  were  not  known  on  Lebanon  until  about  1630;  nor  did  the 
family  rise  to  great  distinction  before  the  close  of  the  last  century. 
Then  Sheikh  Beshir  became  the  most  powerful  leader  in  these 
mountains.  The  old  palaces  in  el  Mukhtarah  were  built  by  him, 
and  he  brought  the  water  to  them  from  the  great  fountain  of  the 
river  Auwaly,  at  el  Baruk,  six  miles  to  the  north-east  of  this  place, 
and  at  great  labor  and  expense,  the  canal  being  cut  through  hard 
rock  along  perpendicular  cliffs  for  a  considerable  part  of  the  dis¬ 
tance.  But  Sheikh  Beshir  was  the  wealthiest  prince  in  Syria,  and 
his  possessions  were  scattered  far  and  wide,  over  mountain  and 
valley,  hill  and  plain,  yielding,  according  to  native  report,  the  fabu¬ 
lous  income  of  fifty  thousand  pounds. 

For  many  years  lie  was  the  ally,  then  the  rival,  and  finally  the 
declared  enemy,  of  the  Emir  Beshir  Shehab,  the  recognized  prince 
of  the  mountains  by  the  Turkish  Government.  The  Emir’s  party 
ultimately  triumphed;  and  Sheikh  Beshir  Jumblat,  defeated  and 
driven  out  of  Lebanon,  was  beheaded  in  1825  by  the  Pasha  of 
Acre,  at  the  instigation,  it  is  said,  of  Muhammed  ’Aly,  Governor 
of  Egypt.  The  palace  at  el  Mukhtarah  was  plundered  and  burnt, 
and  the  estates  of  Beit  Jumblat  were  confiscated.  But  when  Emir 
Beshir  Shehab  was  himself  expelled  from  the  country  in  1840  by 
the  Allied  Powers,  and  Syria  was  restored  to  the  Sultan,  the  sons 
of  Sheikh  Beshir  Jumblat  were  allowed  to  return  to  their  homes, 
and  much  of  their  ancient  estate  was  given  back  to  them. 

In  the  revolutions  of  those  days  the  palace  of  the  Emir  Beshir 
Shehab  at  Bteddin  —  built  in  part  of  marble,  and  adorned  with 
columns  taken  from  the  palace  at  el  Mukhtarah — was  in  turn  plun¬ 
dered  and  burnt  by  the  Druses  of  the  Jumblat  faction.  These  are 
only  examples  of  numberless  similar  revolts,  triumphs,  and  reverses 

!of  the  ruling  families  of  the  Lebanon,  without  alluding  to  the 
treachery,  torture,  assassination,  and  murder  that  preceded,  accom¬ 
panied,  and  followed  them.  Indeed,  the  history  of  these  moun¬ 
tains  is  little  else  than  a  chronicle  of  such  retributive  tragedies. 
Most  of  the  present  palace  was  built  by  Sa’id  Beg,  the  son  of 

1 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


162 


Sheikh  Beshir  Jumblat;  and  his  story  runs  sadly  through  a  period 
of  forty  years,  during  which  civil  wars  often  desolated  Lebanon, 
and  he  was  frequently  accused  of  treachery  and  cruelty  by  his  ene¬ 
mies.  Involved,  willingly  or  otherwise,  in  the  massacres  of  i860, 
Sa’id  Beg  Jumblat  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Turkish  Government, 
tried  in  Beirut,  and  barely  escaped  with  his  life,  owing  to  the  pow¬ 
erful  influence  of  the  British  Commissioner.  He  was,  however,  far 
gone  in  consumption,  and  was  removed  from  prison  to  a  private 


1 


GROVES  OF  ’AMMATUR.— WATER-FALLS  AND  CLIFFS.  163 

house  only  to  die.  The  family  has  been,  and  is  still,  in  a  certain 
sense,  under  the  protection  of  the  British  Government ;  and  I  have 
felt  a  deep  interest  in  their  troubled  history  and  declining  fortunes. 

We  are  now  entering  the  beautiful  groves  of  ’Ammatur,  the 
pride  and  boast  of  this  region. 

A  veritable  paradise  of  fruitful  trees,  dense  bushes,  trailing 
vines,  and  blooming  flowers ;  vocal  with  the  song  of  birds,  the 
hum  of  bees,  and  the  murmur  of  running  water.  Nowhere  else 
have  we  found  such  noble  walnut-trees  ;  and  here,  too,  I  see,  for 
the  first  time  in  the  East,  genuine  gray  squirrels,  leaping  from 
branch  to  branch  as  nimbly  as  they  do  in  the  far  West. 

They  are  not  so  large,  but  in  all  other  respects  they  appear  to 
be  the  same,  and  are  found  wherever  there  are  walnut-trees  like 
these.  But,  notwithstanding  the  peaceful  attractions  of  this  earth¬ 
ly  paradise,  with  its  trees  and  flowers,  birds  and  fountains,  and  even 
squirrels,  the  inhabitants  of  ’Ammatur,  mostly  Druses,  are  divided 
into  hostile  factions,  and  are  constantly  quarrelling,  and  sometimes 
murdering  each  other.  We  shall  ride  through  this  wilderness  of 
verdure  and  beauty  for  more  than  half  an  hour. 

The  road  now  makes  a  long  bend  inwards  to  pass  around  a 
deep  chasm  on  our  right,  beyond  which  is  the  noble  oak-grove  of 
Bathir.  There  we  will  lunch  near  a  large  fountain  which  flows 

I  out  from  under  perpendicular  cliffs  that  tower  upwards  to  the 

clouds.  A  path  winds  as  best  it  can  up  those  stupendous  ram¬ 
parts  to  Niha,  B’adaran,  and  other  villages  situated  some  two  thou¬ 
sand  feet  higher  up  on  the  mountains.  The  stream  goes  bravely 
to  work  from  its  very  source ;  drives  a  mill  directly  below  it ;  then 
another,  and  still  another,  which  seem  to  hang  on  the  very  edge  of 
the  precipice  down  which  the  sturdy  young  brook  plunges  in  noisy 
cascades,  a  hundred  feet  high  and  more,  in  its  eagerness  to  join  the 
rushing  river  of  el  Baruk  in  the  valley  far  below. 

There  are  other  brooks  farther  on  whose  fountains  are  hidden 
away  in  the  upper  regions  of  Lebanon,  from  whence  their  streams 
come  tumbling  down  the  cliffs  high  overhead,  as  though  falling  from 
the  clear  blue  sky.  In  fact,  the  entire  ride  from  here  to  Jezzin  is 
extremely  romantic  ;  nor  is  the  magnificent  scenery  of  this  region 
destitute  of  historical  incidents  and  thrilling  adventures. 

t, 

I  I 


164 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


I  am  constantly  surprised  at  the  endless  variety  in  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  these  cliffs.  They  do  not  present  one  uniform  and  monoto¬ 
nous  wall  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  but  massive  buttresses  are 
pushed  out  here  and  there  to  the  fore-front,  high  above  the  deep 
gorge  of  the  river,  and  then  the  line  of  cliffs  retreats  behind 
castellated  peaks,  and  recedes  far  into  the  mountain,  protected  by 
rocky  turrets  and  flanked  by  unassailable  bastions. 

Those  extraordinary  and  nearly  Alpine  proportions,  these  fan¬ 
tastic  shapes,  those  inaccessible  heights,  and  these  profound  depths, 
are  all  mainly  the  result  of  a  remarkable  disintegration.  Immense 
masses  of  rock,  great  blocks,  bowlders,  and  slabs  have  been  split 
off,  or  rolled  down  from  the  mountain,  and  lie  at  the  bottom  of 
the  cliffs  in  wild  confusion,  and  far  below  runs  the  Jezzin  branch 
of  the  river  Auwaly.  The  profound  gorge  of  that  river  trends 
sharply  round  to  the  west,  and  through  it  the  Auwaly  finds  its 
way  to  the  sea,  between  gigantic  cliffs  of  gray  limestone. 

At  the  turning-point,  where  the  stream  from  Jezzin  unites  with 
the  river  of  el  Baruk,  and  the  two  combined  form  the  Auwaly,  is 
a  pretty  little  plain  called  Merj  Bisry,  covered  with  fertile  fields 
and  cultivated  gardens,  and  bordered  along  the  banks  of  the  river 
with  oleander  and  myrtle  bushes.  On  that  quiet  and  secluded 
“meadow”  of  Bisry,  as  the  name  implies,  are  some  remains  of  an 
ancient  temple,  nearly  buried  beneath  the  debris  of  the  overhang¬ 
ing  mountain,  and  further  concealed  by  thickets  and  thorn  bushes. 
There  are  no  inscriptions,  and  but  three  or  four  columns,  probably 
of  Egyptian  origin,  and  brought  there  by  the  Phoenicians.  There, 
too,  one  is  reminded  of  the  warlike  and  revengeful  nature  of  the 
Druses,  for  Merj  Bisry  is  celebrated  for  many  a  bloody  skirmish  in 
former  times  between  rival  families  in  this  part  of  Lebanon. 

It  was  amidst  this  grand  scenery  that  the  celebrated  Druse  chief¬ 
tain,  Fakhr  ed  Din,  terminated  a  long  career  of  rebellion  against 

i 

the  Sultan.  High  in  the  face  of  that  limestone  cliff,  called  Kul’at 
Niha,  some  distance  to  the  east  of  Merj  Bisry,  and  apparently  inac¬ 
cessible  from  above  or  below,  is  Mugharat  Niha,  a  cavern  in  which 
the  Emir  Fakhr  ed  Din  is  said  to  have  been  besieged  for  some 
years.  When  compelled  to  forsake  that  unassailable  retreat  by  the 
poisoning  of  his  water  supply,  he  took  refuge  in  a  cave  under  the 


EMIR  FAKHR  ED  DIN.— WATER-FALL  BELOW  JEZZIN.  165 

cascade  of  Jezzin.  There  he  remained  until  the  cave  was  sapped 
from  below.  As  the  story  relates,  the  sturdy  old  rebel  calmly 


smoked  his  pipe 
until  the  sap¬ 
per’s  chisel  was  driven 
up  through  the  rug  on 
which  he  was  reclin¬ 
ing.  Then  he  surren¬ 
dered,  and  was  taken 
to  Constantinople,  and 
there  beheaded — the  fate 
of  many  another  rebel 
against  the  Grand  Turk. 

Instead  of  passing  on 
to  Jezzin  we  will  take 
this  path  on  the  right, 
which  will  lead  us  to  the 
cascade  below  the  village. 

Here  it  is,  but  the  cav¬ 
ern  is  not  visible.  The 
stream  from  the  fountain 

of  Jezzin  plunges  down  this  perpendicular  cliff  for  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty  feet.  I  have  spent  several  hours,  first  and  last, 
at  this  cataract,  and  have  stood  upon  the  brink  and  dropped 


WATER-FALL  BELOW  JEZZIN. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


1 66 

my  line  for  more  than  two  hundred  and  forty  feet  without  touch¬ 
ing  the  sides  of  the  cliff.  Descending  into  the  deep  chasm,  on  the 
western  side,  I  have  filled  my  cup  from  the  vapor  of  the  water  at 
its  base,  as  it  fell  in  misty  rain  from  seeming  clouds  above.  This 
water-fall  is  the  most  magnificent  spectacle  of  the  kind  in  Syria. 
During  the  winter  the  rush  of  the  water  and  the  roar  of  the  cata¬ 
ract  are  quite  deafening;  but  in  summer  most  of  the  stream  is 
exhausted  by  irrigation.  At  present  you  see  but  a  small  stream  of 
water  tumbling  over  the  precipice,  with  its  silvery  spray  swaying 
hither  and  thither  at  the  will  of  the  breeze  produced  by  its  descent 
down  the  face  of  the  cliff. 

The  approach  of  night  amidst  such  scenes  is  strangely  fasci¬ 
nating.  There  is  a  sudden  quiet  all  around  —  a  stillness  as  of  ex¬ 
pectancy  pervades  the  atmosphere  ;  the  birds  are  silent,  and  only 
the  rippling  water,  gliding  onwards  and  over  the  profound  abyss, 
sounds  distinct  and  clear  like  the  accompaniment  of  a  song  when 
the  words  have  ceased  ;  and  the  desire  is  “  to  sit  on  rocks,”  and  “  to 
muse  o’er  flood  and  fell.” 

All  very  true ;  but,  before  darkness  overtakes  us,  we  had  bet¬ 
ter  seek  our  tents,  which  are  pitched  in  a  beautiful  grove  of  walnut- 
trees  west  of  the  village  of  Jezzin. 

August  1 2th.  Evening. 

We  are  spending  a  delightful  evening  under  the  friendly  shelter 
of  these  trees  with  their  wide-spreading  branches ;  and  the  air  is 
decidedly  cooler  than  at  Shemlan. 

Jezzin  is  nearly  three  thousand  feet  above  the  Mediterranean, 
and  is  higher  and  farther  removed  from  the  warm  air  of  the  sea 
and  the  plain  than  that  village.  We  pitched  once  on  this  camping- 
ground  with  our  Ambassador  to  Constantinople  and  his  family. 

How  came  they  to  be  in  this  unfrequented  part  of  Lebanon? 

They  had  delayed  their  tour  through  the  Holy  Land  until  the 
middle  of  summer,  and  while  exposed  to  the  heat  and  malarial 
influences  of  the  plain  of  Gennesaret  —  where,  long  ago,  “  Peter’s 
wife’s  mother  lay  sick  of  a  fever”  —  several  of  the  party  were 
prostrated  by  that  dangerous  malady.1  Being  informed  of  their 
condition  by  a  letter  from  an  Episcopal  clergyman  then  in  Naza- 

1  Luke  iv.  38. 


THE  AMBASSADOR.— INVALIDS.— TOUR  OF  PALESTINE.  167 

reth,  Dr.  Van  Dyck  and  I  went  to  their  assistance.  We  found 
them  at  Safed,  and  the  Doctor  decided  that  it  was  necessary  to 
remove  them  from  that  neighborhood,  even  if  they  had  to  be  car¬ 
ried.  Some  of  the  invalids  had  so  far  recovered  as  to  be  able  to 
ride,  so  extemporizing  a  sort  of  palanquin  for  the  Ambassador  and 
one  for  his  wife,  we  were  ready  to  start.  The  American  Vice- 
consul  of  Sidon,  who  had  accompanied  us,  summoned,  through  the 
aid  of  the  local  authorities,  forty  fellahin  to  act  as  porters.  As 
they  had  never  been  trained  to  carry  people,  sick  or  well,  our  pro¬ 
gress  was  exceedingly  slow,  owing  to  the  many  changes  amongst 
the  bearers,  and  very  uncomfortable  for  the  invalids. 

To  avoid  the  heat  on  the  sea-coast  we  kept  upon  the  moun¬ 
tains,  passing  Kedes,  the  Kedesh  of  ^Naphtali,  Hunin,  the  Chateau 
Neuf  of  the  Crusaders,  and  Deir  Mimas.  We  crossed  the  Litany 
below  Kul’at  esh  Shukef,  Castle  Belfort,  and  ascended  the  south¬ 
western  slopes  of  Lebanon  through  the  shady  valley  of  “  the  flow¬ 
ery  ”  Zaherany  to  Jerju’a,  and  thence  along  Jebel  er  Rihan  to 
Jeba’ah,  “the  beautiful.”  We  reached  this  walnut-grove  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  day  from  Safed.  The  invalids  were  soon  bene¬ 
fited  by  the  change  of  air,  and,  greatly  enjoying  the  variety  and 
magnificence  of  the  scenery,  were  able  to  continue  their  journey 
by  way  of  el  Mukhtarah  and  Deir  el  Kamar  to  Abeih.  After  a 
few  days’  rest  there,  they  went  down  to  Beirut,  and  then  took  the 
steamer  for  Constantinople.  Their  experience  emphasizes  the  warn¬ 
ing  to  all  who  intend  to  travel  through  this  land  not  to  make  the 
tour  of  Palestine  during  the  hot  months  of  summer. 

You  have  spoken  of  Jeba’ah  before  with  special  admiration; 
why  is  it  considered  so  beautiful  a  village  ? 

Three  things,  to  the  Arab  mind,  constitute  natural  beauty — 
good  water,  a  cool  breeze,  and  abundance  of  verdure — and  Jeba’ah, 
owing  to  its  situation  and  the  surrounding  mountains,  has  all  of 
those.  Did  it  fall  in  with  our  arrangements  for  the  future  prose¬ 
cution  of  our  travels,  the  ride  around  the  extreme  south-western 
end  of  Lebanon  would  lead  us  through  some  of  the  wildest,  well- 
wooded,  and  most  picturesque  scenery  in  this  region. 

The  distance  from  here  to  Jeba’ah  is  only  about  three  hours, 
and  before  descending  to  the  village  the  road  skirts  the  grandest 


1 68 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


old  forest  in  all  Lebanon.  Through  that  dense  wood  a  guide  would 
lead  us  up  to  Neby  Safy,  a  solitary  shrine  on  the  highest  pinnacle 
of  Jebel  er  Rihan,  commanding  views  of  vast  extent  and  great  va¬ 
riety.  That  muzar  is  frequented  by  Metavvileh,  and  Bedawin  Arabs 
from  the  Huleh  and  elsewhere.  The  village  of  Jeba’ah,  one  thou¬ 
sand  feet  directly  below  Neby  Safy,  has  the  best-watered  and  most 
verdant  fields,  vineyards,  and  gardens  in  Southern  Lebanon.  I  have 
spent  more  than  one  summer,  with  my  family,  in  the  castle  and  the 
village.  The  ride  thence,  southward,  along  the  mountain  -  side,  to 
Jerju’a  and  the  well-wooded  gorge  of  the  Zaherany,  and  beyond  it 
to  the  beautiful  plain  of  Jermiik,  is  delightful. 

Jerju’a  is  about  an  hour  south  of  Jeba’ah,  and  above  that  vil¬ 
lage  is  a  conical  peak,  similar  to  Neby  Safy,  covered  by  an  oak 
grove,  and  crowned  with  the  white  dome  of  a  muzar,  called  Neby 
Sijud.  The  native  Jews  of  this  country  occasionally  make  pil¬ 
grimages  to  that  shrine,  although  it  is  now  the  tomb  of  a  Moslem 
saint.  From  the  village  of  Jermuk  I  once  went  up  and  over  the 
wild  mountains  of  Jebel  er  Rihan,  as  the  southern  end  of  Lebanon 
is  called,  to  Kefr  Huneh.  For  a  considerable  distance  there  was 
no  road  whatever,  and  the  only  inhabitants  were  the  tent-dwelling 
Bedawin.  Taking  two  of  them  as  guides,  we  forced  our  way  for 
miles  through  tangled  bushes  and  under  low  trees,  winding  upwards 
as  best  we  could.  For  the  first  hour  the  rock  was  limestone,  but 
before  reaching  the  squalid  hamlet  of  Rihan  it  had  given  place  to 
amorphous  trap.  The  only  thing  the  people  of  Rihan  seemed  to 
cultivate  was  their  tobacco,  which  is  celebrated  throughout  that 
region,  and  of  that  there  were  large  fields  all  around  the  village. 

Rihan  is  the  Arabic  for  myrtle,  and  both  the  mountain  and  the 
village  are  rightly  named  from  it ;  for  I  never  saw  elsewhere  such 
masses  of  flowering  myrtle,  and  the  rills  in  the  ravines  were  bor¬ 
dered  with  dark -green  oleander -bushes,  whose  flowers,  red  and 
white,  were  in  full  bloom  and  in  prodigal  profusion.  For  several 
miles  the  path  was  literally  covered  with  bullet-shaped  pebbles. 
They  were  of  all  sizes,  from  a  pea  to  that  of  an  orange,  and  were 
perfectly  round,  but  not  water-worn.  I  suppose  they  are  globular 
iron-ore.  We  will  find  them  in  some  other  localities,  generally  in 
connection  with  the  sandstone  formation,  and  especially  where  it 


ASCENT  OF  LEBANON.— ANCIENT  HIGH  PLACES.  169 

lies  in  contact  with  amorphous  trap-rock.  Higher  and  higher  up 
the  mountain -path  we  ascended,  until  the  entire  valley  of  the 
Litany,  the  region  around  the  upper  Jordan,  Lake  Huleh,  and  the 
mountains  of  Bashan  and  Gilead  beyond,  were  brought  within  the 
ever- widening  horizon.  That  whole  region  of  Lebanon  is  wild, 
wooded,  and  strangely  broken  up  with  towering  peaks  of  every 
shape  and  size.  There  are  several  cones  so  like  the  craters  of  ex¬ 
tinct  volcanoes  that  one  not  aware  that  they  are  composed  of 
compact  limestone  would  inevitably  be  deceived.  The  summits  of 
•some  of  them  are  crowned  with  white-domed  muzars,  like  that  of 
Neby  Safy.  There  is  the  place  to  hunt  wild-boar,  wolves,  and  pan¬ 
thers,  in  the  tangled  bushes  and  thickets,  and  through  the  pro¬ 
found  gorges  which  descend  to  the  Litany,  on  the  south-east.  The 
ride  over  that  part  of  Lebanon  is  rarely  taken  by  the  traveller ; 
but  it  is  well  worth  the  trouble  and  fatigue,  the  scratches  and  the 
rents  to  face,  hands,  and  garments  which  must  be  endured  in  the 
achievement.  It  took  me  seven  hours  to  reach  Kefr  Huneh. 

We  read  in  Deuteronomy  xii.  2,  “Ye  shall  utterly  destroy  all 
the  places,  wherein  the  nations  which  ye  shall  possess  served  their 
gods,  upon  the  high  mountains,  and  upon  the  hills,  and  under  every 
green  tree.”  May  not  the  origin  of  those  muzars  upon  high  hills 
and  lonely  mountain  summits  be  traced  back  to  the  time  when 
the  Canaanites  occupied  these  mountains,  and  performed  at  such 
shrines  those  heathenish  abominations  so  often  mentioned  in  the 
Bible  with  utter  abhorrence  and  stern  denunciation,  and  on  ac¬ 
count  of  which  they  were  condemned  to  extermination  ? 

The  white  domes  of  the  Neby,  the  Wely,  the  Muzar,  or  the 
Mukam  are  to  be  seen  from  one  end  of  this  country  to  the  other; 
and  yet  no  one  knows  when,  by  whom,  or  for  what  special  reason 
they  first  became  consecrated  shrines.  Many  of  them  are  dedicated 
to  the  patriarchs  and  prophets;  a  few  to  Jesus  and  the  apostles; 
some  bear  the  name  of  traditionary  heroes,  and  others  appear  to 
honor  persons,  places,  and  incidents  of  merely  local  interest. 

Many  of  these  “high  places”  have  probably  come  down  from 
remote  ages,  through  all  the  mutations  of  dynasties  and  religions, 
unchanged  to  the  present  day.  We  can  believe  this  the  more  rea¬ 
dily  because  some  of  them  are  now  frequented  by  the  oldest  com- 
M 


170 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


munities  in  the  country,  and  those  most  opposed  to  each  other — 
Arabs  of  the  desert,  Muhammedans,  Metawileh,  Druses,  Christians, 
and  even  Jews.  We  may  have,  therefore,  in  those  “high  places 
under  every  green  tree  upon  the  high  mountains  and  upon  the 


MUKAM — SAINT’S  TOMB. 


hills,”  not  only  sites  of  the  very  highest  antiquity,  but  existing 
monuments,  with  their  groves  and  domes,  of  man’s  ancient  supersti¬ 
tions  ;  and  if  that  does  not  add  to  our  veneration,  it  will  greatly 
increase  the  interest  with  which  we  examine  them. 

There  is  one  of  these  “high  places,”  with  its  groves  of  venerable 
oak-trees,  on  the  summit  of  Lebanon,  east  of  this  village  of  Jezzin. 
The  top  of  the  mountain  is  of  an  oval  shape,  and  the  grove  was 


JEZZIN. — MASSACRE. — SA’ID  BEG  JUMBLAT.— FOUNTAIN.  iyi 

planted  regularly  around  it.  When  I  stood  within  that  mystic  cir¬ 
cle  of  mighty  oaks,  and  looked  across  the  vast  plain  of  Ccelesyria, 
northward  to  the  temple  of  Ba’albek,  and  then  southward  over 
the  mountains  to  ancient  Tyre,  I  fancied  that  it  had  been  a  con¬ 
necting  point  between  the  two  great  temples  of  Baal  and  Belus. 
The  first  rays  of  the  “God  of  Day”  would  glance  from  the  altar 
in  Ba’albek  to  that  high  place,  and  thence  into  the  grand  portal 
of  the  temple  of  Belus  at  Tyre. 

August  13th. 

The  houses  in  Jezzin  are  well-built,  and  it  appears  to  be  a 
thrifty  and  prosperous  place. 

It  gives  name  to  a  large  district,  of  which  it  is  the  centre  and 
the  capital.  Here  are  the  shops  —  shoemakers’,  saddlers’,  black¬ 
smiths’,  carpenters’,  tailors’  —  and  there  are  the  mills  for  the  sur¬ 
rounding  villages ;  and  hence  the  appearance  of  life  and  business 
in  and  about  the  village.  The  inhabitants  are  also  occupied  with 
the  care  of  their  vineyards  and  mulberry-fields,  and  in  the  culture 
of  silk.  Jezzin  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Jumblat  family 
of  Mukhtarah  ;  and  amongst  the  charges  against  Sa’id  Beg  was  one 
that  he  caused  this  village  to  be  burnt  during  the  civil  war  in  i860. 
Perhaps  he  could  not  prevent  it,  since  the  destruction  of  the  place 
was  a  great  pecuniary  loss  to  him.  The  inhabitants  being  all  Ma- 
ronites  and  Greek  Catholics,  every  house  was  burnt ;  and  when  I 
visited  the  place  soon  after  it  presented  a  most  melancholy  and 
deserted  appearance.  But  the  men  were  not  massacred,  as  were 
those  in  Deir  el  Kamar;  and  on  the  restoration  of  peace  nearly  all 
the  families  returned,  and  speedily  repaired  their  dwellings.  The 
population  is,  probably,  as  numerous  now  as  it  ever  was  ;  and,  being 
entirely  liberated  from  Druse  dominion,  the  people  are  more  pros¬ 
perous  and  secure  than  formerly. 

As  we  have  a  steep  ascent  to  climb,  we  will  water  our  horses 
from  Jezzin’s  noble  fountain.  Like  the  one  at  Bathir,  it  is  utilized 
from  its  very  source,  and  drives  those  mills  below  it  at  the  least 
possible  expense.  All  the  luxuriant  verdure  that  clothes  the  entire 
valley  is  also  the  gift  of  this  never-failing  dispenser  of  fertility  and 
life  ;  and  the  inhabitants  may  well  be  proud  of  their  copious  vil¬ 
lage  fountain  and  their  splendid  groves  of  walnut-trees. 


IJ2 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Jezzin  is  singularly  sheltered  by  these  high  and  rocky  cliffs,  and 
the  mountain  on  the  east  of  it  rises  steeply  to  a  great  elevation. 
The  prospect  from  its  summit  must  be  very  extensive. 

A  roughly-hewn  pathway  winds  up  that  eastern  mountain,  and 
leads  to  a  wide  plateau,  which  stretches  for  several  miles  to  the 
north-east.  It  was  the  favorite  hunting-ground,  with  falcon  and 

pointer,  of  the  Shehab  emirs,  in  the  days  of  their  power  and  glory. 

6 

I  once  spent  a  morning  rambling  over  it,  in  search  of  ancient  re¬ 
mains  reported  to  have  been  seen  there.  But,  as  so  often  happens, 
I  found  such  native  traditions  worthless.  There  are  no  ruins  of 
any  importance  in  that  entire  region. 

We  have  been  steadily  climbing  up  the  mountain  since  we  left 
the  fountain,  and  have  reached  a  great  height,  as  is  evident  not 
only  from  the  ever-widening  prospect,  but  also  from  the  cool  and 
bracing  breeze  that  is  so  refreshing  to  the  weary  traveller. 

It  comes  from  the  far  west,  over  the  wide  expanse  of  that  dis¬ 
tant  sea,  and  is  the  prevailing  wind,  both  in  summer  and  winter, 
along  the  entire  coast  of  Syria  and  Palestine. 

Those  two  peaks  towering  above  us  are  more  than  five  thou¬ 
sand  six  hundred  feet  high,  and  are  visible  for  a  great  distance  in 
every  direction.  They  are  the  twins,  or  Taumat  of  Niha.  In  a 
cloudless  night  they  are  distinctly  seen  far  out  to  sea,  rising  like 
pyramids  against  the  sky,  from  the  long,  dark  outline  of  the  Leba¬ 
non  range,  and  to  the  mariner,  approaching  from  the  west,  they  are 
important  landmarks. 

We  have  now  reached  the  highest  point  on  our  route  to-day; 
and  here  the  road  from  Sidon  over  Lebanon  crosses  the  path  and 
descends  eastward  to  Meshghurah.  In  former  times,  when  Sidon 
was  the  seaport  most  frequented  by  European  ships,  this  road  was 
the  highway  upon  which  merchant  caravans  travelled  between 
it  and  Damascus.  All  that  trade  and  travel,  however,  has  been 
transferred  to  Beirut,  and  this  route,  once  so  thronged,  is  nearly 
deserted.  In  another  hour  we  shall  reach  Kefr  Huneh,  the  last 
and  most  elevated  village  on  the  south  end  of  Lebanon,  and  the 
limit  of  our  excursion  in  that  direction. 

The  road  to  it  along  the  dry  bed  of  this  watercourse  is  about 
the  roughest  we  have  yet  ventured  upon.  Our  horses  have  been 


KEFR  HUNEH.— TOBACCO.— CIRCULAR  LAKE.— JISR  BORGHUZ.  1 73 

constantly  slipping  and  sliding  for  the  last  half  hour  over  the 
smooth  surface  of  broad  rocks  lying  at  every  possible  angle,  and 
mine  has  become  quite  discouraged  and  dismayed. 

Not  any  more  so  than  his  rider,  I  suppose ;  but  the  worst  is  over, 
and  we  will  soon  see  Kefr  Huneh  wedged  in  amongst  great  blocks  of 
gray  limestone,  and  more  than  half  concealed  by  them.  We  need 
not  devote  much  time  to  that  straggling  and  unimportant  village. 
As  at  the  hamlet  of  Rihan,  these  large  and  well-cultivated  fields 
indicate  that  tobacco  is  the  chief  product  of  the  place.  There  is, 
or  was,  a  custom-house  officer  stationed  here  to  collect  the  miry, 
or  tax,  upon  the  tobacco  grown  in  this  part  of  Lebanon,  and  to 
prevent  smuggling.  I  was  here  once  when  there  occurred  a  violent 
Arab  row  between  that  officer  and  a  band  of  smugglers,  who  were 
caught  with  several  loaded  mules  concealed  in  the  thick  woods  to 
the  south-west  of  the  village. 

These  wide-spreading  walnut-trees  amongst  the  houses  contrast 
very  effectively  with  the  tall  and  slender  poplars  bordering  the 
tiny  brook  which  runs  eastward  through  that  rocky  region. 

Following  the  course  of  that  stream  lies  our  path,  for  three  or 
four  miles,  to  a  lake,  nearly  circular  in  shape,  about  three  hundred 
yards  in  diameter,  and,  to  all  appearances,  occupying  the  mouth 
of  an  extinct  volcano.  There  are  no  indications  of  volcanic  action 
about  it,  however,  though  large  masses  of  trap-rock  are  seen  higher 
up  the  mountain-side,  to  the  north-west. 

The  road  from  Kefr  Huneh,  which  has  led  us  on  to  the  lake, 
descends  eastward  to  the  Litany,  through  a  long  ravine  which  be¬ 
comes  more  and  more  precipitous,  until  near  the  end  the  traveller 
is  hurried,  nolens  volens,  down  the  cliffs  to  the  very  bank  of  the 
roaring  river,  half  a  mile  below  Jisr  Burghuz.  I  have  frequently 
crossed  the  river  on  that  bridge,  in  going  and  returning  from  Has- 
beiya,  and  always  stopped  to  admire  the  scenery  of  the  Litany,  and 
to  watch  the  contest  of  the  river  with  the  mountain  for  a  passage 
through  the  chasm  and  on  towards  the  sea.  Below  the  bridge 
the  course  of  the  river  is  between  gigantic  mountain  cliffs,  rising 
on  either  side  a  thousand  feet  high  and  more. 

At  the  lake  we  leave  the  road  from  Kefr  Huneh  to  the  Litany, 
and  must  now  wander  over  a  desolate  region,  to  the  north-east, 


174 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


ill  search  of  Meshghurah.  For  much  of  the  distance — nearly  two 
hours — we  shall  have  no  road,  and  may  roam  at  our  free  will  over 
this  lofty  plateau.  The  ride  is  none  the ‘less  interesting  on  that 
account,  and  from  many  points  the  outlook  commands  an  extended 
and  magnificent  prospect  over  mountain  and  plain  far  as  the  eye 
can  follow  southward.  Directly  to  the  south-east  of  us  the  sub¬ 
lime  majesty  of  Hermon  rises  heavenward  in  solemn  grandeur,  and, 
though  apparently  quite  near,  in  reality  the  gorge  of  the  Litany 
and  the  wild  regions  of  the  Upper  Jordan  lie  between  us. 

We  have  yet  a  long  descent  around  the  base  of  the  southern 
twin,  or  Taum  of  Niha,  to  Meshghurah,  where  we  are  to  spend  the 
night ;  and,  as  the  road  is  rough  and  rocky,  I  prefer  to  dismount 
and  walk.  Our  tents  are  to  be  pitched  just  below  a  ledge  of  shelv¬ 
ing  rocks,  from  beneath  which  a  number  of  copious  fountains  gush 
out.  Uniting  with  other  springs  equally  large,  they  form  a  brawling 
brook,  which  rushes  down  eastward  into  the  Litany,  watering  on  its 
way  extensive  gardens  and  well-cultivated  fields. 

August  13  th.  Evening. 

My  evening  walk  through  this  straggling  place  and  amongst 
the  mulberry  gardens  revealed  little  that  could  suggest  or  justify 
its  claim  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  villages  on  Lebanon. 

Five  centuries  ago  Meshghurah  was  mentioned  and  praised  in 
such  important  geographical  works  as  that  of  the  Emir  Abu  el 
Feda  [Abulfeda]  ;  and  the  inhabitants  claim  for  their  village  far 
greater  antiquity.  Some  of  the  houses  certainly  have  an  antique 
appearance,  and  may  be  of  almost  any  age  ;  but  there  is  nothing 
to  distinguish  the  place  from  other  agricultural  villages,  except  the 
great  extent  of  the  mulberry-gardens  which  spread  far  down  east¬ 
ward  to  the  gorge  of  the  Litany.  They  depend,  for  their  life  and 
extraordinary  production,  upon  the  abundant  irrigation  furnished 
by  the  copious  fountains  of  the  place.  Such  fountains,  in  a  posi¬ 
tion  so  advantageous,  must  always  have  made  Meshghurah  a  desira¬ 
ble  and  valuable  possession.  Formerly  it  was  an  important  station 
on  the  caravan  route  between  Sidon  and  Damascus ;  and  what  lit¬ 
tle  direct  trade  and  travel  there  is  at  present  between  those  two 
cities  still  passes  through  it,  and  here  those  coming  from  Sidon 
expect  to  spend  their  first  night. 


REBUILDING  OF  VILLAGES.— DRUSES  AND  MARONITES.  1 75 

We  are  now  in  a  thickly  populated  and  very  productive  part 
of  this  mountain;  but  all  the  villages  along  these  south-eastern 
slopes  of  Lebanon  have  been  repeatedly  destroyed  since  I  first 
passed  through  this  region.  Being  inhabited  mostly  by  Maronites, 
and  peculiarly  exposed  to  warlike  incursions  from  the  neighbor¬ 
ing  Druses  and  those  of  Wady  et  Teim  and  the  Hauran,  and  from 
the  Moslems  of  the  Buka’a,  they  suffered  greater  calamities  during 
the  civil  wars  than  many  villages  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 
The  Christians  from  Zahleh  and  adjacent  places  repeatedly  came 
down  the  Buka’a,  and  attempted  to  penetrate  into  the  Shuf  and 
other  Druse  districts  through  these  valleys  and  mountain-passes ; 
and  in  that  way  those  villages  were  involved  in  the  fiercest  and 
most  ruinous  conflicts.  Each  party  in  turn  burnt,  plundered,  and 
destroyed  as  the  varying  fortunes  of  the  war  afforded  opportunity. 

And  now  I  suppose  those  villages  have  all  been  rebuilt,  and 
have  recovered  their  former  prosperity. 

As  the  walls  are  generally  left  standing,  the  houses  are  easily 
re -roofed;  and  the  abundance  of  poplar  and  other  trees  furnish 
unusual  facilities  for  that  purpose.  The  banks  of  the  Litany,  and 
those  of  the  numerous  brooks  that  descend  to  it,  are  lined  with 
them  ;  and  as  the  mulberry-trees  were  not  cut  down,  a  few  years 
of  active  effort  was  sufficient  to  restore  the  villages  to  their  ave¬ 
rage  state  of  prosperity.  But  for  the  last  six  hundred  years  at 
least  this  part  of  Lebanon  has  been  the  theatre  of  innumerable 
tragedies,  and  the  history  of  the  ruling  families  during  that  period 
of  confusion  and  anarchy  is  written  in  blood. 

Conspiracy,  treachery,  murder,  war — those  constitute  the  staple 
with  which  the  chronicle  is  woven  throughout.  So  runs  the  story 
of  all  the  Druse  and  Maronite  emirs,  and  the  mind  revolts  at  the 
endless  repetition  of  the  same  crimes.  The  only  mitigating  reflec¬ 
tion  is  that,  bad  as  the  atrocities  committed  in  our  day  have  been, 
they  certainly  are  no  worse  than  those  of  former  times,  while  the 
condition  of  the  people  is  rapidly  improving.  They  are  increasing 
in  numbers  and  intelligence ;  they  build  better  houses ;  wear  bet¬ 
ter  clothes ;  have  more  and  better  food,  more  schools,  more  books, 
and  far  more  personal  liberty  than  during  the  days  of  anarchy  and 
oppression.  But  the  old  feudal  families,  especially  amongst  the 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


176 

Druses,  are  sinking  hopelessly  into  the  sea  of  oblivion,  and  from 
thence  no  hand  will  be  outstretched  to  save  them. 

August  14th. 

We  have  visited  the  last  village  on  this  south  end  of  Lebanon, 
and  now  we  will  return  to  Shemlan  along  a  route  quite  different 
from  the  one  by  which  we  came. 

Where  are  we  to  find  our  tents  at  the  end  of  this  day’s  ride? 

At  'Ain  Zahalteh,  a  village  directly  above  the  main  source  of 
the  river  Damur ;  and,  as  much  of  the  road  is  mountainous  and 
difficult,  we  have  taken  an  early  start.  There  are  more  ways  than 
one  to  reach  ’Ain  Zahalteh.  We  might  turn  to  the  left  and  follow 
the  path  along  the  base  of  Taumat  Niha,  passing  by  ’Aithenit,  and 
then,  crossing  over  Lebanon  by  Thughrat  Bab  Mari’a,  descend  on 
the  west  side  to  B’aderan,  Niha,  and  Ma’asir  to  Mukhtarah  ;  or  we 
might  keep  higher  up  the  mountain  by  taking  the  road  that  would 
lead  us  to  el  Baruk,  and  thence  to  ’Ain  Zahalteh.  As  that  route, 
however,  would  be  very  rough  and  fatiguing,  with  but  little  of  in¬ 
terest  along  it  to  repay  us  for  the  toil,  we  will  pass  down  to  the 
Litany,  and,  crossing  over,  follow  the  east  bank  of  the  river  to 
Jubb  Jenin,  at  the  lower  end  of  the  Buka’a. 

We  have  been  listening  for  the  past  half-hour  to  a  sound  ris¬ 
ing  upward  from  the  valley  and  pervading  the  quiet  morning 
atmosphere — a  sound  as  of  many  waters. 

It  is  the  eternal  anthem  of  the  Litany — “  evening,  morning,  and 
at  noon”  —  as  it  glides  onwards  over  the  rocks,  and  sweeps  past 
those  stupendous  cliffs  in  the  gorge  farther  to  the  south.  And  now 
the  road  leads  down  the  steep  declivity  to  the  bridge  on  which  we 
are  to  cross  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  river.  It  derives  its  name 
of  Jisr  Kur’un  from  a  village  some  distance  below  it.  I  have  often 
passed  over  the  road  below  that  village,  and  ascended,  along  a 
rocky  ravine,  the  mountain-range  called  ed  Dahar,  to  the  well-pre¬ 
served  ruins  of  the  temple  at  Telthatha.  They  are  on  the  very 
summit  of  the  Dahar,  and  it  is  four  hours  from  there  to  Hasbeiya 
through  the  long  valley  of  upper  Wady  et  Teim. 

One  object  in  selecting  this  route  is  to  let  you  see  the  remarka¬ 
ble  collection  of  geodes  between  Jisr  Kur’un  and  Jubb  Jenin,  so  we 
will  now  turn  up  through  the  fields  on  our  right.  In  many  places 


GEODES.— THE  BUKA’A  A  LAKE.— THE  LiTANY. 


i  77 


the  entire  surface  of  the  ground  is  covered  with  them,  and  they  are 
of  all  sizes,  from  that  of  a  marble  to  a  melon,  which  the  larger 
ones  amongst  them  closely  resemble  in  shape. 

How  do  you  account  for  the  presence  of  these  geodes  in  such 
great  numbers  in  this  locality? 

They  have  been  washed  out  from  the  hard  clay  bluffs  of  the 
ridge  above  them  on  the  east.  There  they  are  embedded  in  num¬ 
bers  numberless,  and  are  dislodged  and  spread  over  the  plain  by 
the  winter  torrents.  I  once  crossed  over  those  bluffs  on  my  way 
to  Rasheiyet  el  Wady,  at  the  northern  base  of  Hermon,  and  was 
surprised  to  find  the  road,  for  many  miles,  literally  paved  with  large 
bowlders  of  trap-rock.  That  obtrusion  of  trap,  I  suppose,  occurred 
at  the  time  when  the  range  of  ed  Dahar  was  thrown  up  across  the 
southern  end  of  the  Buka’a  between  Lebanon  and  Hermon. 

This  beautiful  and  fertile  plain  seems  to  be  nowhere  more  than 
two  or  three  miles  wide,  and  appears  as  flat  and  level  as  though 
once  the  actual  bed  of  a  lake.  The  river  meanders  through  it  from 
side  to  side,  as  if  reluctant  to  leave  this  peaceful  and  verdant  region. 

When  buried  under  deep  snow,  as  it  often  is,  the  outlook  over 
this  part  of  Coelesyria  is  anything  but  cheerful.  In  great  winter 
storms  I  have  seen  the  plain  above  Jisr  Jubb  Jenin  covered  with 
water,  and  then  it  becomes  an  impassable  marsh.  It  has  been  sug¬ 
gested  that  the  Buka’a  was  originally  the  bed  of  a  lake,  and  that 
the  upheaval  of  the  range  of  ed  Dahar  cut  off  the  connection  with 
the  Jordan  valley,  to  which  it  naturally  belonged;  and  thus  the 
Litany,  that  now  drains  the  Buka’a,  was  forced  to  find  a  passage 
for  itself  westward,  through  Lebanon,  to  the  Mediterranean.  It  is 
worth  while  visiting  that  locality  merely  to  see  the  contest  for  the 
right  of  way  between  the  river  and  the  mountains. 

The  banks  of  the  river,  as  it  winds  through  the  plain  to  the 
north  of  us,  are  marked  out  by  groups  of  tall  silver-leafed  poplars, 
which  more  than  half  conceal  the  villages  beyond  them,  and  those 
on  the  mountain-slopes  above  them. 

They  are  all  on  the  west  side  of  the  Litany,  and  are  well  pro¬ 
tected  from  the  winter’s  storm  and  cold  by  the  lofty  range  of  Leba¬ 
non  immediately  above  them.  They  have  enjoyed  peace  and  com¬ 
parative  safety  for  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  and  have  become 


1 78 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


quite  prosperous.  In  Sughbin,  and  several  other  villages,  there  are 
now  Protestant  communities  and  well-conducted  schools,  to  the 
manifest  improvement  of  the  people  in  every  respect. 

At  the  extreme  south-east  corner  of  the  plain  is  a  village  called 
Kamid  el  Lauz,  and  that  it  occupies  an  ancient  site  seems  evident 
from  the  extensive  quarries  along  the  base  of  the  mountain.  Luz 
was  the  original  name  of  Beth-el,  as  appears  from  Judges  i.  22-26, 
where  it  is  also  stated  that  the  man  who  showed  the  children  of  Jo¬ 
seph  “  the  entrance  into  the  city  ”  was  allowed  to  depart  in  safety: 
“and  the  man  went  into  the  land  of  the  Hittites,  and  built  a  city, 
and  called  the  name  thereof  Luz  :  which  is  the  name  thereof  unto 
this  day.”  The  Buka’a,  and  the  region  connected  with  it  on  the 
north,  was  probably  in  the  land  of  the  Hittites,  who  at  one  time 
were  sufficiently  powerful  to  engage  in  battle  with  the  Egyptians. 
Possibly  that  village  of  Kamid  el  Lauz  may  mark  the  site  of  the 
city  which  the  treacherous  inhabitant  of  Beth-el  built  for  himself 
“  and  all  his  family.”  I  have  not  been  able  to  find  the  name  Luz 
or  Lauz,  which  has  the  same  significance  in  Arabic  that  it  has  in 
the  Hebrew,  attached  to  any  other  ancient  site  in  this  country. 

We  will  lunch  and  rest  at  Jisr  Jubb  Jenin  yonder,  where  you 
see  a  group  of  poplar-trees.  They  will  afford  us,  at  least,  a  partial 
shade  from  the  hot  sun.  The  bridge  takes  its  name  from  Jubb 
Jenin,  that  village  on  our  right.  It  is  mostly  inhabited  by  fanatical 
Moslems,  but  we  have  no  occasion  to  pass  through  it. 

We  must  here  cross  over,  on  this  bridge  of  Jubb  Jenin,  to  the 
western  side  of  the  river,  and,  as  the  base  of  the  mountain  is  not 
far  distant,  we  shall  soon  be  climbing  up  the  Lebanon,  which  rises 
for  several  thousand  feet  above  this  plain  of  the  Buka’a. 

We  have  again  come  upon  another  collection  of  geodes,  but 
they  seem  to  have  all  been  broken  open  by  former  travellers. 

They  were  exactly  in  the  same  condition  the  first  time  I  passed 
this  way,  and  the  idea  occurred  to  me  that  they  were  purposely 
broken,  as  the  interior  lining  of  chalcedony  furnished  the  best 
specimens  of  that  mineral  to  be  found  in  this  region.  Amongst 
these  numberless  fragments  I  have  also  found  specimens  of  agate, 
which  may  have  added  greater  value  to  them  in  the  estimation  of 
engravers  on  precious  stones  in  a  former  age. 


VINEYARDS— ASCENT  OF  LEBANON.— MENN,  OR  MANNA.  1 79 

As  we  approach  the  foot  of  the  mountain  I  see  that  the  vines 
in  those  terraced  fields  are  still  loaded  with  grapes. 

Owing  to  the  sheltered  position  of  the  vineyards,  their  exposure 
to  the  sun,  and  the  dryness  of  the  air  on  this  side  of  the  mountain, 
the  grapes  are  allowed  to  remain  on  the  vines  much  longer  than 
upon  the  west  or  seaward  side  of  Lebanon.  This  prolongs  the 
grape  crop ;  and  the  markets  of  Beirut  and  Sidon,  and  those  of 
the  principal  villages  in  the  neighborhood,  are  supplied  from  such 
localities  until  late  in  December.  I  have  even  seen  vineyards  half 
buried  in  snow  with  the  grapes  still  upon  the  vines. 

We  must  now  address  ourselves  in  good  earnest  to  the  long 
and  tortuous  ascent  of  Lebanon  by  the  village  of  Kefareiya,  to  the 
top  of  the  mountain  range  that  overlooks  the  valley  of  el  Baruk. 
The  climb  is  a  long  and  fatiguing  one ;  but  the  ever-widening  view 
— eastward  across  the  plain  of  Ccelesyria  and  over  the  mountains 
of  Anti-Lebanon ;  northward  as  far  as  “  the  entrance  of  Hamath 
and  southward  to  Mount  Hermon  and  the  Jordan  valley  —  will 
amply  compensate  for  the  toil. 

The  road,  by  its  ceaseless  windings  amongst  the  oak-trees, 
affords  prospects  from  many  projecting  spurs  over  the  great  plain 
— with  its  checkered  surface  and  long,  broad  belts  of  fallow  land — • 
of  ever-varying  beauty  and  great  fertility.  I  notice  that  the  rocks 
under  the  oak-trees  are  saturated  with  an  oily  substance,  as  though 
a  jar  of  oil  had  been  actually  emptied  upon  them. 

The  natives  will  tell  you  that  it  is  not  oil,  but  menn,  or  manna. 
It  is  caused  by  an  insect  that  punctures  the  leaves,  and  thus  the 
flowing  sap  produces  this  distillation  which  stains  the  rocks  and 
stones  under  the  trees.  I  have  seen  it  in  many  other  places,  and 
have  been  told  by  persons  from  the  mountains  of  Armenia  that,  in 
certain  localities  there,  it  congeals,  and  is  collected  by  the  peasants 
and  used  like  honey.  The  manna  which  the  monks  of  Mount 
Sinai  gather  under  the  tamarisk-trees,  and  sell  to  pilgrims,  is  doubt¬ 
less  produced  in  the  same  way.  I  purchased  small  skins  of  it  when 
in  the  Convent  of  St.  Catherine.  It  was  so  nauseous  that  no  other 
evidence  was  needed  to  show  that  the  monkish  manna  held  no 
possible  relation  to  that  “angels’  food”  which  the  children  of  Israel 
did  gather  in  the  wilderness,  when  God  commanded  the  clouds  from 


l80  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


EL  ARZ — THE  CEDAR. 


above,  and  opened  the  doors  of  heaven,  and  “  rained  down  manna 
upon  them  to  eat,  and  had  given  them  of  the  corn  of  heaven.”  1 
We  may  rest  our  tired  horses  for  a  while  on  this  high  ridge  of 
Lebanon,  nearly  six  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  As  for  myself,  I 
shall  dismount  and  walk  down  the  steep  and  rough  pathway  that 
will  lead  us  to  the  famous  fountains  of  el  Baruk. 

These  old  trees  around  us,  and  most  of  those  on  the  highest 

1  Psa.  lxxviii.  23-25  ;  Exod.  xvi.  4-36. 


THE  CEDARS  OF  EL  BARfJK  AND  EL  MA’ASIR.  l8l 

ridges  of  the  mountain  extending  for  several  miles  to  the  south, 
towards  the  village  of  el  Ma’asir,  are  genuine  representatives  of 
Lebanon’s  most  ancient  groves  of  cedar.  There  need  be  no  hesi¬ 
tation  in  regarding  them  as  the  surviving  descendants  of  those 
forests  from  whence  Hiram’s  skilled  hewers  of  timber  cut  down 
cedar-trees  for  Solomon  to  use  in  building  and  beautifying  the 
Temple  of  the  Lord  at  Jerusalem.  They  have  not  died  out,  or 
been  replanted  by  man,  since  that  distant  day,  and  some  of  them 
are  amongst  the  oldest  specimens  of  cedar-trees  in  this  land. 

To  the  Biblical  student,  and,  indeed,  to  all  travellers,  it  is 
deeply  interesting  to  find  them  occupying  this  position  on  the 
mountains,  and  not  far  from  the  coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon. 

It  is  not  probable  that  Hiram  resorted  for  cedar- trees  to  the 
distant  groves  at  the  north  end  of  Lebanon,  when  the  sides  of  these 
mountains  near  his  own  capital  were  covered  with  those  noble 
trees.  When  wandering  through  the  grove  above  el  Ma’asir,  I 
felt  assured,  from  the  large  size  and  apparent  great  age  of  some 
of  the  trees,  that  the  sound  of  the  axe  of  Tyre’s  sturdy  fellers  of 
timber  had  once  echoed  amongst  them.  The  crash  of  falling  trees 
had  often  startled  the  oppressive  and  solemn  silence  of  those  lofty 
mountain  ridges,  and  from  there,  in  all  probability,  the  timber  was 
carried  down  to  the  coast,  and  conveyed  by  sea  in  floats  to  Jaffa, 
and  from  thence  carried  up  to  Jerusalem.1 

The  descent  on  this  western  side  of  Lebanon  is  not  so  steep  as 
that  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  mountain,  and  it  has  taken  us  about 
an  hour  to  reach  these  fountains  of  el  Baruk. 

They  well  up  from  their  hidden  source  in  a  quiet  and  unpre¬ 
tending  fashion,  quite  different  from  the  deafening  roar  of  most  of 
the  fountains  we  have  seen. 

And  the  waters  are  the  purest  of  all  in  the  mountains.  No 
sediment  of  any  kind  is  deposited  by  them,  nor  are  the  pebbles  in 
the  least  discolored,  although  these  mighty  waters  have  glided  over 
them  for  unnumbered  ages.  It  was  the  superior  character  of  this 
water  that  induced  Sheikh  Beshir  Jumblat  to  construct  an  aque¬ 
duct  and  convey  it  to  his  palace  at  Mukhtarah.  I  have  spent  seve¬ 
ral  days  encamped  in  a  grove  of  walnut-trees,  a  short  distance  be- 

1  i  Kings  v.  8-10 ;  2  Chron.  ii.  16. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


i82 

low  the  fountains.  Most  of  the  trees  have  been  cut  down  and  the 
timber  sold  to  speculators,  but  we  could  still  find  a  pleasant  place 
to  camp,  had  we  not  directed  our  muleteers  to  go  on  to  ’Ain  Za- 
halteh,  which  is  an  hour’s  easy  ride  farther  north. 

The  sight  of  our  tents  pitched  near  these  fountains  would  have 
been  very  gratifying  indeed,  for  the  latter  part  of  our  ride  has  been 
quite  wearisome.  But  this  varied  and  impressive  mountain  scenery 
amply  repays  us  for  all  the  fatigue  which  it  has  cost  to  come  and 
see  it,  and  I  take  my  leave  of  it  with  great  reluctance. 

We  could  easily  spend  a  week  here,  as  I  have  done  myself,  en¬ 
camped  under  those  large  walnut-trees,  and  beside  the  purling 
stream  of  clear  cold  water  that  issues  from  these  copious  fountains 
— the  head-waters  of  Nahr  el  Baruk — and  flows  down  through  that 
beautiful  valley  below  us  on  the  left.  But  we  shall  find  scenery  at 
least  as  magnificent  as  this  at  ’Ain  Zahalteh,  and  by  going  on  to 
that  village  we  will  shorten  our  ride  to-morrow  nearly  two  hours. 

The  houses  at  el  Baruk,  like  those  in  most  of  the  villages  on 
Lebanon,  present  an  attractive  appearance  —  at  a  distance  —  and 
they  are  quite  in  keeping  with  their  picturesque  surroundings. 

El  Baruk,  el  Fureidis,  on  the  opposite  ridge,  and  the  villages  in 
this  neighborhood  occupy  that  part  of  Southern  Lebanon  which  is 
inhabited  almost  entirely  by  Druses,  and  they  “  are  situated,”  says 
a  former  traveller,  “on  some  of  the  wildest  positions  of  Lebanon. 
Even  these  villages  of  el  Baruk  seem  hung  in  the  clouds,  on  the 
verge  of  precipices,  and  they  have  their  green  belt  of  pine,  poplar, 
walnut,  and  other  trees,  vines  and  bushes,  covering  the  crags  and 
relieving  the  desolation  of  the  site.  The  dwellings  are  built  of 
limestone,  the  roofs  are  flat,  the  windows  are  always  small ;  the 
door  is  usually  in  the  middle ;  and  the  Lebanon  homes  often  re¬ 
semble  the  terraces  by  which  they  are  surrounded.  The  path  by 
which  these  villages  are  approached  is  a  nervous  one,  and  seems 
to  be  cut  out  of  the  masses  of  limestone  of  which  the  heights  are 
composed.” 

Speaking  of  this  valley  of  el  Baruk,  or  el  Fureidis,  along  which 
our  road  to  ’Ain  Zahalteh  lies,  Dr.  Anderson,  in  his  geological  re¬ 
port,  says  that  it  “  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  combinations  of 
trees,  green  fields,  and  running  water  in  this  or  any  other  part  of 


FOUNTAIN  AND  VILLAGE  OF  EL  BARUK. 


fc. 


MOUNTAIN  SCENERY.— FOUNTAINS  OF  THE  DAMUR.  183 

Syria,  and  abounds  in  natural  pictures  which  make  its  name  of  lit¬ 
tle  paradise”  [Wady  el  Fureidis]  “a  pardonable  exaggeration.”  1 

He  describes  this  region,  between  Wady  ’Ain  Zahalteh  and 
Wady  es  Sufa,  “  as  marked  by  variegated  sandstones  and  enlivened 
by  a  cheerful  vegetation.  The  pines  are  strikingly  distributed,  and 
many  mulberry  and  fig  trees  diversify  the  scene.  The  streams  are 
made  available  in  driving  mills  and  watering  numerous  patches 
of  cultivated  land,  while  the  iron-stained  rocks  appear  at  intervals 
through  the  landscape,  overhanging  it  in  wild  escarpments,  or  soar¬ 
ing  far  above  it  in  the  shape  of  turreted  and  battlemented  peaks.”2 
There  is  nothing  exaggerated  in  this  description,  and  he  might  have 
added  that  in  a  single  sandstone  cliff  all  shades  of  color,  from  the 
purest  white  to  jet  black,  are  strangely  blended  and  contrasted. 

Our  ride  is  nearly  over,  for  we  are  not  far  from  ’Ain  Zahalteh; 
and  we  shall  find  our  tents  pitched,  and  ready  for  our  reception, 
close  to  Burj  el  ’Amad,  in  the  middle  of  the  village. 

And  most  welcome  will  they  be,  for  though  the  scenery  through 
which  we  have  passed  to-day  was  at  times  sublime,  and  always  inte¬ 
resting,  still  our  ride  down,  and  up,  and  along  these  ranges  of  Leba¬ 
non,  has  been  extremely  fatiguing. 

August  14th.  Evening. 

As  far  as  I  could  see,  in  the  dim  twilight,  as  we  approached  ’Ain 
Zahalteh,  the  region  to  the  west  and  north  appeared  to  be  endlessly 
diversified  by  profound  wadies,  lofty  .peaks,  and  perpendicular  cliffs, 
on  both  sides  of  the  stupendous  gorge  of  the  river. 

The  mountains  are  singularly  cut  up  by  the  many  tributaries 
of  Nahr  el  Kady,  as  the  main  branch  of  the  Damur  River  is  called, 
which,  rising  in  the  region  south  of  Jebel  el  Keniseh,  expand  and 
deepen  the  natural  declivities  of  Lebanon  into  many  a  yawning 
abyss  and  frightful  chasm,  opening  out  prospects  on  every  side 
which,  for  sublimity  and  grandeur,  are  rarely  surpassed.  From  the 
base  of  the  cliff,  in  the  gorge  below  this  village,  the  copious  foun¬ 
tains  of  Nahr  el  Kady  burst  out  with  great  force  and  uproar. 
A  part  of  the  water  is  conveyed  by  an  aqueduct  to  Bteddin  to 
supply  the  palaces  there,  and  to  irrigate  the  surrounding  gardens ; 
a  far  larger  portion  is  distributed  through  the  fields  and  gardens 
1  Ex.  to  the  Dead  Sea,  p.  98.  2  Ex.  to  the  Dead  Sea,  p.  100. 

N  • 


184 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


along  both  sides  of  Wady  es  Sufa,  but  the  main  volume  of  the 
stream  rushes  down  the  valley,  in  many  a  foaming  cascade,  on  its 
way  to  Jisr  el  Kady,  and  onward  to  the  sea. 

That  wady  abounds  in  remarkable  cliffs  of  blue  argillaceous 
marl,  which  are  subject  to  occasional  slides  and  overwhelming  ava¬ 
lanches.  The  Emir  Haidar,  in  his  history  of  Lebanon,  says  that 
nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  a  projecting  terrace  at  Kefr 
Nebrakh,  about  an  hour  and  a  half  west  of  ’Ain  Zahalteh,  which 
had  a  small  village  on  it,  parted  from  the  main  mountain,  and 
plunged  into  the  wady  below,  carrying  houses,  gardens,  and  trees 
with  it  in  wild  confusion.  It  completely  stopped  the  river  for 
seven  days.  The  emir  relates  that  one  man  who  was  on  the  slid¬ 
ing  mass  escaped  unhurt,  but  was  ever  after  a  raving  maniac.  The 
catastrophe  occurred  during  the  life  of  the  historian,  and  not  far 
from  his  home,  and  we  may  therefore  credit  his  narrative.  I 
have  frequently  stood  on  that  awful  precipice,  and  gazed  upon 
the  debris  of  the  avalanche,  at  the  bottom  of  the  profound  river 
gorge,  fifteen  hundred  feet  directly  below.  Similar  land  slides 
occur  every  winter  on  Lebanon,  but  not  on  so  gigantic  a  scale, 
or  accompanied  by  circumstances  so  appalling  and  tragical. 

Such  avalanches  appear  to  have  been  known  even  in  the  days 
of  Job,  and  he  refers  to  them  to  illustrate  the  overthrow  of  man’s 
vain  hope  and  confidence.  “  Surely,”  says  he,  “  the  mountain  fall¬ 
ing  cometh  to  nought,  and  the  rock  is  moved  out  of  his  place 
and  he  connects  such  appalling  catastrophes  with  the  waters  which 
wear  the  stones,  when,  as  now,  they  were  occasioned  by  the  great 
rains  and  torrents  of  winter.1 

Burj  el  ’Amad  is  the  only  remarkable  building  in  ’Ain  Zahal¬ 
teh.  It  was  once  the  stronghold  of  Beit  el  ’Amad,  one  of  the  feu¬ 
dal  families  of  the  Druses,  but  it  has,  of  late,  been  transformed  into 
a  church  for  the  Protestant  community  of  this  village.  When  I 
first  visited  this  region  Sheikh  Khuttar  el  ’Amad,  the  last  of  his 
line,  was  considered  the  most  daring  chieftain  and  expert  swords¬ 
man  amongst  the  Druses.  His  exploits  long  ago  brought  him  into 
trouble  with  the  Government,  and  he  was  obliged  to  flee  into  the 
Hauran,  where  he  died,  and  Beit  el  ’Amad  is  now  extinct. 

1  Job  xiv.  18,  19. 


PINE-TREES  AND  CEDARS— PROBLEM  OF  FOUNTAINS.  1 85 

August  15th. 

Knowing  that  we  had  before  us  a  comparatively  short  day’s 
journey,  I  rode  out  this  morning  to  view  the  remarkable  scenery  of 
the  place.  I  visited  a  pretty  grove  of  pine-trees  growing  on  the 
hill-side  east  of  the  village,  and  was  surprised  to  find  there,  and  on 
the  mountain  above  them,  some  genuine  cedars  of  Lebanon.  Re¬ 
turning  to  the  village,  I  descended  into  the  river  gorge  below  it,  to 
the  base  of  the  cliff,  to  see  the  famous  fountains  of  ’Ain  Zahalteh, 
so  remarkable  even  in  this  land  of  great  fountains,  from  whence 
rivers  of  waters  burst  forth  like  an  overwhelming  flood. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  main  source  of  the  Damur,  here 
at  ’Ain  Zahalteh,  is  so  near  that  of  the  river  Auwaly  at  el  Baruk. 
One  is  puzzled  to  account  for  so  great  an  outflow  of  water  from 
the  same  mountain-ridge,  where  rivers  are  so  close  together  and  so 
nearly  on  the  same  level.  Where  are  the  vast  reservoirs  that  send 
forth,  summer  and  winter,  such  powerful  and  never-failing  streams, 
and  how  are  they  stored  in  such  a  narrow  mountain-range  as  this 
of  Southern  Lebanon?  “Who  hath  divided  a  watercourse  for  the 
overflowing  of  waters?”1  But  no  problem  is  more  obscure  than 
that  of  the  origin  of  fountains  in  this  land. 

As  there  is  no  direct  road  through  such  a  wilderness  of  tow¬ 
ering  peaks  and  deep  valleys  to  Shemlan,  what  route  are  we  to 
follow  to-day,  in  order  to  reach  that  village  ? 

We  have  a  variety  of  paths  from  which  to  choose.  The  one 
the  muleteers  have  taken  would  lead  us  along  the  south  side  of  the 
valley  to  Kefr  Nebrakh,  and  down  to  the  road  from  Deir  el  Kamar 
to  Beirut  at  Jisr  el  Kady.  Another  path  would  conduct  us  along 
the  north  side  of  the  wady  to  'Ain  Teraz,  where  the  valley  unites 
with  that  of  the  Ghabun,  and  thence  up  that  valley  to  Bhauwarah : 
both  roads  are  picturesque  but  difficult.  We  shall,  therefore,  as¬ 
cend  the  main  wady  on  the  right  for  an  hour,  and  then  cross  over 
to  the  west  side  of  it  and  pass  through  Bhamdun. 

The  road  which  you  have  selected  along  this  ridge  is  sufficiently 
execrable,  though  the  surrounding  scenery  is  wild  and  magnificent. 

The  sandstone  formation  at  ’Ain  Zahalteh,  with  its  invariable 
pine-groves,  continues  for  a  considerable  distance  northward  ;  and 

1  Job  xxxviii.  25. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


1 86 

such  formations  are  often  much  broken,  and  cut  up  by  the  winter 
rains  into  almost  impracticable  ravines.  Not  far  ahead  of  us  the 
old  road  passes  along  the  edge  of  a  cliff,  and  is  so  very  narrow  and 
dangerous  that  I  am  always  thankful  to  get  safely  over  it.  A  bet¬ 
ter  road  has  been  made  across  the  ridge  east  of  it,  which  we  shall 
follow,  although  it  is  much  the  longest.  We  shall  then  descend 
into  the  valley  and  easily  cross  over  to  the  other  side. 

It  is  always  a  relief  to  escape  from  such  zigzag  roads,  with  their 
ill-constructed  steps,  like  those  of  a  broken  stairway. 

From  this  deep  valley  we  might  ascend  northward  to  the 
French  carriage- road  to  Damascus  at  Ruweiset  el  Hamrah,  and 

A 

follow  it  westward  to  ’Aleih ;  but  I  wish  to  show  you  the  village 
of  Btathir,  the  only  remaining  homestead  of  the  Druse  feudal  chiefs 
which  you  have  not  seen.  For  that  purpose  we  will  cross  over  the 
high  ridge  in  front  of  us,  from  the  top  of  which  it  can  be  seen  on 
the  opposite  face  of  an  almost  impassable  ravine. 

The  Druse  sheikhs  of  Beit  ’Abd  el  Melek  have  their  so-called 
palaces  at  Btathir;  but,  like  the  other  feudal  families  on  Lebanon, 
they  have  fallen  from  their  glory,  and  lost  their  former  position 
and  power.  Their  village  is  the  capital  of  Aklim  el  Jurd,  the  dis¬ 
trict  through  which  we  have  been  riding  since  leaving  ’Ain  Zahal- 
teh.  Jurd  is  the  name  for  a  high,  cold,  and  rough  region,  and  is, 
therefore,  eminently  appropriate  to  this  district.  The  sheikhs  of 
Btathir  can  claim  the  honor  of  having  been  the  first  to  introduce 
factories  for  the  reeling  of  silk  in  this  region,  in  connection  with  a 
French  company.  Those  establishments  are  now  quite  numerous 
on  the  Lebanon,  and  have  greatly  increased  the  value  of  the  silk 
industry  throughout  the  country. 

Bhamdun,  through  whose  vineyards  we  have  been  riding  for 
some  time,  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  Christians  of  the  Orthodox  Greek 
Church  ;  and,  owing  to  the  friendly  relations  maintained  by  them 
with  their  neighbors,  the  sheikhs  of  Btathir,  that  village  has  not 
been  either  sacked  or  burnt  during  all  the  civil  wars  that  have 
desolated  so  large  a  part  of  Lebanon.  The  people  are  industrious, 
economical,  and  prosperous ;  their  houses  are  large  and  well-built, 
and  their  fields  and  vineyards  are  extensive,  spreading  far  up  the 
mountain  eastward,  and  down  the  steep  declivities  westward  into 


BHAMDUN.— FOSSILS.— BIIAUWARAH.  1 87 

the  valley  of  the  Ghabun.  Bhamdun  is  celebrated  for  its  grapes 
and  raisins  and  the  excellency  of  its  dibs. 

This  village  was  early  occupied  as  a  summer  retreat  by  Ameri¬ 
cans  and  others  from  Beirut ;  but,  as  it  is  nearly  a  thousand  feet 
high  er  than  Shemlan,  the  night  air  is  often  too  cool  for  comfort. 
Dr.  Anderson  found  the  neighborhood  very  rich  in  fossils,  and  a 
large  part  of  those  described  and  illustrated  by  him  were  obtained 
in  this  region.  An  isolated  hill,  about  a  mile  to  the  north-east  of 
the  village,  is  remarkable  for  the  extraordinary  number  of  ammo¬ 
nites  and  other  fossils  found  there. 

The  descent  westward  into  the  Ghabun  valley  is  long,  and  so 
steep  that  I  always  prefer  to  dismount  and  walk  down  the  worst 
parts.  The  road  is  strewn,  as  you  see,  with  fossils  of  many  kinds, 
and  any  one  who  has  the  curiosity  can  gather  them.  We  will  find 
the  ascent  on  the  opposite  side  very  gradual,  and  shall  follow  the 
road  southward  high  above  the  wady  for  an  hour,  and  then  turn 
to  the  west  along  a  path  which  has  the  range  of  mountains  above 
’Aleih  on  the  right,  and  the  valley  of  the  Ghabun  on  the  left. 
That  stream  flows  southward,  and  joins  the  Damur  at  Jisr  el  Kady. 

That  pretty  little  hamlet  far  below  us,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
wady,  nestling  amongst  the  rocks,  and  half  concealed  in  the  ver¬ 
dure,  is  Bhauwarah.  The  late  Colonel  Churchill  owned  it,  and 
resided  there  for  many  years.  During  that  time  he  published  a 
valuable  work  on  Lebanon,  its  inhabitants,  the  Shehab  emirs,  the 
Druse  sheikhs,  and  the  civil  wars  in  these  mountains. 

Leaving  Keifun  and  Suk  el  Ghurb  on  the  right,  we  will  cross 
over  the  ridge  and  descend  westward  to  ’Aitath  ;  and,  passing 
through  the  small  oak -grove  just  above  that  village,  in  half  an 
hour  we  shall  dismount  at  our  own  door  in  Shemlan. 

Once  more  from  these  commanding  heights  we  look  off  upon 
this  glorious  prospect  —  the  boundless  sea,  “this  great  and  wide 
sea.  There  go  the  ships;”  and  there  is  the  city  of  Beirut,  the 
broad  plain,  the  foot-hills,  and  the  exalted  majesty  of  Lebanon. 

We  hail  thee  in  distance,  still  mountain,  that  liftest  thine  head, 

Where  the  wavelet,  that  melts  as  it  glistens,  from  snows  everlasting  is  fed. 


1 88 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


VI 


SHEMLAN  TO  THE  NATURAL  BRIDGE. 

Summer  Resorts  on  Lebanon. — ’Aitath. — Beit  Tulhuk. — Suk  el  Ghurb. — Ancient  Church. 
—  The  Sweating  Picture. —  Convent  of  St.  George. —  Monks. — Wady  Shahrur. — In¬ 
habited  Tree. — ’Aleih. — Tragedies  in  the  Old  Palace. — Ibrahim  Pasha. — Tragedy  of 
the  Three  Brothers. — Decline  of  Feudal  Princes. — Wady  Hummana. — Coal  Mine. — 
Muhammed  Aly. — Petrified  Pine-cones. — District  of  el  Metn. — The  Emirs  of  Beit  el 
Lema. — Brummana. — The  Damascus  Road. — El  Mugheiteh. — Snow  Blockade. — Jebel 
Keniseh. — Summit  Level. — Khan  Murad. — Cold  Winds  and  Malignant  Fevers. — A 
Glorious  Prospect. — El  Buka’a. — Anti-Lebanon. — Eastern  Side  of  Lebanon. — Shtora. 
— The  Road  to  Damascus. — Temple  at  Mejdel  ’Anjar. — Neb’a  ’Anjar. — Intermitting 
Fountain. — Deir  el  Gtizal. — Ivubb  Elias. — Mekseh. — Extensive  Views  over  Coelesyria. 
— Zahleh. — El  Berduny. — “Vine  and  Fig-tree.” — El  Mu’allakah. — Burning  of  Zah- 
leh. — Prosperity  of  Zahleh. — Kerak  Nuh. — Ascent  of  Lebanon. — Bituminous  Shale. — 
Globular  Iron  Ore. — Limestone  Pinnacles. — Neb’a  Sunnm. — Temples  on  Lebanon. — 
Temple  near  ’Anturah. — Husn  Niha. — Tomb  of  Noah. — Tomb  of  Seth. — Origin  of 
Primitive  Sanctuaries. — Rock-cut  Tombs. — The  Druses  and  their  Religion. — Druse 
Funerals. — Feudal  Families  of  the  Druses. — Lex  talionis,  or  Blood  Revenge. — Moses 
and  the  Hebrews. — Matrimonial  Alliances. — Abraham  and  Jacob. — Betrothal. — Noc¬ 
turnal  Incident. — Bears  and  Wolves. — Ascent  of  Sunnm. — Outlook  from  the  Sum¬ 
mit  of  Lebanon. — Sirocco. — Descent  of  Lebanon. — Druse  War-song. — Bringing  Grain 
to  the  Mill. — Grinding  at  the  Mill. — Baking  Bread  in  the  Tannur. — Native  Bread. — 
vThe  Use  of  Leven. — The  Staff  of  Life. — Cone-shaped  Oven. — City  Ovens. — Ovens 
in  the  Time  of  the  Hebrews. — Baking  upon  the  Saj. — Wady  Biskinta. — Griffin  Vul¬ 
tures. —  Eagles. —  Pinnacles  of  Limestone. —  Casts  of  Fossil  Shells. — Dr.  Anderson’s 
Description  of  the  Fossils  of  Syria. — Kul’at  el  Fukra. — Tiberius  Claudius. — The  Tem¬ 
ple  in  the  Midst  of  Rocky  Pinnacles  Described  by  Dr.  Robinson.  —  Remains  of  a 
Tomb.  —  Road  from  the  Dog  River  to  the  Natural  Bridge.  —  ’Ajeltun. —  Fantastic 
Rock  Scenery. — Wady  es  Salib. — Canal  from  Nahr  el  Leben. — Irrigation. — Sowing 
Wheat  in  Autumn.  —  Neb’a  el  Leben.  —  Milk  and  Honey. — The  Natural  Bridge. — 
District  of  el  Kesrawan. — The  Maronites. — Feudal  Families. — Monastery  Bells. 

September  ist. 

What  a  bright  and  pleasant  morning  at  the  very  outset  of  our 
tour  through  Northern  Lebanon  ! 

As  the  muleteers  know  their  business  thoroughly,  and  are  well 
acquainted  with  the  roads,  they  may  be  left  to  take  their  own  time 


SUMMER  RESORTS  ON  LEBANON.— THE  SWEATING  PICTURE.  189 

and  way  to  Neb’a  Sunnin.  We,  however,  will  make  a  long  detour 
from  the  regular  road,  to  obtain  more  comprehensive  views  of  the 
mountains  and  valleys  of  the  Upper  Ghurb. 

The  people  of  Beirut  are  greatly  favored  in  having  their  sum¬ 
mer  resorts  in  these  villages  prettily  situated  above  the  plain,  the 
city,  and  the  sea.  They  are  so  high  that  the  air  and  the  water 
are  cool  and  refreshing,  and  yet  near  enough  to  the  city  so  that 
they  can  be  reached  in  a  few  hours. 

’Aitath,  through  which  we  have  just  passed,  is  a  fair  specimen, 
and  it  is  further  distinguished  as  the  home  of  the  Druse  sheikhs  of 
Beit  Tulhuk,  one  of  the  families  of  Lebanon’s  feudal  lords,  whose 
glory  has  faded,  and  their  palaces  are  fast  crumbling  into  decay. 
I  have  spent  several  summers  in  that  village,  and  occupied  one  of 
those  palaces.  Since  then  a  few  commodious  dwellings  have  been 
built,  and  they  are  now  rented  to  some  of  the  English  and  Ameri¬ 
can  residents  of  Beirut.  Suk  el  Ghurb,  directly  above  ’Aitath,  is 
the  more  popular  resort,  especially  for  the  Greeks  and  Greek  Catho¬ 
lics  of  the  city,  attracted  to  it,  in  the  first  instance,  perhaps,  by  the 
reputed  sanctity  of  its  ancient  church.  I  remember  Suk  el  Ghurb 
when  there  were  only  half  a  dozen  small,  low  houses  around  the 
old  church,  and  all  nearly  hidden  from  view  by  mulberry  terraces. 
Now,  as  you  observe,  it  has  become  a  picturesque  village,  with  large 
houses  built  upon  and  above  the  high  rocky  ledge  which  extends 
quite  to  the  base  of  the  mountain-ridge  south  of  it. 

About  forty-five  years  ago  I  was  taken  to  see  an  old  picture  in 
that  church,  which  was  said,  in  those  times  of  ignorance,  to  be  en¬ 
dowed  with  miraculous  powers.  It  was  called  the  sweating  picture, 
from  a  propensity  it  had  of  perspiring  profusely.  The  features  of 
the  patron  saint  were  so  besmirched  with  the  smoke  of  wax  ta¬ 
pers  as  scarcely  to  be  visible  in  the  dim  light  of  the  dark  vault. 
Giving  the  old  priest  a  small  gratuity,  he  besought  the  saint,  with 
prayers  and  exclamations,  to  perform  the  miracle,  and  soon  the 
picture  was  bedewed  with  moisture ;  but  my  companion,  a  shrewd 
native,  declared  that  he  saw  the  priest  sprinkle  water  upon  it.  The 
miraculous  power  of  the  saint  was  exhausted  long  ago,  and  the 
dilapidated  old  church  has  been  replaced  by  a  new  edifice. 

That  long,  level  terrace  of  the  Convent  of  Mar  Jirjis  esh  Shir, 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


I90 

St.  George  of  the  Cliff,  just  below  us,  is  the  favorite  promenade  of 
the  monks,  and  there  every  pleasant  evening  some  of  them  are  al¬ 
ways  to  be  seen,  apparently  engaged  in  devout  meditation,  while  in 
reality  they  are  taking  a  little  exercise,  and  enjoying  the  cool  air 
and  the  magnificent  prospect. 

The  entire  mountain-side,  and  this  profound  valley  sinking  far 
down  to  the  plain,  present  a  wide  expanse  of  terraced  fields  and 
fruitful  gardens,  studded  here  and  there  with  small  clusters  of 
houses,  which  give  to  it  the  appearance  of  one  continuous  village. 

Wady  Shahrur,  or  el  Wady,  as  it  js  sometimes  called  by  way  of 
eminence,  is  one  of  the  most  densely  populated  valleys  of  Lebanon. 
Owing  to  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  abundant  supply  of 
water  from  the  numerous  fountains,  nearly  every  variety  of  fruits 
and  vegetables  in  this  country  are  raised  here.  The  little  rills  that 
come  tumbling  over  the  cliffs  and  foaming  down  the  terraces  ex¬ 
haust  themselves  in  the  summer  season  amongst  the  vineyards,  the 
gardens,  and  the  groves  below.  During  the  winter  they  rush  madly 
down  to  the  plain,  and  swell  the  turbid  Nahr  el  Ghudir  into  an  im¬ 
passable  torrent,  sweeping  everything  before  it  to  the  sea. 

Some  of  the  English  and  American  residents  of  Beirut  have 
built  houses  for  themselves  amongst  the  rocks  and  upon  the  ledge 
above  us,  and  more  picturesque  positions  could  not  be  desired 
for  summer  residences.  This  venerable  oak,  near  the  edge  of  the 
precipice,  is  one  of  the  “  inhabited  trees,”  upon  whose  branches  the 
natives  hang  bits  of  rags  torn  from  their  garments — votive  offer¬ 
ings  to  propitiate  the  mysterious  being  supposed  to  frequent  them. 
Such  trees  are  found  all  over  this  country,  and  illustrate  the  te¬ 
nacity  with  which  ancient  superstitions  retain  their  hold  upon  the 
minds  of  the  ignorant  and  credulous  inhabitants. 

We  are  now  passing  through  ’Aleih.  This  village  has  of  late 
been  greatly  improved,  and  there  are  at  present  many  large  and 
comfortable  houses  in  it,  some  of  them  built  by  wealthy  citizens 
of  Beirut.  Many  of  the  foreign  consuls  have  selected  this  place 
for  their  summer  residence,  and  the  Governor-general  of  the  Leba¬ 
non  frequently  spends  a  few  weeks  here.  ’Aleih  has  the  reputa¬ 
tion  of  being  very  healthy,  and  is  considerably  higher  and  cooler 
than  Shemlan.  A  branch  of  Beit  Tulhuk  resided  here;  but  the 


TRAGEDIES  IN  THE  OLD  PALACE  AT  ’ALEIH.  191 

sheikhs  have  been  deprived  of  their  former  power  by  the  Turkish 
government,  and  the  family  is  now  almost  extinct. 

That  rambling  old  palace  on  the  hill-side  recalls  a  series  of  tra¬ 
gedies  enacted  there  many  years  ago.  The  first  summer  I  spent 
on  Lebanon  I  lived  in  a  house  not  far  from  the  palace,  which  was 
then  occupied  by  one  of  the  sittat,  with  her  two  sons  and  a  cousin 
of  the  young  sheikhs.  The  three  boys  were  of  about  the  same  age 
— from  twelve  to  fifteen — bright  and  intelligent.  They  visited  me 
often,  and  I  became  quite  interested  in  them.  The  three  gen¬ 
erally  came  together,  accompanied  by  their  respective  guardians ; 
and  the  cousin  was  always  attended  by  a  servant  who  carried  a 
silver  cup,  and  would  never  allow  him  to  drink  out  of  any  other. 

It  was  feared  that  the  young  sheikh  would  be  poisoned  at  the  in¬ 
stigation  of  his  aunt,  the  mother  of  the  two  boys — a  princess  as 
beautiful  as  Delilah,  and  equally  treacherous. 

The  summer  passed  quietly  away,  but  a  year  afterwards  the 
cousin  was  inveigled  into  a  room  in  the  palace,  and  there  mur¬ 
dered  by  the  two  brothers,  because  he  was  the  heir  to  most  of  the 
property.  The  country  had  but  recently  passed  under  the  nomi¬ 
nal  control  of  the  Egyptian  Government,  and  Ibrahim  Pasha  had 
marched  northward  to  encounter  the  army  of  the  Sultan.  During 
that  disturbed  interregnum  every  one  “  did  that  which  was  right 
in  his  own  eyes,”  as  the  Hebrews  did  in  those  days  when  there 
was  no  king  in  Israel ;  so  there  was  no  investigation,  and  no  one 
was  punished.  But  the  tragedy  did  not  end  in  that  atrocious 
murder.  The  two  brothers  were  engaged  one  day  in  cleaning 
their  weapons,  when  the  younger  was  shot  by  the  elder  brother. 

It  was  reported  that  the  deed  was  accidental,  but  of  that  there 
was  great  doubt  amongst  the  people. 

The  double  murderer,  now  sole  possessor  of  the  entire  property 
of  the  family,  became  a  leading  sheikh  amongst  the  Druses ;  and 
when  the  war  broke  out,  in  1842,  between  them  and  the  Maronites 
he  took  an  active  part  in  it.  Being  accused  of  outrageous  cruelties, 
he  fled  to  the  Hauran  ;  but,  after  remaining  there  for  some  time, 
he  was  pardoned  by  the  Turkish  authorities  and  recalled.  Etiquette 
required  him  to  pay  his  respects  to  the  Pasha  in  Damascus ;  and,  I 

after  being  graciously  received  and  dismissed,  he  started  to  return 

♦ 


192 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


to  that  palace  in  ’Aleih,  accompanied  by  some  of  the  sheikhs  who 
had  been  with  him  in  the  Hauran.  They  never  reached  Lebanon. 
The  cholera,  which  was  then  raging  in  this  country,  attacked  them, 
and  all  died  on  the  road.  It  was  the  general  belief,  however,  that 
they  had  been  poisoned  on  taking  leave  of  the  Pasha  at  Damascus. 
The  widowed  and  childless  mother  married  a  sheikh  of  another 
family,  but  was  soon  after  divorced  and  sent  away  to  die,  no  one 
knows  when  or  how.  Thus  ends  the  sad  story  of  one  of  the 
branches  of  Beit  Tulhuk — the  first  family  of  Druse  sheikhs  with 
whom  I  became  acquainted  nearly  half  a  century  ago. 

The  Nemesis  of  retribution,  though  delayed,  had  neither  pity 
nor  mercy  for  such  monsters  in  the  guise  of  men  and  women. 

That  dark  record  is  not  an  isolated  chapter  in  the  history  of 
this  country.  Muhammed  Aly,  in  i830-’3i,  sent  his  warlike  son, 
Ibrahim  Pasha,  to  wrest  Syria  from  the  Sultan  ;  the  leading  feudal 
family  in  Lebanon  sided  with  the  Turkish  Government,  and,  in 
consequence,  the  male  members  were  obliged  to  flee  to  distant 
parts.  In  i840-’4I  the  Egyptians  were  driven  out  of  the  country 
by  the  combined  European  Powers,  and  Syria  was  given  back  to 
the  Turks.  There  were  then  three  brothers  in  that  family  of 
Druse  sheikhs,  and  they  were  raised  to  their  former  station,  and 
their  property  was  restored  to  them.  During  the  ten  years  of 
their  enforced  exile  two  young  sheikhs  lower  in  station  had  risen 
to  power,  and  had  married  the  only  brides,  sisters,  within  the  mar¬ 
riage  circle  of  the  family.  After  the  return  of  the  fugitive  brothers, 
the  two  oldest  killed  the  husbands  and  married  their  widows  them¬ 
selves. 

Such  atrocious  villany  reaped  its  swift  reward.  The  eldest 
brother  became  imbecile,  and  sunk  into  obscurity  and  poverty. 
The  other  usurped  all  authority,  and  laid  hands  upon  the  entire 
property ;  nor  could  he  be  induced  to  allow  a  decent  competency 
for  the  support  of  his  elder  brother.  He  became  wealthy  and 
powerful ;  but,  owing  to  his  presumable  complicity  in  the  massa¬ 
cres  at  Deir  el  Kamr  in  i860,  he  was  denounced  by  some  of  the 
Commissioners  of  the  European  Powers,  imprisoned  in  Beirut  by 
the  Turkish  authorities,  and  barely  escaped  being  beheaded.  At 
length,  through  the  earnest  intercession  of  political  friends,  he  was 


DECLINE  OF  FEUDAL  PRINCES.— WADY  HUMMANA.  193 

allowed  to  leave  his  prison,  but  only  to  die.  A  few  days  after  his 
liberation  he  expired  in  a  house  not  far  from  my  own. 

Great  hopes  were  entertained  that  the  youngest  of  the  brothers, 
when  he  came  of  age,  would  exert  a  happy  influence  upon  the  peo¬ 
ple  ;  and  he  appeared  anxious  to  qualify  himself  for  a  life  of  useful¬ 
ness,  but  he  soon  became  insane.  The  widows  had  three  brothers, 
the  youngest  of  whom  became  a  raving  maniac.  The  oldest  was 
killed  during  the  civil  wars  that  desolated  Lebanon,  and  the  other 
brother  retained  just  enough  wit  to  manage  the  property.  I  was 
brought  into  frequent  contact  with  both  those  families  of  Druse 
sheikhs  and  marriageable  princesses,  and  observed,  with  painful 
interest,  the  dreadful  calamities  attending  their  career,  and  the 
declining  fortunes  of  their  ancestral  house. 

The  feudal  lords  and  ladies  of  these  mountains  have  indeed 
been  visited  with  relentless  and  condign  punishment. 

For  at  least  a  thousand  years  the  native  princes  on  Lebanon 
and  Hermon  have  been  engaged  in  plots  and  outbreaks,  assassina¬ 
tion  and  murder,  and  now  their  families  are  either  extinct,  or  are 
rapidly  declining,  with  no  prospect  of  their  restoration  to  power. 
The  country  has,  however,  no  cause  to  regret  the,  dying  out  of 
those  old  families.  They  blocked  the  wheels  of  progress,  and 
their  extinction  was  as  necessary  as  it  was  inevitable. 

We  have  now  reached  the  carriage  road  to  Damascus,  which 
winds  up  the  slopes  of  Lebanon  above  the  profound  gorge  of  Nahr 
Beirut.  Let  us  ride  to  the  edge  of  the  cliff,  and  look  down  into 
the  wide  and  deep  valley  of  Hummana. 

It  is  impossible  to  gaze  upon  scenery  so  vast  and  sublime  with¬ 
out  giving  expression  to  one’s  great  surprise  and  admiration. 

Wady  Hummana  is  considered  one  of  the  finest  in  Lebanon. 
It  possesses  a  greater  variety  of  forest  scenery  than  any  other  val¬ 
ley,  interspersed  with  silk-reeling  factories,  convents,  churches,  and 
picturesque  villages.  It  has  also  one  interesting  feature  found  no¬ 
where  else  in  Syria.  Near  the  bottom  of  the  valley,  below  Kurna- 
yil,  is  the  only  coal-mine  in  this  country.  Its  existence  had  been 
long  known,  but  it  was  not  worked  until  the  Egyptians  got  pos¬ 
session  of  these  mountains.  Muhammed  Aly  employed  an  English 
engineer,  in  1834-35,  to  superintend  the  mining  operations,  and 


194 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


many  hundred  tons  of  coal  were  taken  to  Beirut,  for  the  Egyptian 
steamers.  But  the  coal  was  of  an  inferior  quality,  and  so  impreg¬ 
nated  with  sulphur  as  to  corrode  the  boilers.  There  was,  also,  a 
large  proportion  of  iron  pyrites  mingled  with  the  coal,  and  the 
mounds  of  that  rubbish,  thrown  out  of  the  mine,  became  ignited 
by  the  autumn  rain,  and  continued  to  burn  for  several  months. 

When  the  Turkish  Government  was  again  established  over 
Syria,  mining  operations  were,  of  course,  abandoned,  nor  is  it  proba¬ 
ble  that  they  will  ever  be  renewed.  Besides  the  impurity  of  the 
mineral,  the  stratum  is  not  more  than  two  and  a  half  feet  thick, 
and  the  working  of  it  is  rendered  difficult  and  expensive  by  nume¬ 
rous  dislocations  and  “faults”  in  the  strata.  I  was  surprised  to 
find  in  the  mass  of  shale  overlying  the  coal  numberless  fragments 
of  perfectly  preserved  specimens  of  petrified  pine-cones,  in  all  re¬ 
spects  like  those  which  now  grow  on  the  pine-forests  that  crown 
the  sandy  ridge  above  the  mine.  How  they  came  there,  and  what 
they  imply  or  suggest,  we  may  leave  to  geologists  to  explain. 

Directly  below  Deir  el  Kul’ah  the  deep  gorge  of  Nahr  Beirut 
is  divided  into  two  branches.  The  one  which  descends  from  Jebel 
Keniseh  forms  this  beautiful  valley  of  Hummana.  The  other,  com¬ 
ing  down  through  the  yawning  chasms  in  Jebel  Sunnin,  drains  all 
the  western  slopes  of  that  imposing  mountain.  Between  those  two 
profound  wadys  is  the  district  of  el  Metn,  with  its  coal-mine,  below 
Kurnayil,  its  pine-forests,  and  numerous  villages.  The  Metn  is  in¬ 
habited  by  a  mixed  population,  Greek,  Maronite,  and  Druse  ;  and 
each  party,  in  turn,  Maronite  or  Druse,  has  swept  over  it  during 
the  many  civil  wars,  killing,  plundering,  and  burning,  and  the  mar¬ 
vel  is  that  it  recovers  so  rapidly. 

A  large  part  of  el  Metn  has  been  constantly  governed  for  the 
last  two  hundred  years  by  Emirs  of  Beit  el  Lema.  They  came 
from  Jebel  el  A’aLah,  south-west  of  Aleppo,  with  a  pedigree  as  long 
as  the  tail  of  a  comet,  and  settled  at  first  in  Kefr  Selwan.  After 
the  usual  fortunes  and  inevitable  misfortunes  which  have  befallen 
every  feudal  family  on  these  mountains,  they  became,  nominally, 
Christians,  and  finally  sunk  into  poverty  and  obscurity.  Some  of 
them  still  reside  in  Sulima,  a  village  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
well-wooded  ridge, v  beneath  which  lie  the  coal-measures  of  Leba- 


BRUMMANA.— EL  MUGHEITEH.— SNOW-DRIFTS.  195 

non.  Others  are  living  at  Brummana,  that  village  on  the  top  of 
the  mountain,  above  the  Bay  of  St.  George. 

Many  years  ago  Brummana  was  the  favorite  summer  resort  of 
the  Europeans  of  Beirut,  but  the  water  is  scarce  and  not  palata¬ 
ble,  being  slightly  impregnated  with  sulphur  from  the  ferruginous 
sandstone,  which  overlies  the  entire  ridge.  The  village  is  celebrated 
for  its  noble  prospects  and  pleasant  rides  through  pine-forests,  and 
for  a  group  of  oak-trees  of  venerable  age  and  great  size,  under  the 
dense  shade  of  which  I  have  spent  many  a  pleasant  hour. 

The  gradients  on  this  part  of  the  Damascus  road,  which  leads 
up  almost  to  the  summit  of  Lebanon,  are  by  no  means  steep,  and 
the  ascent  is  so  gradual  as  hardly  to  be  perceptible. 

A  short  distance  ahead  of  us  the  rise  is  more  rapid  until  the 
famous  pass  of  el  Mugheiteh  is  reached,  over  five  thousand  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Before  the  French  engineers  opened 
the  way  up  through  that  wilderness  of  rocks  and  crags,  el  Mughei¬ 
teh  was  a  long  and  dangerous  defile,  which  many  fatal  accidents  to 
individuals  and  caravans  had  rendered  notorious.  Every  winter  it 
was  overwhelmed  by  snow-drifts,  and  all  travel  to  and  from  Damas¬ 
cus  on  that  route  was  suspended.  Even  this  broad  and  admira¬ 
bly  constructed  road  is  often  completely  blocked,  and  a  channel 
through  the  snow  has  to  be  made. 

I  have  ridden  over  the  part  where  we  now  are  when  the  chan¬ 
nel  was  barely  wide  enough  to  permit  the  diligence  to  pass.  On 
one  occasion  the  snow  on  either  side  was  higher  than  the  top  of 
the  diligence,  and  the  passage  was  so  narrow  that  the  snow  was 
swept  from  both  sides  on  to  the  vehicle.  The  accumulation  of 
snow  is  due  to  the  proximity  of  Jebel  Keniseh,  which  lifts  its  head 
to  the  clouds,  six  thousand  six  hundred  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
directly  above  el  Mugheiteh.  So  steep  is  the  side  of  that  rugged 
mountain  that  much  of  the  snow  that  falls  upon  it  is  drifted  down 
into  the  pass  during  the  great  winter  storms. 

The  summit  level  of  the  ridge  is  only  about  a  mile  across,  and 
then  the  road  begins  to  descend  eastward  towards  the  Buka’a — at 
first  gradually,  but  after  passing  Khan  Murad  its  descent  is  very 
steep,  and  the  diligence  rumbles  along  with  dangerous  velocity 
even  around  the  sharp  zigzags,  quite  down  to  the  plain.  We  will 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


I96 

stop  to  rest  for  an  hour  at  that  khan,  where  the  hospitable  inn¬ 
keeper  will  furnish  us  with  hot  coffee  after  our  lunch.  It  was 
originally  a  dilapidated  khan,  where  I  have  encamped  more  than 
once,  long  before  the  Damascus  road  was  constructed  by  the 
French,  but  it  has  been  greatly  altered  to  adapt  it  to  the  wants 
of  the  Company.  Wherever  it  was  practicable,  the  new  road  fol¬ 
lowed  the  line  of  the  ancient  highway,  and  the  stations  of  the  Com¬ 
pany  are  also  located  at  or  near  the  old  khans  of  former  days. 

This  way-side  inn  is  directly  below  the  south-eastern  shoulder 
of  Jebel  Keniseh,  and,  of  course,  is  very  cold  in  winter,  and  often 
buried  under  the  deep  snow.  It  is  also  exposed  to  violent  gales 
of  wind.  I  once  pitched  my  tent  on  the  roof  of  the  old  khan, 
which  was  then  the  only  level  place  about  it.  But  it  was  not  a 
secure  or  a  comfortable  camping-ground.  Some  time  after  mid¬ 
night  there  came  sweeping  down  from  the  heights  of  Jebel  Keni¬ 
seh  a  furious  gale  that  nearly  carried  away  my  tent ;  and,  though 
it  was  midsummer,  the  wind  was  extremely  cold. 

An  old  sheikh  of  ’Aitath  explained  to  me  why  it  was  that  so 
many  of  the  men  who  came  from  the  mountain  villages  to  this  part 
of  the  Buka’a  at  harvest  time  soon  returned,  having  been  attacked 
with  malignant  fevers.  He  said  the  fever  was  not  caused  by  ma¬ 
laria,  but  was  entirely  due  to  those  cold  winds.  The  harvesters 
slept  on  the  threshing-floors,  and  owing  to  the  extreme  heat  in 
the  first  part  of  the  night,  they  used  no  covering,  and  were  conse¬ 
quently  exposed  to  the  chilling  wind  that  invariably  began  to  blow 
after  midnight.  That,  I  believe,  to  be  the  true  cause  of  most  of 
the  fevers  which  abound  on  Lebanon  during  the  latter  part  of 
summer,  and  all  travellers  should  then  protect  themselves  and 
their  muleteers  from  the  pernicious  effects  of  such  cold  winds. 

We  have  been  descending  rapidly  since  we  left  Khan  Murad, 
and  now,  far  below  us,  the  broad  expanse  of  the  Buka’a  stretches 
away  to  the  north,  and,  passing  the  ruins  of  Ba’albek,  is  lost  to 
sight  at  “  the  entrance  of  Hamath.”  Across  the  plain,  southward, 
is  Hermon,  and  opposite  to  us  is  Anti-Lebanon  ;  while  Lebanon, 
that  goodly  mountain,  rises  above  us  to  the  clouds. 

This  is  indeed  a  glorious  and  comprehensive  prospect. 

Instead  of  hurrying,  like  the  diligence,  down  the  ever-winding 


THE  RANGE  OF  ANTI-LEBANON.— THE  DAMASCUS  ROAD.  1 97 

road  to  the  plain,  we  will  take  our  stand  on  that  high  bluff  north 
of  us,  and  survey  the  splendid  outlook  which  it  affords.  It  was 
mainly  to  show  you  this  magnificent  and  suggestive  view  that  we 
have  made  this  detour  from  the  regular  route. 

Hermon  seems  to  dominate  the  entire  southern  portion  of  the 
Buka’a ;  but  the  long,  irregular  range  of  Anti-Lebanon,  which  walls 
in  the  eastern  side  of  the  plain,  appears  to  be  much  lower  even 
than  our  present  stand-point  on  these  western  mountains. 

It  is  in  reality  lower  than  the  Lebanon  range,  and  yet  I  have 
ascended  some  peaks  east  of  Ba’albek  and  above  the  plain  of 
Zebedany  which  are  six  or  seven  thousand  feet  high. 

The  Buka’a  now  seems  to  be  surprisingly  near,  and  outspread 
almost  at  our  very  feet,  like  a  great  carpet  of  diverse  patterns. 

This  eastern  side  of  Lebanon  is  entirely  different  from  the 
western.  There  are  none  of  those  long  reaches  of  nearly  level 
ground  by  which  the  summit  is  easily  gained,  but  the  mountain 
drops  abruptly  to  the  plain,  almost  without  a  break ;  and  the  dili¬ 
gence,  which  takes  six  hours  to  reach  this  point  from  Beirut,  de¬ 
scends  swiftly  down  to  Shtora,  the  half-way  station  to  Damascus, 
in  thirty  minutes.  From  Shtora  travellers  often  take  a  carriage 
or  hire  horses,  and  make  a  hasty  visit  to  Ba’albek,  which  is  six 
hours  distant  from  that  station. 

One  can  follow  the  line  of  this  carriage-road  to  Damascus  quite 
across  the  plain  to  the  other  side,  until  it  passes  behind  that  low 
ridge  which  extends  far  away  to  the  south-east. 

From  Mejdel  ’Anjar,  on  the  eastern  side  of  that  ridge,  it  ascends, 
by  easy  grades,  the  long  Wady  Harir,  to  the  level  but  stony  Sahil 
Judeideh,  and  thence  passes  into  Wady  el  Kurn,  which  it  follows 
towards  ed  Dimas,  a  large  village  on  the  western  border  of  a  rocky 
and  dreary  plateau,  called  es  Sahra,  that  extends  eastward  to  the 
banks  of  the  Barada.  The  road  crosses  that  desert  of  ed  Dimas, 
and  winds  along  the  left  bank  of  the  lively  and  beautiful  river  of 
Damascus,  overshadowed  by  tall  trees  of  various  kinds,  and  then 
passes  out  upon  the  plain  between  luxurious  gardens,  and  through 
the  verdant  Merj  to  the  gates  of  the  city. 

With  your  glass  you  can  see  the  walls  of  an  ancient  temple, 
standing  on  the  northern  end  of  the  hill  which  hides  Mejdel  Anjar 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


198 

from  view.  That  temple  was  well  built,  like  those  upon  Hermon, 
and  there  are  some  enormous  stones  in  the  eastern  and  western 
walls,  twenty- one  feet  long  and  nearly  six  feet  high.  There  are 
no  inscriptions,  and  it  has  no  name  or  historic  association,  except 
that,  directly  below  it,  on  the  north-east,  are  the  extensive  ruins 
of  ’Anjar — towers,  walls,  columns,  and  other  remains — supposed  to 
mark  the  site  of  Chalcis,  the  capital  of  a  small  province  ruled  by 
the  Ptolemies  and  the  Herods.  The  temple  may  have  been  built 
in  the  first  century  by  Herod  Agrippa  II.,  mentioned  in  the  Acts, 
in  honor  of  the  Emperor  Claudius.1 

About  half  a  mile  north-east  of  those  ruins  is  Neb’a  ’Anjar,  the 
main  permanent  source  of  the  river  Litany.  There  are  several 
large  fountains  much  farther  north,  on  both  sides  of  the  plain, 
such  as  those  of  the  stream  that  passes  down  from  Sunnin  through 
Zahleh,  and  at  Ras  el  ’Ain,  near  Ba’albek ;  but  during  the  summer 
the  water  from  them  is  exhausted  by  irrigation.  The  stream  from 
Neb’a  ’Anjar  always  forms  a  deep  river,  which  cannot  generally 
be  crossed  except  at  the  bridge.  It  has,  in  fact,  several  sources, 
but  the  main  one  is  an  intermitting  fountain.  Sometimes  the 
quantity  of  water  from  it  is  quite  small,  and  at  other  times  it  is 
largely  increased.  I  was  there  once  when  the  overflow  was  so 
great  as  to  endanger  the  mill-dam  below  it.  Somewhat  similar 
phenomena  occur  at  Fauwar  ed  Deir,  the  Sabbatical  river,  north 
of  Tripoli,  mentioned  by  Josephus  and  Pliny. 

Upon  a  low  ridge  opposite  us,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Buka’a,  is  a  place  called  Deir  el  Ghuzal,  the  convent  of  the  gazelle, 
where  there  was  an  ancient  temple,  the  remains  of  which  are  still 
to  be  seen  on  the  hill-side  and  in  the  valley  below.  On  some  low 
cliffs  south  of  it  are  a  few  words  of  a  Greek  inscription,  but  they 
impart  no  valuable  information.  There-  is  a  much  longer  inscrip¬ 
tion  in  a  village  farther  north  which  I  once  copied  when  passing 
along  that  side  of  the  plain  from  Ba’albek  to  Neb’a  Anjar. 

What  is  the  name  of  that  ruined  castle  upon  the  high  crag  on 
the  side  of  that  ravine  to  the  south  of  us? 

It  is  called  Kubb  Elias,  and  there  is  a  village  below  it  of  the 
same  name.  Fakhr  ed  Din,  the  celebrated  Druse  emir,  is  said  to 

1  Acts  xxv.  26. 


CGELESYRIA.— ZAHLEH.— EL  BERDUNY. 


I99 


have  built  it ;  but  it  was  dismantled  long  ago,  and  there  is  nothing 
about  it  of  much  interest  or  to  indicate  its  age.  It  was  probably 
constructed  to  command  the  ascent  over  Lebanon,  and  for  the 
protection  of  caravans,  merchants,  and  travellers. 

It  is  time  to  continue  our  ride.  We  will  get  a  guide  at  Mek- 
seh,  the  next  station  ahead  of  us ;  and,  keeping  along  the  moun¬ 
tain  above  the  extensive  vineyards  of  Zahleh,  we  will  climb  to 
Neb’a  Sunnin,  near  the  summit  of  Lebanon  west  of  that  village. 

How  magnificent  are  the  views  over  the  great  plain  and  the 
surrounding  mountains!  From  every  projecting  ridge  the  prospect 
is  different,  but  always  impressive  and  beautiful. 

We  obtain,  from  some  points,  a  perfect  view  of  the  whole  of 
Ccelesyria ;  for  although  that  name  came,  ultimately,  to  have  a  far 
wider  application,  the  Buka’a  is  the  original  Coelesyria,  or  hollow 
Syria  of  ancient  history  and  geography.  We  are  to  pass  through 
the  northern  part  of  it  hereafter,  and  will  become  more  familiar 
with  it,  and  with  the  names  of  many  villages  scattered  over  this 
fertile  plain.  From  that  prominent  ledge  of  rocks  to  which  we 
are  coming  we  will  obtain  an  excellent  view  of  Zahleh,  the  most 
populous  and  prosperous  town  on  Lebanon. 

It  is  a  much  larger  place  than  I  expected  to  see,  and  its  situa¬ 
tion  has  been  well  chosen,  and  is  exceedingly  picturesque. 

There  is  nothing  resembling  it  on  these  mountains.  The  town 
occupies  both  sides  of  the  valley,  which  widens  as  it  deepens,  and 
finally  opens  out  upon  the  plain  to  the  south-east.  Through  the 
middle  of  the  valley  flows  the  sparkling  little  river  of  el  Berduny, 
which  descends  from  the  south-eastern  end  of  Jebel  Sunnin;  and, 
after  contributing  to  the  wants  of  the  town,  its  life-giving  waters 
are  distributed  over  a  wide  area  of  vineyards,  gardens,  and  culti¬ 
vated  fields  on  the  plain  of  el  Buka’a  below.  Along  the  banks, 
through  the  town,  and  elsewhere  grow  hundreds  of  tall  and  grace¬ 
ful  silver-leaved  poplars,  which  add  much  to  the  attractiveness  of 
the  place  and  the  beauty  of  the  scene.  The  houses  are  built 
upon  the  sloping  declivities  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and  rise, 
tier  above  tier,  far  up  the  steep  side  of  the  mountain. 

There  are  several  churches  in  the  town,  including  one  recently 

erected  by  the  Protestant  community.  Excellent  schools,  both  for 

O 


200 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


boys  and  girls,  have  been  established,  and  are  flourishing  remarka¬ 
bly.  The  desire  for  education  has  extended  to  the  surrounding 
-  country,  and  schools  have  been  opened  in  many  of  the  villages. 

The  Rev.  Gerald  F.  Dale  gives  a  graphic  description  of  the 
scenes  and  scenery  in  this  neighborhood,  and  the  manners  and 
customs  of  the  inhabitants  at  the  present  day: 

“  The  Zahleh  people  are  now  in  the  vineyards.  We  went  yes¬ 
terday  to  Furzul  to  hold  the  usual  service,  and  during  the  hour’s 
ride  were  surrounded  with  vineyards  before  us,  behind  us,  and  upon 
either  side  of  us.  The  road  wound  over  the  low  spurs  of  the 
mountain,  which  were  carefully  cultivated,  and  beautifully  terraced 
all  the  way  down  to  the  fertile  plain  of  Coelesyria.  The  ruins  of 
Ba’albec  were  in  sight  to  the  north,  and  toward  the  south  Mount 
Hermon  was  towering  above  everything.  Men,  and  women,  and 
children,  horses,  donkeys,  camels,  and  mules,  were  going  and  com¬ 
ing  with  baskets  or  boxes  or  saddle-bags  of  grapes.  Each  person 
in  passing  politely  invited  us  to  help  ourselves  [from  the  tempt¬ 
ing  baskets],  and  some  would  take  no  denial. 

“We  sold  two  pocket  Testaments  for  twenty  pounds  of  grapes, 
the  grapes  to  be  delivered  at  any  time  during  the  present  week. 
We  scattered  mission  papers  where  we  thought  that  they  would  be 
read  and  appreciated,  and  turned  aside  for  a  talk  with  one  of  our 
church  members  whose  vineyard  was  by  the  roadside.  In  two  dif¬ 
ferent  places  companies  of  people  were  treading  out  the  juice  of 
the  grapes  to  make  grape  molasses.  In  all  directions  people  were 
making  raisins,  and  some  were  preparing  the  ripe  fruit  to  be  sent  to 
the  neighboring  villages  for  sale.  Here  and  there,  upon  a  terrace, 
was  a  fig-tree,  and  we  thought  of  the  time  in  America  when  we  read 
and  wondered  at  the  words  ‘  They  shall  sit  every  man  under  his 
vine  and  under  his  fig-tree.’  ” 

Vineyards  and  vines,  treading  out  the  juice  of  the  grapes,  and 
here  and  there  a  man  sitting  “  under  his  vine  and  under  his  fig- 
tree  ”  are  subjects  eminently  Biblical ;  and  here  on  the  spot  we 
certainly  can  testify  with  Mr.  Dale  that  “  this  land  is  a  grand 
commentary  upon  the  Bible.”1 

Although  Zahleh  does  not  command  so  magnificent  an  outlook 

1  i  Kings  iv.  25  ;  Micah  iv.  4  ;  Zech.  iii.  10. 


PROSPERITY  OF  ZAHLEH.— BITUMINOUS  SHALE. 


201 


as  Deir  el  Kamar,  nor  is  the  scenery  around  and  about  it  so  wild 
and  romantic,  yet  it  appears  to  be  almost  twice  as  large.  What 
is  the  supposed  number  of  its  inhabitants  ? 

Including  el  Mu’allakah,  “  the  suspended”  —  a  mere  annex  to 
the  town,  and  almost  exclusively  Moslem — the  population  is  over 
thirteen  thousand — all  Christian,  principally  of  the  Greek,  Catholic, 
and  Maronite  sects — and  it  is  steadily  increasing. 

No  one  looking  down  upon  Zahleh  from  our  stand-point  would 
imagine  that  every  house  in  the  place  was  burnt  during  the  last 
civil  war,  and  yet  such  was  the  fact.  By  a  combined  attack  of  the 
Druses  this  town  was  captured,  plundered,  and  burnt.  The  in¬ 
habitants,  however,  escaped  ;  and,  being  particularly  energetic  and 
enterprising,  they  speedily  repaired  and  re-roofed  their  dwellings, 
and  during  the  last  twenty  years  of  peace  they  have  more  than 
regained  their  former  prosperity.  They  not  only  manufacture  the 
articles  needed  by  the  numerous  peasantry  around  Zahleh,  but  also 
deal  largely  with  places  at  a  distance,  and  with  the  Bedawin  tribes 
of  the  eastern  desert.  Some  of  the  merchants  have  become  com¬ 
paratively  wealthy,  and  live  in  commodious  houses. 

About  a  mile  north  of  el  Mu’allakah  is  the  small  hamlet  of 
Kerak  Null,  where  is  shown  the  reputed  tomb  of  Noah,  of  which  I 
will  give  you  an  account  in  the  evening.  At  present  we  must 
commence  the  last  steep  ascent  of  Lebanon,  at  the  top  of  which 
we  will  be  obliged  to  quicken  our  pace  to  reach  the  tents  at  Neb’a 
Sunnin  before  it  becomes  too  dark  to  see  the  way. 

Between  this  point  which  we  have  now  attained,  on  the  summit 
of  the  ridge,  and  Kurnayil  is  a  locality  of  bituminous  shale,  near  the 
village  of  Kefr  Selwan.  The  shale  crops  out  in  many  places,  and  in 
some  parts  it  is  arranged  in  laminae  not  thicker  than  brown  paper. 
Indeed,  my  attention  was  first  attracted  to  it  by  its  fluttering  in  the 
wind  like  the  leaves  of  an  open  book.  Thrown  into  the  fire,  that 
bituminous  shale  burns  with  a  bright  flame,  but  it  has  a  sulphurous 
smell,  and  leaves  a  hard,  stony  residuum.  Nor  is  this  the  only  min- 
eralogical  product  met  with  in  that  region. 

The  ridge  between  Jebel  Keniseh  and  Sunnin  is  sandstone,  and 
the  surface  is  covered  in  many  places  with  small  rounded  pebbles 
like  bullets  and  balls  of  various  sizes,  coated  over  with  iron  rust 


202 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


and  sand.  They  are  called  globular  iron  ore,  and  resemble  those 
found  in  such  quantities  on  the  south-eastern  side  of  Jebel  er  Ri- 
han.  Those  curious  globules  are  generally  found  arranged  in  con¬ 
centric  layers,  as  if  formed  by  accretion,  around  a  solid  nucleus. 
But  by  what  agency  they  were  formed  there,  on  that  sandy  ridge 
of  Lebanon,  is  a  problem  not  easily  solved. 

Another  problem  is  equally  puzzling.  Our  path  from  here  on 
to  Neb’a  Sunnin  is  entangled  in  a  wilderness  of  sharp  limestone 
pinnacles  —  needles,  obelisks,  shafts,  and  spires  —  some  of  them  of 
colossal  proportions,  and  looking  as  if  driven  up  from  below  through 
the  sandstone  during  the  long  ages  of  the  past. 

Was  this  singular  rocky  formation  always  thus,  or  has  the  sand 
drifted  in  upon  and  nearly  buried  these  jagged  pinnacles? 

They  have  doubtless  been  worn  into  such  grotesque  shapes  by 
the  action  of  weather,  water,  and  time,  but  from  whence  came 
the  sand  here  upon  the  summit  of  the  Lebanon  range?  In  fact, 
the  geological  problem  presented  by  the  sandstone  formations  on 
these  mountains  remains  still  unsolved. 

We  seem  to  have  risen  quite  above  the  range  of  human  habita¬ 
tions,  and  this  is  a  wild  and  desolate  region. 

Our  ride  for  to-day  is  nearly  over,  for  beyond  this  rough  ravine 
into  which  we  have  descended  we  will  find  the  tents  pitched  and 
comfortably  arranged  for  our  reception,  and  dinner  awaiting  us. 

Neb’a  Sunnin  is  a  fountain  of  no  great  size,  but  the  water  is 
clear  as  crystal  and  icy  cold,  and  the  air  is  delightfully  cool  and 
bracing.  There  is  a  weird  influence  about  this  oasis  in  a  wilderness 
of  mountains — neither  khan  nor  hut,  not  even  a  sheepfold  near — 
shut  out  from  the  world  below,  shut  in  with  the  stars  above. 

This  is  the  only  suitable  camping- ground  for  many  a  weary 
mile  along  the  road  we  are  now  travelling.  I  have  spent  more 
than  one  night  encamped  upon  the  greenswTard  below  the  foun¬ 
tain.  Sunnin  towers  above  it  to  the  north-east  for  over  three 
thousand  feet,  and  here  we  are  nearly  twice  that  height  above  the 
sea.  To  any  one  who  proposes  to  climb  to  the  top  of  Lebanon, 
there  is  no  better  place  to  spend  the  previous  night  than  this 
Neb’a  Sunnin  ;  for  the  ascent  to  that  lofty  summit  and  the  return 
from  it  will  require  an  entire  day. 


ANCIENT  TEMPLES  ON  LEBANON. 


203 


Neb’a  Sunnin,  September  1st.  Evening. 

During  our  long  ride  we  passed  no  ancient  ruins,  no  prostrate 
temples,  no  forsaken  altars ;  and  yet  it  seems  almost  impossible 
that  man  could  dwell  in  the  midst  of  such  august  scenery  with¬ 
out  being  inspired  with  religious  thoughts  and  emotions,  prompting 
him  to  give  expression  to  them  in  the  erection  of  such  edifices. 
How  do  you  account  for  their  absence  from  this  part  of  Lebanon? 

Partly  by  qualifying  your  statement,  and  in  part  by  the  con¬ 
sideration  that  the  inhabitants  of  this  western  side  of  the  mountain 
were  near  the  cities  on  the  seaboard,  and  they  would  naturally  per¬ 
form  their  religious  ceremonies,  such  as  they  were,  in  the  grander 
temples  and  more  celebrated  shrines  of  the  neighboring  cities.  But 
your  remark  is  not  in  strict  accordance  with  the  facts  in  regard  to 
this  region.  Not  to  mention  the  remains  of  the  temple  at  Deir  el 
Kul’ah,  there  are  others  quite  worthy  of  attention.  In  the  valley 
of  the  north-eastern  branch  of  Nahr  Beirut,  which  comes  up  here 
almost  to  our  tent  door,  are  the  ruins  of  a  large  temple,  near  ’An- 
turah,  not  the  Maronite  village  in  Kesrawan,  but  one  of  the  same 
name  belonging  to  this  district  of  el  Metn.  It  was  one  of  the 
most  ancient  sanctuaries  on  these  mountains,  too  old  for  inscrip¬ 
tions,  and  was  built  of  large  stones,  but  without  much  architectu¬ 
ral  ornamentation,  and  what  remains  consists  mainly  of  broken 
buttresses  and  masses  of  shapeless  rubbish. 

East  of  our  camping-ground,  on  the  other  side  of  the  moun¬ 
tains,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Niha,  there  are  the  remains  of  two 
ancient  temples.  The  one  near  the  village  has  been  so  thoroughly 
demolished,  and  the  materials  carried  away,  that  neither  its  dimen¬ 
sions  nor  its  architectural  character  can  now  be  distinguished.  A 
ravine  leads  up  westward  from  Niha  into  the  mountain,  for  half 
an  hour,  to  a  small  plain,  upon  which  is  the  other  temple,  called 
Husn  Niha.  It  stood  on  a  wide  platform,  facing  the  east,  and  had 
a  portico  in  front,  with  a  flight  of  steps  leading  up  to  it,  more  than 
thirty  feet  broad,  and  still  in  good  preservation.  The  walls  were 
built  chiefly  of  small  stones,  although  a  few  are  ten  or  twelve  feet 
long,  and  well  squared.  The  temple  was  nearly  one  hundred  feet 
long,  and  over  forty  feet  wide,  but  the  interior  is  much  choked  up 
with  fallen  stones  and  broken  columns.  The  columns  are  not  large, 


204 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


and  appear  to  have  had  capitals  of  the  Ionic  order,  as  had  also  the 
pilasters,  along  the  walls,  on  each  side  of  the  naos,  but  the  work¬ 
manship  is  inferior  to  that  of  most  temples,  either  on  Lebanon  or 
Hermon.  On  the  east,  south,  and  west  are  extensive  remains  of 
substantial  buildings,  whose  object  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain. 

At  Kerak  Null,  north  of  Zahleh,  there  was,  probably,  a  heathen 
shrine,  as  there  is  now  a  Moslem  mukam  over  the  reputed  tomb 
of  Noah.  When  I  first  visited  it,  many  years  ago,  the  grave  was 
covered  with  a  ragged  cotton  cloth  of  faded  green  ;  and  the  old 
sheikh  informed  me,  with  the  utmost  simplicity,  that  the  patriarch 
was  so  tall  that,  when  they  came  to  lay  him  in  his  sepulchre,  one 
hundred  and  thirty-two  feet  long,  they  were  obliged  to  sink  a  deep 
shaft,  into  which  his  legs,  from  the  knee  downwards,  were  depo¬ 
sited.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  native  tradition  lias  transferred  to 
the  Buka’a  more  than  one  Biblical  celebrity.  Directly  across  the 
plain  from  Kerak  Nuh,  on  a  spur  of  the  lower  range  of  Anti-Leba¬ 
non,  is  the  wely  of  Neby  Shit — the  tomb  of  the  prophet  Seth — 
but  it  is  only  fifty-five  feet  long.  It  is  kept  in  better  condition 
and  regarded  with  greater  reverence  than  that  of  Noah,  and  is  fre¬ 
quented  by  Metawileh  as  well  as  Moslems. 

How  could  men  be  brought  to  believe,  without  evidence,  that 
Noah  was  buried  at  Kerak  Nuh  and  Seth  at  Neby  Shit? 

Or  that  one  was  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high,  and  the  other 
under  sixty,  with  other  equally  absurd  traditions?  The  conclusion 
is  that  the  origin  of  such  primitive  and  fabulous  sanctuaries  dates 
far  back  into  the  twilight  of  man’s  history.  Jew  and  Persian, 
Greek  and  Roman,  Christian  and  Moslem,  have  each  in  turn  found 
those  shrines  already  venerated,  and  have  adapted  them  to  their 
own  peculiar  superstitions.  They  owe  their  origin,  however,  not 
to  any  of  them,  but  to  the  races  settled  in  this  land  after  the 
great  deluge,  in  the  days  of  Noah  himself.  Besides  ancient  tem¬ 
ples  and  venerated  shrines,  these  magnificent  mountains  contain 
other  traces  of  man’s  presence  and  handiwork  in  remote  antiqui¬ 
ty.  Numerous  rock-cut  tombs  are  found  near  almost  every  vil¬ 
lage,  and  in  many  lonely  localities  they  are  the  only  witness  that 
human  habitations  ever  existed  there.  Those  tombs  were  of  va¬ 
rious  shapes  and  sizes,  and  are,*  doubtless,  extremely  ancient.  We 


THE  DRUSES  AND  THEIR  RELIGION.  205 

have  seen  specimens  of  most  of  them  in  Galilee  and  Phoenicia,  as 
well  as  in  Southern  Lebanon. 

As  we  shall  not  again  pass  through  the  part  of  Lebanon  occu¬ 
pied  by  the  Druses,  I  should  like  to  learn  something  more  definite 
about  their  history,  character,  and  religion.  We  have  found  them 
in  nearly  every  village,  and  have  been  invariably  treated  by  them 
with  the  greatest  respect  and  kindness. 

Their  places  of  worship  are  low,  isolated  buildings,  called  khul¬ 
wat,  or  solitudes,  generally  situated  on  lonely  summits  of  the 
mountains,  but  in  no  other  respects  differing  in  appearance  from 
ordinary  dwellings.  There  is  nothing  in  and  about  those  khulwat 
to  throw  any  light  upon  the  Druse  religion,  and  they  carefully 
avoid  the  subject  when  introduced.  Though  residing  for  many 
years  amongst  the  Druses,  and  on  terms  of  cordial  acquaintance 
with  many  of  their  principal  men,  I  could  never  obtain  from  them 
much  reliable  information.  They  affect  to  keep  their  religion  an 
inviolable  secret;  but  this  is  now  quite  absurd,  since  their  sacred 
books  have  been  studied  with  entire  success  by  De  Sacy  and  other 
foreigners,  and  even  by  many  natives  of  this  country.  During  their 
wars  with  the  Egyptian  Government,  soon  after  I  came  to  Syria, 
their  most  sacred  khulwat  were  plundered,  and  their  books  were 
seized  and  distributed  to  various  European  libraries,  or  sold  to  the 
curious  in  this  and  other  countries.  Their  religious  doctrines  have 
thus  become  known,  and  their  origin  and  history  clearly  revealed. 

Early  in  the  eleventh  century  a  certain  Persian,  called  Muham- 
med  Ibn  Isma’il  ed  Durazy,  began  to  proclaim  the  divinity  of  El 
Hakem  bi  Amr  Allah,  the  Caliph  of  Egypt,  maintaining  that  he 
was  the  last  incarnation  of  the  Deity.  Durazy  was  mobbed  in  a 
mosk  at  Cairo  while  reading  an  argument  to  establish  his  doctrine, 
and  some  say  he  was  killed  in  the  fray,  others  that  he  escaped  and 
was  sent  by  El  Hakem  to  Wady  et  Teim,  where  he  successfully 
published  his  system,  and  made  many  proselytes  amongst  the  tribes 
who  occupied  the  valley  between  Hermon  and  the  south  end  of 
Lebanon.  From  ed  Durazy,  no  doubt,  this  sect  derived  the  name 
by  which  they  are  now  commonly  known.  It  is,  however,  a  nick¬ 
name,  which  they  repudiate  and  dislike.  They  claim  to  be  strict 
Unitarians,  and  call  themselves  el  Muwahhedin,  which  has  that  sig- 


206 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


nification.  Their  religious  system  was  formulated,  not  by  Durazy, 
but  by  Hamzeh  Ibn  Ahmed,  also  a  Persian,  whom  they  style  el 
Hady,  or  the  Guide.  He  composed  most  of  their  sacred  books, 
and  is,  therefore,  their  real  religious  prophet.  He  supplanted 
Durazy,  and  the  Druses  disclaim  all  connection  with  him. 

By  what  means  Durazy  or  Hamzeh,  one  or  both,  contrived  to 
propagate  their  doctrines  and  gain  proselytes  is  not  known,  but 
tradition  says  that  they  were  aided  by  supplies  of  money  sent  to 
them  by  their  insane  divinity,  el  Hakem.  Such  arguments  have 
always  been  successful  in  this  country,  and  are  so  still ;  but  all  we 
know  with  certainty  is  that  a  considerable  body  of  fanatical  con¬ 
verts  was  organized  into  a  compact,  secret,  and  resolute  society 
which  has  lived  on  through  numberless  social  convulsions  and  civil 
wars  for  nearly  a  thousand  years.  They  gradually  spread  over 
Southern  Lebanon,  Hermon,  and  into  the  Hauran,  to  Jebel  el  A’alah, 
above  Antioch,  and  to  Mount  Carmel  and  the  mountains  east  of 
Acre,  while  a  few  thousands  have  settled  in  Damascus,  Beirut,  and 
other  towns.  They  are,  however,  not  a  large  sect,  the  highest  esti¬ 
mate  being  one  hundred  thousand  souls.  In  any  case  their  power 
and-  influence  in  this  country  are  due,  not  to  their  numbers,  but 
partly  to  their  geographical  location,  and  still  more  to  their  in¬ 
domitable  courage  and  admirable  organization.  This  compact  and 
available  organization  has  been  established  and  perpetuated  mainly 
by  two  separate  agencies,  one  religious,  the  other  secular,  but 
which,  in  times  of  danger,  act  in  perfect  concert  and  with  surpris¬ 
ing  success.  The  religious  and  “  initiated  ”  sheikhs,  on  necessary 
occasions,  can  and  do  summon  the  entire  community  to  rally  round 
the  standards  of  their  feudal  lords,  and  the  Druse  nation  then  acts 
as  one  man  against  the  common  enemy. 

In  brief,  the  religious  doctrines  of  the  Druses  appear  to  have 
been  derived  mainly  from  the  teachings  of  various  sects  of  nominal 
Moslems  in  Persia,  Egypt,  and  the  East,  grouped  together  by  Mu- 
hammedan  writers  under  the  general  name  of  Bateniyeh.  They 
were  mystics,  who  gave  an  allegorical  interpretation  to  much  of 
the  Koran,  and  were  persecuted  as  heretics  by  the  orthodox.  The 
most  celebrated  of  these  schismatics  were  the  Carmathians,  who 
were  with  great  difficulty  subdued  by  the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad. 


RELIGIOUS  DOCTRINES  OF  THE  DRUSES.  20J 

I 

The  doctrines  of  that  sect,  however,  survived  the  extinction  of 
their  political  organization,  and,  mixed  up  with  speculations  and 
dogmas  still  more  ancient,  derived  from  Zoroaster,  the  Gnostics, 
and  other  Oriental  philosophers,  constitute  the  strange  medley  of 
mystical  opinions  found  in  the  six  or  seven  sacred  books  of  the 
Druses.  Their  idea  of  God  differs  from  that  of  Islam  mainly  in 
the  exaggeration  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Divine  Unity.  Though 
they  hesitate  to  ascribe  any  distinct  attributes  to  the  Deity,  they 
maintain  that  He  has  often  assumed  a  human  form,  but  more  in 
semblance  than  in  reality.  The  most  remarkable  of  those  divine 
manifestations  and  Ministers  of  Truth  are  the  following:  Adam, 
Enoch,  Noah,  Shem,  Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus,  Muhammed,  ’Ali  Ibn 
Abi  Talib,  Muhammed  Ibn  Isma’il,  Sa’id  el  Muhdi,  and  el  Hakem 
li  Amr  Allah,  who  was  the  last  of  them  all. 

A  strange  group  of  incarnations,  certainly.  But  if  the  Druses 
believe  that  Jesus  was  one  of  the  divine  manifestations,  how  do 
they  regard  him  and  his  Gospel  ? 

They  have  two  Christs,  one  divine,  the  other  the  son  of  Joseph. 
The  latter  was  one  of  the  Ministers  of  Truth;  he  was  crucified, 
while  the  former  escaped.  It  would  be  a  wearisome  and  pro¬ 
fitless  waste  of  time  to  detail  the  wild  and  utterly  baseless  stories 
which  the  Druse  disciple  is  taught  to  believe  on  this  and  kindred 
matters.  The  only  other  doctrine  of  the  Druses  which  is  of  suffi¬ 
cient  interest  to  deserve  special  attention  is  that  of  the  transmigra¬ 
tion  of  souls.  This  they  maintain  openly,  and  apparently  from  real 
conviction.  They  do  not  admit  that  the  souls  of  wicked  persons 
pass  into  the  bodies  of  brutes,  as  a  punishment  for  their  sins,  as 
do  the  Nusairiyeh  and  some  other  sects.  Still,  it  is  their  opinion 
that  transmigrations,  from  one  human  body  to  another,  and  from 
one  state  or  condition  to  a  different  one,  better  or  worse,  has 
in  it  the  elements  of  retribution.  The  metempsychosis,  you  are 
aware,  has  been  taught,  in  one  form  or  another,  from  remote  an¬ 
tiquity.  It  is  owing  to  a  belief  prevailing  amongst  the  Druses  that 
the  Chinese  hold  this  and  some  other  of  their  dogmas,  that  they 
regard  them  as  brethren,  and  expect,  at  some  future  time,  a  mighty 
army  from  that  country  to  come  to  their  aid,  by  which  the  whole 
world  will  be  subdued  or  converted  to  their  creed. 


208 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


The  entire  Druse  community,  both  male  and  female,  is  divided 
into  ’Akkal  and  Juhhal,  initiated  and  uninitiated.  The  great  body 
of  the  nation  belong  to  the  latter  class,  and  cannot  be  said  to  have 
any  religion.  They  have  no  professed  creed,  observe  no  religious 
ceremonies,  and  never  attend  the  assemblies  of  the  ’Akkal  in  their 
Khulwat.  The  initiated,  besides  their  peculiar  dress,  are  distin¬ 
guished  by  a  greater  dignity  and  sobriety  of  demeanor,  and  are 
bound  by  numerous  restrictions  from  which  the  Juhhal  are  entirely 
free.  They  do  not  accept  office,  hold  it  unlawful  to  indulge  in 
smoking  and  such  luxuries  as  coffee,  and  abstain  from  all  intoxi¬ 
cating  drinks.  There  are  many  things  regarded  by  them  as  “  for¬ 
bidden,”  usury,  for  example,  and  they  believe  the  money  of  the 
Government  to  be  polluted.  Many  of  the  women  are  ’Akkal,  and 
meet  with  the  men  in  the  Khulwat.  The  female  ’Akkal  are  much 
respected,  and  when  I  came  to  Syria  were  about  the  only  women 
who  were  able  to  read  and  write.  In  their  domestic  relations  the 
Druses  partly  conform  to  the  Moslem  regulations,  but  polygamy 
is  not  practised  amongst  them.  Divorce,  however,  is  so  easy  and 
so  common,  that  the  advantages  of  monogamy  are  lost.  They 
can  literally  “  put  away  their  wives  for  any  cause,”  or  for  none 
whatever  but  the  whim  of  the  moment.  This  introduces  great 
irregularity  and  confusion  in  their  family  relations.  Without  giv¬ 
ing  credence  to  the  reports  of  their  enemies  on  these  subjects,  we 
shall  do  them  no  injustice  by  admitting  that  their  matrimonial  and 
domestic  matters  need  greatly  to  be  reformed. 

The  Druses  are  agriculturists;  at  least,  none  of  them  follow 
mechanical  occupations,  and  very  few  engage  in  trade  or  are  shop¬ 
keepers.  Though  not  specially  industrious,  they  are  extremely 
simple  and  frugal  in  their  habits,  and  contrive  to  live  on  very 
small  incomes.  In  their  ordinary  intercourse  they  are  polite  and 
ceremonious  to  a  proverb,  even  in  little  things.  Etiquette  obliges 
them  to  be  most  punctilious  in  showing  the  greatest  respect  to 
their  friends  on  all  private  and  public  occasions  —  social  visits, 
births,  marriages,  and  deaths.  No  sooner  does  a  Druse  die  than 
his  acquaintances,  male  and  female,  are  seen  hurrying  from  all 
quarters  to  the  funeral.  The  most  frequent  and  the  largest  gather¬ 
ings  on  Lebanon  are  at  funerals,  and  in  times  of  danger  or  contem- 


RELIGIOUS  HYPOCRISY.— FEUDAL  FAMILIES. 


209 


plated  war  such  occasions  are  availed  of  for  political  purposes,  and 
many  an  uprising  has  been  matured  at  these  gatherings.  Perhaps 
the  worst  feature  in  their  character  is  religious  hypocrisy.  They 
curse  Muhammed  in  their  secret  meetings,  and  yet  join  in  the 
Moslem  forms  of  worship  when  residing  amongst  them.  They 
will,  in  a  word,  conform  to  the  faith  of  the  strongest,  whatever  it 
may  be  ;  and  hence  it  is  almost  impossible  to  accept  with  confi¬ 
dence  their  professed  conversion  to  Christianity.  There  are  a  few, 
however,  amongst  them  who  have  become  sincere  Christians. 

There  are,  or  have  been,  nine  chief  historical  families  of  feudal 
princes,  emirs,  and  sheikhs.  Several  of  them  are  now  extinct,  such 
as  the  Tannuch  emirs  and  those  of  Beit  Maan.  In  Lebanon  there 
only  remain  at  present  the  emirs  of  er  Reslan  and  the  sheikhs  of 
Beit  Jumblat,  of  ’Ammad,  of  Abu  Nakad,  of  Tulhuk,  and  of  Abd 
el  Melek.  All  these  feudal  families  are  rapidly  declining  in  wealth, 
power,  and  influence.  During  the  wars  and  commotions  of  the 
present  century  several  other  families  have  risen  into  importance, 
especially  in  the  Hauran,  whither  large  numbers  of  Druses  have 
emigrated  from  Lebanon.  The  emirs  of  er  Reslan  reside  in  the 
lower,  and  the  Tulhuk  sheikhs  in  the  upper,  Ghurb  ;  the  Abd  el 
Melek  in  the  Jurd;  the  Nakadiyeh  in  and  around  ’Abeih  and  Deir 
el  Kamar ;  and  the  ’Ammads  east  of  that  village.  The  large  dis¬ 
trict  of  esh  Shuf  is  the  home  of  the  Jumblats,  whose  palace  is  at 
Mukhtarah.  Theirs  is  by  far  the  wealthiest  and  most  influential 
family  amongst  the  Druses,  and  Sheikh  Beshir  was  their  most  cele¬ 
brated  hero,  at  least  in  modern  times.  Indeed,  the  only  other  chief 
that  achieved  historic  celebrity  amongst  them  was  the  Emir  Fakhr 
ed  Din  Ma’an,  who  lived  nearly  three  hundred  years  ago,  and 
played  an  important  part  in  the  wars  of  his  times.  He  conquered 
a  large  part  of  this  country,  and  for  many  years  set  at  defiance  the 
power  and  intrigues  of  the  Turkish  Government. 

The  Druses  have  the  reputation  of  being  particularly  stern  and 
remorseless  in  the  execution  of  the  old  law  of  blood  revenge. 

The  lex  talionis  is  in  force,  not  only  amongst  the  Druses,  but 
with  all  the  non-Christian  tribes  who  inhabit  the  mountains  at  the 
head  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  also  amongst  the  Bedawin  who 
roam  over  the  surrounding  deserts.  Alliances  are  made  between 


210 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


families  and  tribes,  near  and  far  away,  for  the  sake  of  mutual  pro¬ 
tection,  and  to  enable  the  contracting  parties  to  retaliate  injuries 
to  life  and  property.  By  these  compacts  the  parties  are  bound  to 
, stand  by  each  other  in  case  of  need,  to  join  in  all  quarrels,  shelter 
each  other  when  fleeing  from  the  law  or  from  the  pursuit  of  ene¬ 
mies,  and  to  bear  their  proportion  of  the  fine  incurred  by  any  vio¬ 
lation  of  property  or  injury  to  person.  Especially  must  they  aid 
in  cases  of  manslaughter  or  murder;  in  the  first  instance,  to  con¬ 
ceal  and  further  the  escape  of  the  slayer,  and  then  to  stand  by  his 
family  to  prevent  a  general  massacre  by  the  enraged  relatives  of 
the  slain  ;  and,  finally,  they  must  do  all  in  their  power  to  bring 
about  a  compromise,  by  inducing  the  other  party  to  accept  a  ran¬ 
som  for  the  blood  shed  and  abandon  their  right  of  revenge. 

It  is  one  of  the  cruel  features  of  this  lex  talionis  that,  if  the 
murderer  cannot  be  reached,  the  avengers  of  blood  have  a  right  to 
kill  any  member  of  his  family,  then  any  relation,  no  matter  how 
remote,  and,  finally,  any  one  of  the  blood  confederation.  I  knew 
of  a  case  where  a  Christian  had  killed  a  Mutawaly  of  ’Ain  Ibel ; 
and,  as  the  Metawileh  are  far  the  most  numerous  in  that  region, 
and  delight  to  get  an  opportunity  to  assault  the  Christians,  the 
whole  village  was  immediately  deserted,  the  terrified  people  seek¬ 
ing  shelter  and  concealment  amongst  their  confederates,  wherever 
they  could  find  them.  Even  on  Lebanon,  which  the  Allied  Powers 
have  undertaken  to  look  after,  I  have  known,  not  one,  but  many 
horrible  tragedies.  Several  of  my  acquaintances  have  literally  been 
cut  to  pieces  by  the  infuriated  avengers  of  blood,  and  in  some  in¬ 
stances  those  poor  victims  were  not  implicated  in  the  murder,  and 
had  only  a  remote  connection  with  the  families  involved.  Were 
it  not  for  these  confederations  there  would  be  no  safety  in  such 
emergencies,  and  they  do  actually  furnish  an  important  check  to 
the  murderous  designs  of  “  avengers.” 

I  once  inquired  of  a  guide  if  he  were  not  afraid  to  go  into  a 
certain  neighborhood  where  a  murder  had  been  committed  by  one 
of  his  confederation.  “  Oh  no,”  he  replied  ;  “  our  ’aileh  can  num¬ 
ber  twelve  hundred  guns,  and  our  enemies  dare  not  touch  me ;  and, 
besides,  the  matter  is  to  be  made  up  by  our  paying  a  ransom.” 
That  is  the  ordinary  mode  of  settling  those  sanguinary  affairs. 


CITIES  OF  REFUGE.— COMPACTS  AND  ALLIANCES. 


21  I 


Such  compacts,  with  all  their  consequences,  are  extra-judicial, 
are  ignored  by  the  law  of  the  land,  and  opposed  to  it.  Their  act¬ 
ual  object  seems  to  be  to  render  the  execution  of  the  law  impos¬ 
sible.  But  as  in  the  Hebrew  community  in  the  time  of  Moses, 
so  here,  the  custom  of  blood  revenge  is  too  deeply  rooted  to 
be  under  the  control  of  the  feudal  lords  of  the  land  ;  indeed,  they 
themselves  and  their  families  are  bound  by  it  in  its  sternest  de¬ 
mands.  It  is  plain  that  Moses,  clothed  with  all  the  influence  and 
power  of  an  inspired  law -giver,  could  not  eradicate  this  dreadful 
custom,  and  was  commissioned  to  mitigate  its  horrors  by  estab¬ 
lishing  cities  of  refuge,  under  certain  humane  regulations,  which 
are  fully  detailed  in  Numbers  and  Deuteronomy.1  In  process  of 
time  other  places  besides  those  six  cities  of  refuge  acquired  the 
character  of  sanctuaries,  to  which  persons  could  flee  ;  and  they 
were  established,  sanctioned,  and  sustained  by  necessity. 

But  we  must  remember  that  both  law  and  custom  have  abo¬ 
lished  all  sanctuaries.  There  is  now  neither  city  nor  shrine  whose 
sanctity  affords  a  refuge  to  one  fleeing  for  his  life,  and  yet  the  law 
of  retaliation  remains,  and  is  executed  with  energy  by  the  non- 
Christian  tribes,  who  are  in  the  majority.  And  those  compacts, 
offensive  and  defensive,  are  intended  to  answer  the  same  purpose 
that  the  ancient  sanctuaries  and  cities  of  refuge  did,  and  they  do 
it.  When  a  man  fleeing  for  life  arrives  amongst  his  allies,  he  is 
safe,  so  far  as  their  utmost  power  to  defend  him  can  go,  and  they 
are  to  pass  him  on  to  more  distant  retreats  if  necessary.  For  this 
purpose  those  compacts  and  family  alliances  are  extended  all  over 
the  land,  from  Dan  to  Beersheba,  and  thither  the  refugees  are 
sent  with  the  utmost  despatch  and  secrecy. 

Old  Emir  Beshir  succeeded,  after  a  few  terrible  examples,  in 
putting  an  end  to  the  custom  of  blood  revenge  on  Lebanon.  But 
many  a  Druse  wove  his  smothered  vengeance  into  his  unshaven 
beard,  and  waited  his  opportunity  during  the  long  reign  of  that 
energetic  prince.  And  this  is  the  reason  why  his  downfall,  in 
1840,  by  the  action  of  the  Allied  Powers,  was  followed  by  so  many 
shocking  tragedies.  Long  outstanding  accounts  were  immediately 
referred  to  a  bloody  arbitration  and  settled  in  death. 

1  Numb.  xxxv.  ;  Deut.  xix. 


212 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


The  introduction  of  a  higher  and  more  perfect  development  of 
Christianity  amongst  Oriental  sects  has  to  encounter  and  overcome 
many  other  obstacles  from  customs  adverse  to  its  nature,  which  are 
at  least  as  ancient  as  history.  They  have  stiffened  by  old  age  into 
elements  of  unyielding  resistance ;  and  yet  the  reception  of  the 
Gospel  must  abolish  or  greatly  modify  even  those  which  have 
struck  their  roots  down  to  the  very  heart  of  society. 

In  addition  to  those  confederations  devised  for  external  pro¬ 
tection,  there  is  the  system  of  matrimonial  alliances  which  pre¬ 
vails  amongst  all  non-Christian  sects  in  this  country.  There  are 
certain  family  circles,  called  mejawise,  within  which  alone  such  alli¬ 
ances  are  permitted.  They  mutually  give  and  take,  and  outside 
of  those  they  must  neither  marry  nor  give  in  marriage.  Treaty 
stipulations,  such  as  Hamor  and  Shechem  wished  to  establish  be¬ 
tween  their  people  and  the  family  of  Jacob,  are  still  considered 
matters  of  importance  ;  and  long  negotiations  are  often  necessary 
before  the  difficult  and  delicate  compact  can  be  accomplished. 
The  readiness  with  which  the  people  of  Shechem  consented  to  the 
hard  condition  imposed  by  the  treacherous  sons  of  Israel  proves 
that  their  alliance  was  considered  an  honor  and  a  benefit.1 

There  are  also  one-sided  mejawise,  in  which,  from  necessity,  a 
family  consents  to  take,  in  order  to  get  wives  for  their  sons,  but 
refuses  to  give,  from  an  aristocratic  feeling  of  superiority.  Many 
of  those  matrimonial  circles  are  extremely  narrow,  and  seem  to 
have  for  their  main  object  the  preservation  of  property  within  the 
immediate  family.  The  same  purpose  lay  at  the  bottom  of  many 
Mosaic  institutions,  or  original  customs  which  he  sanctioned.  But 
it  now  acts  badly,  tends  directly  to  deterioration  of  the  race,  and 
ends  in  insanity  and  extinction.  I  have  known  instances  where 
there  was  not  a  single  disposable  bride  within  the  entire  circle  of 
mejawise.  This  often  leads  to  murder  between  contending  candi¬ 
dates  for  a  wife,  oftener  still  to  the  marriage  of  mere  children  to 
very  old  men.  The  difficulty  is  sometimes  got  over  by  purchasing 
Georgian  girls  in  the  Constantinople  market.  The  Gospel  must, 
of  course,  abolish  that  traffic  ;  but  at  the  same  time  it  will  open 
the  way  for  marriages  on  better  principles. 

1  Gen.  xxxiv.  8-12. 


MATRIMONIAL  NEGOTIATIONS.— FICTITIOUS  RELATIONSHIPS.  21  3 

It  will  also  abolish  the  very  ancient  system  of  marrying  only 
relations.  This  custom  prevailed  in  the  family  of  Abraham  even 
before  he  left  Mesopotamia ;  and  the  reason  assigned  by  Laban  for 
giving  his  daughter  to  Jacob — because  he  was  a  relative — is  still 
held  to  be  binding.  If  there  are  two  claimants  for  the  same  bride, 
and  one  is  a  relation,  that  is  admitted  to  be  a  valid  plea  in  his 
favor.  But  this  also  is  attended  with  all  the  objections  already 
mentioned,  and  causes  many  unnatural  and  compulsory  marriages, 
with  their  subsequent  bad  consequences. 

The  Gospel  will,  likewise,  bring  about  an  entire  change  in  the 
mode  of  conducting  matrimonial  negotiations.  They  have  always 
been  managed  in  these  countries  by  others  than  those  most  inte¬ 
rested  in  the  result.  The  parents — or  the  elder  brother,  if  there 
are  no  parents — make  the  bargain,  and  the  poor  bride  has  nothing 
to  do  but  to  submit.  Her  preferences  and  dislikes  are  treated  with 
utter  disregard,  and  I  have  known  fatal  catastrophes  to  arise  from 
that  cause.  Under  the  ameliorating  agency  of  the  Gospel,  the  ma¬ 
terial  veil  of  Oriental  seclusion  will  give  place  to  the  veil  of  genuine 
modesty  and  self-respect,  for  which  that  has  been  in  all  ages  but  a 
miserable  compensation.  True  religion  will  educate  and  elevate 
the  females,  and  introduce  them  into  society,  where  they  will  have 
opportunities  to  become  acquainted  with  those  who  seek  them  in 
marriage ;  and  they  will  not  be  married  off  while  mere  children  to 
those  they  do  not  know,  or,  knowing,  dislike. 

The  Gospel  will  also  greatly  narrow  the  list  of  prohibited  de¬ 
grees  of  relationship.  That  established  by  Moses  was  certainly 
comprehensive  enough ;  but  ecclesiastical  legislation  in  the  East 
has  added  to  it,  and  introduced  the  fictitious  relationships  of  god¬ 
parents  and  foster-brothers,  and  the  like.  In  practice,  these  rules 
are  found  to  be  so  intolerable  that  the  clergy  have  been  obliged 
to  exercise  largely  the  power  of  dispensation  ;  but  that  opens  a 
wide  door  to  intrigue  and  bribery.  Half  the  quarrels  between 
priest  and  people  grow  out  of  the  manner  in  which  this  dispensing 
power  is  exercised  in  matrimonial  affairs. 

Certainly  Christianity  knows  nothing  about  matters  in  them¬ 
selves  unlawful,  but  which  may  be  made  just  and  right  by  paying 

a  few  piastres  to  a  priest.  That  whole  system,  with  all  its  append- 

P 


214 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


ages,  will  be  abolished,  and  the  priestly  revenue  derived  therefrom 
be  dried  up.  Such  changes  in  social  habits  and  domestic  institu¬ 
tions,  to  be  brought  about  safely,  must  begin  from  within  and  de¬ 
velop  gradually,  and  not  be  forced  upon  society  by  foreign  influ¬ 
ence  acting  from  without ;  and  the  Christian  reformer  should  be 
contented  to  wait  for  this  gradual  development. 

The  present  system  of  betrothal  is  much  the  same,  I  suppose, 
as  it  was  in  ancient  Bible  days? 

It  is  a  sort  of  half  marriage,  accompanied  with  religious  cere¬ 
monies,  and  the  settling  of  the  nature  and  amount  of  dower  which 
the  bridegroom  is  to  give — a  custom  equally  ancient.  This,  too, 
in  its  present  form  and  essence,  is  destined  to  give  way  before  the 
advancement  of  a  higher  Christianity,  or  at  least  to  be  so  modified 
as  to  make  marriage  a  less  commercial  transaction,  in  which  the 
affections  of  the  parties  have  no  concern.  As  a  part  of  that  sys¬ 
tem  by  which  relatives  dispose  of  the  hand  and  heart  of  a  poor 
victim  long  before  she  is  old  enough  to  have  any  notions  of  her 
own,  it  needs  to  be  greatly  modified. 

Neb’a  Sunnin,  September  2d. 

You  are  early  this  morning;  it  is  still  quite  dark. 

Not  so  early  as  you  think;  our  camping-ground  lies  in  the  deep 
shadow  of  Sunnin,  and  the  sun  will  be  two  hours  up  before  his 
rays  strike  our  tent.  But  early  rising  is  indispensable  on  such  a 
journey.  Breakfast  will  soon  be  ready,  and  then  the  tents  must 
be  struck,  and  everything  strapped  tight  and  safe,  to  insure  against 
the  possible  accidents  or  adventures  which  may  befall  the  mules 
while  climbing  up  and  down  these  mountains. 

To  what  were  we  indebted  for  the  noise  and  confusion  during 
the  night?  I  was  startled  out  of  a  profound  sleep  by  the  report 
of  a  gun  close  to  my  head.  My  first  thought  was  that  we  were 
attacked  by  robbers ;  but  as  you  took  the  affair  quite  philosophi¬ 
cally,  I  did  the  same,  and,  burying  myself  beneath  these  ponderous 
quilts,  soon  forgot  all  about  the  disturbance. 

The  explanation  is  simple  enough.  After  the  moon  had  set, 
leaving  us  in  the  dark,  something  frightened  the  horses,  and  Yusuf, 
roused  out  of  sleep,  declared  he  saw  a  large  wahsh  creeping  up  to¬ 
wards  them.  Seizing  his  gun  he  blazed  away  at  it,  without  reflect- 


NOCTURNAL  INCIDENT.— WOLVES  AND  BEARS.  21  5 

in g  that  the  flash  and  the  roar  would  startle  the  horses.  They, 
of  course,  pulled  up  the  stakes  to  which  they  were  tethered,  and 
plunged  about  amongst  the  rocks.  The  mules  did  the  same,  and 
a  general  stampede  followed.  After  much  shouting  the  panic 
subsided,  the  animals  were  caught  and  re-tethered,  and,  muttering 
curses  upon  Yusuf,  his  gun,  and  his  wild  beast,  the  muleteers  were 
soon  fast  asleep,  covered  over  head  and  ears  in  their  ’abas. 

The  danger,  however,  was  not  from  robbers,  but  one  of  the 
mules  got  entangled  in  the  tent  ropes,  and  threatened  to  drag  the 
whole  tabernacle  away  in  its  fright,  and  that  proceeding  is  no  tri¬ 
fling  accident,  as  I  have  experienced  more  than  once.  But  it  is 
time  to  mount  and  march.  We  must  take  our  lunch  with  us,  for 
we  will  find  no  khans  along  the  road  as  we  did  yesterday.  The 
tents  will  be  pitched  in  a  field  above  the  Natural  Bridge,  and  near 
the  canal  that  comes  from  Neb’a  el  Leben. 

Are  bears  and  wolves  still  found  in  these  mountains? 

Wolves  are  not  uncommon,  especially  in  the  wildest  and  least 
frequented  regions.  Bears,  however,  are  extremely  rare.  I  have 
never  seen  one  during  all  my  rambles,  though  others  of  my  ac¬ 
quaintances  have  on  these  very  mountains,  but  they  could  not  get 
near  enough  to  shoot  them. 

Many  years  ago  I  encamped  at  this  same  Neb’a  Sunnin,  one 
clear,  calm  evening  in  the  month  of  August.  After  dinner  my  com¬ 
panion,  but  recently  arrived  from  America,  resolved,  in  spite  of  my 
protestations  and  warnings,  to  climb  to  the  top  of  Sunnin  to  see 
the  moon  rise  over  Anti-Lebanon.  The  whole  western  side  of  this 
mountain  was  in  deep  shadow,  and  I  saw  my  friend  disappear  in 
the  darkness  with  considerable  solicitude.  Directing  one  of  the 
muleteers  to  follow  in  the  line  of  his  adventurous  ascent,  I  set 
about  collecting  thorn  bushes  and  brushwood  to  make  a  bonfire  at 
the  proper  time  to  guide  him  back  to  the  tent.  In  about  an  hour 
I  was  startled  by  the  sound  of  a  deep,  long-drawn  howl,  a  little 
north  of  the  ravine  by  which  my  friend  intended  to  gain  the  sum¬ 
mit.  That  was  soon  followed  by  another,  still  farther  north,  and 
that  again  by  a  third,  in  the  same  direction,  until  the  whole 
mountain-side  resounded  with  ominous  howls. 

The  muleteers  said  they  were  bears,  but  I  was  sufficiently  fa- 


2 16  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

miliar  with  the  howl  of  the  wolf  to  recognize  perfectly  what  they 
were.  Lighting  the  bonfire,  I  sent  one  of  the  men  to  go  as  far  as 
he  could  in  the  dark  and  fire  off  his  gun,  from  time  to  time,  as  a 
signal  to  my  companion  ;  his  courage  carried  him  but  a  short  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  camp,  and  soon  both  he  and  the  other  man  re¬ 
turned,  declaring  that  they  dared  not  remain  out  in  the  dark.  To 
make  the  story  short,  the  rash  adventurer  got  back  to  the  tent 
about  midnight,  but  thoroughly  tired  out.  Far  from  reaching  the 
summit,  he  had  been  drawn  into  the  centre  of  the  mountain,  along 
a  rough,  water-worn  channel,  until,  after  unavailing  efforts  to  get  on 
and  up,  he  found  himself  at  the  foot  of  a  perpendicular  cliff,  which 
could  not  be  scaled,  and  was  obliged  to  return. 

Is  the  ascent,  then,  so  impracticable? 

By  daylight  it  is  not ;  but  in  the  darkness  it  is  folly  to  attempt 
it ;  and  at  any  time  it  would  task  the  endurance  of  most  persons 
to  accomplish  the  ascent  and  return  in  the  afternoon.  I  made  my 
first  attempt  more  than  forty  years  ago.  Our  camp,  on  that  oc¬ 
casion,  was  near  the  southern  base  of  the  ridge,  and  it  took  two 
hours’  steady  riding  from  it  to  reach  the  first  snow.  There  we  left 
our  horses,  and  set  out  on  foot.  The  climb  was  fatiguing,  but  at 
the  end  of  an  hour  and  a  half  we  stood  upon  the  topmost  pinnacle 
of  the  mountain.  Many  have  been  the  vicissitudes  of  fortune, 
and  the  changes  which  civil  wars  and  revolutions  have  brou  ght 
upon  this  land  from  that  day  to  this,  and  yet  the  outlook  from 
the  summit  of  Sunnin,  eight  thousand  six  hundred  feet  above  the 
blue  Mediterranean,  remains  essentially  the  same. 

With  my  glass  I  could  discern  the  oak -clad  sides  of  Mount 
Tabor  in  the  south,  the  desert  of  Arabia  in  the  east,  and  the  faint 
outline  of  Cyprus,  a  hundred  miles  away,  over  the  sea,  westward ; 
and  to  the  north  the  Lebanon  range  extending  to  the  highest 
point  of  the  mountain  above  the  Cedars.  On  the  left  hand  Her- 
mon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  the  long  plain  of  Coelesyria,  with  the  ruins 
of  Ba’albek  and  the  meandering  Litany;  on  the  right,  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  the  rock-bound  coast,  the  villages  on  the  mountains,  and  the 
wide-spreading  plain,  while  the  city  of  Beirut  lay  gleaming  in  the 
sun  almost  at  our  very  feet.  And  what  shall  be  said  of  the  sea, 
stretching  from  north  to  south,  and  westward  to  the  sky? 


DESCENT  OF  LEBANON.— SIROCCO.— DRUSE  MULETEERS.  2\J 

The  descent  over  the  snow  to  where  we  had  left  our  horses  was 
accomplished  in  less  than  half  the  time  it  had  taken  to  reach  the 
summit.  There  our  cook  awaited  us  with  some  lemonade,  which 
he  had  prepared  by  boiling  the  snow,  and  then  cooling  the  water 
thus  obtained  with  pieces  of  frozen  snow,  cold  as  ice  could  have 
made  it.  The  lemonade  was  most  refreshing,  for  a  hot  sirocco 
wind  had  set  in,  and  we  were  almost  suffocated. 

Walking  on  the  snow,  and  surrounded  with  snow-banks,  it  is 
more  natural  to  suppose  that  you  suffered  from  the  cold,  instead 
of  being  oppressed  by  the  heat. 

The  sirocco  passes  over  high  mountains,  even  when  buried  in 
snow,  without  losing  its  peculiar  character;  apparently  absorbing 
no  moisture,  nor  having  its  temperature  essentially  lowered.  The 
thermometer  stood  at  iooc,  and  we  were  glad  to  avail  ourselves  of 
the  friendly  refuge  from  the  heat  afforded  by  “  the  shadow  of  a 
great  rock.”  There  we  remained  until  the  approach  of  evening 
admonished  us  to  seek  a  more  desirable  place  to  spend  the  night. 
Descending  round  the  south-east  shoulder  of  Sunnin,  we  followed 
a  path  made  by  the  mountaineers,  who  carry  frozen  snow  at  that 
season  to  the  villages  and  cities  below. 

For  miles  the  path  ran  along  the  very  edge  of  shelving  declivi¬ 
ties,  which  appeared  to  sink  far  away  to  the  level  of  the  Buka’a, 
and  our  muleteers  amused  themselves  and  us  by  rolling  large 
stones  down  the  mountain-side,  which,  with  giant  leaps  and  rum¬ 
bling,  crashing  roar,  went  thundering  to  the  bottom.  As  the  sha¬ 
dows  of  evening  lengthened,  and  the  moon  rose  over  the  dark  ram¬ 
parts  of  Anti-Lebanon,  those  sturdy  Druse  muleteers  unsheathed 
their  short,  broad  swords,  fired  off  their  guns,  joined  hands,  and, 
marching  on  before  us,  began  to  sing  their  familiar  war-song.  They 
sung  in  chorus,  some  of  them  an  octave  below,  some  an  octave 
above  the  rest,  and  at  times  one  would  lead  and  all  the  others 
respond  with  a  heartiness  that  made  the  welkin  ring,  while  their 
loud,  harsh  voices  echoed  from  cliff  to  cliff,  and  were  lost  in  the 
labyrinths  of  the  deep  ravines  below. 

At  length  their  warlike  demonstrations,  their  vocal  music,  and 
their  mimic  march  subsided  ;  a  dreamy  silence  came  over  us,  and 
thus  we  continued  the  descent,  hour  after  hour,  searching  for  wa- 


218 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


ter,  near  which  we  might  encamp  for  the  night,  but  not  a  drop 
was  to  be  found  in  that  apparently  endless  ravine.  Finally,  about 
midnight,  we  reached  a  village  on  the  edge  of  the  Buka’a,  called 
Shemustar,  where  we  were  able  to  obtain  water  for  ourselves,  our 
horses,  and  our  teapot ;  and  there  we  encamped,  and  slept  as  only 
weary  travellers  can  sleep  after  such  prolonged  fatigue. 

Our  present  position  is  near  the  border-line  between  the  district 
of  el  Metn  and  the  far  more  celebrated  one  of  el  Kesrawan,  which 
lies  north  of  this  profound  gorge  of  the  Dog  River.  And  now  I 
advise  you  to  dismount  and  walk,  as  any  one  either  merciful  to  his 
beast  or  careful  of  his  own  neck  will  do,  when  about  to  descend 
into  such  a  wady,  at  least  fifteen  hundred  feet  deep. 

This  succession  of  zigzags,  windings,  and  turnings,  down  broken 
rock-cut  steps  and  over  smooth  split-up  ledges,  is,  indeed,  inde¬ 
scribable,  but  I  have  no  longer  any  criterion  by  which  to  decide 
what  is  or  what  is  not  a  practicable  road  on  these  mountains. 

We  have,  in  fact,  taken  a  wrong  path,  which  has  led  to  a  mill 
at  the  bottom  of  this  fathomless  wady  of  Biskinta.  But  we  need 
not  regret  the  mistake,  as  it  has  given  you  an  opportunity  to  see 
what  these  horses,  mules,  and  mountain  donkeys  can  accomplish, 
even  when  they  are  heavily  loaded. 

I  have  been  watching  some  of  them  bringing  grain  to  the  mill. 
One  man  in  front  steadied  the  sagacious  beast  by  holding  hard 
against  its  head,  while  another,  with  the  tail  in  both  hands,  acted 
as  a  drag  behind,  and  thus  all  three  came  sliding  down  together. 
After  lunch  I  should  like  to  examine  the  primitive  machinery  of 
that  flour-mill  driven  by  this  noisy  mountain  stream. 

Let  us  now  enter  the  mill.  The  entire  machinery,  you  perceive, 
is  extremely  simple.  The  upper  millstone  is  of  light,  porous  lava, 
about  five  inches  thick,  and  four  feet  in  diameter,  driven  round, 
horizontally,  over  the  lower  stone,  by  a  water-wheel  turning  the 
same  way,  the  shaft  of  which  penetrates  the  centre  of  both  the 
millstones,  and  is  firmly  fitted  into  the  upper  one.  A  wedge-shaped 
box  is  suspended  above  a  hole  near  the  middle  of  the  upper  stone, 
and  from  it  the  wheat  descends,  in  a  dribbling  stream,  through  the 
hole  upon  the  lower  millstone.  The  flour  is  thrown  out  from  an 
aperture  on  the  side  of  a  narrow  rim  made  of  hard  mortar  around 


BAKING  BREAD  IN  THE  TANNUR. 


219 


the  lower  stone,  which  also  prevents  it  from  being  scattered  hither 
and  thither  in  the  process  of  grinding.  That  man  collects  the 
flour,  from  time  to  time,  with  a  bit  of  lath,  and  pushes  it  into  a 
sack  conveniently  suspended  for  its  reception.  There  is  no  machi¬ 
nery  for  bolting,  but  the  bran  is  separated  from  the  flour  by  a  sieve 
whenever  there  is  need  for  a  batch  of  bread.  Of  course  there  are 
much  larger  mills  than  this,  having  more  than  one  set  of  mill¬ 
stones,  driven  with  greater  water-power,  and  producing  far  larger 
results ;  but  the  method  followed  is  essentially  the  same  in  all 
these  mountain  mills,  as  well  as  in  those  upon  the  plain. 

Yusuf,  I  see,  has  purchased  a  large  quantity  of  that  wonderfully 
thin  and  tough  bread,  which  so  much  resembles  sheets  of  brown 
paper  cut  round.  Having  watched  the  process  of  grinding  flour,  I 
should  like  to  be  shown  how  bread  is  made  from  it. 

He  says  the  loaves  are  fresh  baked,  and  that  the  oven  is  close 
by.  I  hear  the  pat,  pat,  patting  of  the  women  around  the  tannur 
of  this  small  hamlet  connected  with  the  mill.  There  we  will  find 
a  merry  group  busy  in  achieving  a  baking. 

The  tannur,  as  you  see,  is  merely  a  hole  in  the  ground,  about 
three  feet  deep  and  two  feet  in  diameter,  lined  with  cement  and 
smoothly  polished.  It  is  filled  with  thorn  bushes,  dry  grass,  and 
weeds  when  it  is  to  be  heated,  or  with  any  kind  of  fuel  that  will 
make  a  sudden  and  fierce  blaze ;  and  the  heat  is  kept  up  by  throw¬ 
ing  in  a  fresh  supply,  as  occasion  requires.  Three  women  are  neces¬ 
sary  to  carry  on  the  operation  of  baking  to  advantage.  One  to  roll 
or  pat  out  the  dough  into  comparatively  thin  loaves ;  another  to 
manipulate  each  loaf,  tossing  it  from  hand  to  hand,  and  over  her 
arms,  so  as  to  expand  regularly  when  thrown  upon  a  round  cushion 
made  for  the  purpose ;  and  the  third  woman  to  clap  the  loaf  on  the 
cushion  upon  the  heated  interior  side  of  the  tannur,  and  tear  off 
the  one  which  is  sufficiently  baked.  A  shed  is  generally  built  over 
the  tannur,  or  it  is  excavated  in  the  floor  of  a  small  room,  open  in 
front,  by  which  it  is  made  easy  of  access,  and  sufficiently  protected 
from  the  rain  and  the  snow  during  the  winter. 

The  loaves  are  not  as  thick  as  ordinary  pasteboard,  and  are 
from  one  foot  to  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter.  The  bread  is  called 
markuk,  that  is,  “  rolled,”  or  made  thin ;  and  when  the  tannur  is 


220 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


quite  hot  two  loaves  can  be  thus  baked  “in  a  minute,”  and  it  is 
no  unusual  thing  to  see  a  pile  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  these  thin 
loaves  by  the  side  of  the  women  baking  at  the  tannur.  Fresh,  hot, 
and  crisp,  this  bread  is  excellent  eating,  but  in  two  or  three  days 
it  becomes  as  tough  and  as  hard  as  leather. 

It  is  evident  that  these  women  at  the  tannur  do  not  always  use 
leaven,  nor  do  they  wait  until  the  dough  has  had  time  to  rise. 

Not  when  they  are  in  haste;  neither  did  most  of  the  women 
mentioned  in  the  Bible.  Instead  of  that,  however,  they  mingle 
with  the  dough  a  large  amount  of  salt.  And  though  it  appears  to 
us  an  inferior  bread,  yet  it  is  the  very  staff  of  life  to  those  hale  and 
hearty  sons  of  the  mountains.  Their  morning,  noon,  and  evening 
meal  is  largely  made  on  bread,  and  often  there  is  very  little  else. 
The  peasant  whose  bins  are  stored  with  wheat  sufficient  for  the 
wants  of  his  family  during  the  winter  feels  but  little  concern  about 
other  sources  of  supply  until  the  coming  harvest. 

There  is  a  kind  of  oven  shaped  like  a  hollow  cone,  having  a  hole 
in  the  top,  into  which  is  cast  the  same  sort  of  fuel  as  that  used 
in  the  tannur.  The  ashes  are  swept  away  through  a  small  door  on 
one  side  when  the  smooth  pebbles  with  which  the  bottom  of  the 
oven  is  paved  are  thoroughly  heated,  and  the  bread  is  laid  upon 
them.  I  never  saw  that  kind  of  oven  used  except  by  some  pea¬ 
sants  on  the  plain  of  Acre.  Of  course  there  are  other  modes  of 
making  and  baking,  and  in  the  cities  the  public  ovens  can  bake 
bread  and  prepared  meats  in  large  quantities,  and  in  any  form 
desired  by  the  natives  or  foreigners.  The  making  and  baking  of 
bread  is  often  referred  to  in  the  Bible,  and  the  Hebrew  word  for 
oven  is  the  same  as  the  Arabic  “  tannur,”  and  probably  signifies 
substantially  the  same  thing. 

Such  ovens,  however,  would  not  be  convenient  for  a  nation  con¬ 
stantly  moving  from  place  to  place,  as  were  the  Hebrews  in  the 
Wilderness  of  the  Wanderings. 

They  had  portable  ovens,  and  possibly  made  use  of  the  saj, 
which  is  of  iron,  in  shape  like  a  large  bowl,  and  of  various  sizes. 
Placed  over  burning  embers,  like  a  cover  to  a  dish,  it  is  quickly 
heated,  and  the  dough  spread  on  the  upper,  or  convex,  side  is  soon 
baked.  The  saj  is  pre-eminently  the  oven  of  the  Bedawin,  though 


BAKING  UPON  THE  SAJ.— VULTURES  AND  EAGLES.  221 

they  also  bake  by  the  simplest  of  all  methods,  under  hot  embers, 
and  the  bread  thus  made  is  savory,  especially  to  the  tired  and  the 
hungry.  The  loaf  baked  upon  the  saj  is  thicker  than  markuk, 
and  laid  on  in  strips,  not  more  than  four  inches  broad  and  eight 
long.  I  have  eaten  that  bread  hot  from  the  saj  on  the  banks  of 
the  Jordan,  near  its  entrance  into  the  Dead  Sea,  and  found  it  quite 
palatable  under  the  circumstances. 

It  is  time  to  find  the  way  up  and  out  of  this  profound  Wady 
Biskinta,  and  resume  our  ride  to  the  Natural  Bridge. 

Passing  through  that  solitary  forest  above  the  flour- mill,  we 
have  disturbed  a  number  of  eagles;  what  has  attracted  them  to 
the  cliffs  in  this  tremendous  ravine? 

They  are  griffin  vultures,  and  the  explanation  of  their  presence 
is  found  in  the  proverb  quoted  by  our  Lord:  “Wheresoever  the 
carcass  is,  there  will  the  eagles  be  gathered  together.”1  In  his  pro¬ 
phetic  discourse  about  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  he  probably 
had  in  mind  the  vultures,  which  were  commonly  called  eagles,  just 
as  these  flying  above  our  heads  are,  by  the  natives  of  this  country. 
Whether  this  parable  be  interpreted  figuratively  to  signify  the 
eagle-headed  standards  of  the  Roman  legions,  or  literally  the  im¬ 
plied  doom  of  the  Holy  City,  was  terribly  significant.  Jerusalem 
was  then  rapidly  becoming  a  moral  carcass,  and  the  eagles  were 
already  on  the  wing,  and  erelong  they  did  gather  together  at  its 
awful  destruction.  Eagles  are  found  on  Lebanon  and  throughout 
this  country,  and  the  allusions  to  them  and  to  their  habits  in  the 
Bible  are  the  results  of  actual  observation,  and  exceedingly  accurate. 

We  take  no  note  of  time  as  we  ride  along  gazing  upon  scenery 
too  grand  for  description.  For  a  considerable  distance  we  have 
had,  on  our  left,  a  very  wilderness  of  great,  jagged  pinnacles,  hav¬ 
ing  a  strange  resemblance  to  fluted  columns  and  the  many-shaped 
turrets  of  Gothic  architecture. 

The  rock,  which  the  architects  of  Nature  have  fashioned  so  fan¬ 
tastically,  is  an  intensely  hard  limestone,  which,  when  struck,  gives 
out  a  clear,  metallic  ring  quite  unexpected.  There  is  a  far  more 
remarkable  wilderness  of  similar  rocks  on  the  other  side  of  the 
valley  of  the  northern  branch  of  Nahr  el  Kelb. 

1  Matt.  xxiv.  28. 


222 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


One  is  continually  meeting  with  surprises  on  these  gigantic 
mountains.  For  the  last  half-hour  I  have  noticed  with  astonish¬ 
ment  that  the  entire  surface  over  which  we  have  been  riding  is 
literally  covered  with  casts  of  various  kinds  of  shells. 

No  intelligent  traveller  can  wander  about  over  Lebanon  with¬ 
out  having  his  attention  frequently  attracted  to  such  countless 
fossils.  Those  most  abundant  in  this  neighborhood  are  varieties 
of  cardium,  venus,  area,  mactra,  trigona,  and  strombus.  They  are, 
however,  mere  casts,  the  shell  having  disappeared  entirely  from 
every  specimen.  There  are  localities  in  Lebanon  where  the  petri¬ 
fied  shell  remains  quite  perfect.  That  is  especially  true  in  regard 
to  large  deposits  of  ostrse,  exogyra,  ammonites,  echinus,  turritella, 
nerinea,  hippurites,  and  star- fish.  There  are,  also,  two  or  three 
localities  of  fossil  fish  :  one  near  the  convent  of  St.  George,  above 
the  bay  of  Juneh;  and  another  at  a  village  called  Hakil,  on  the 
mountains,  three  hours  north-east  of  Jebeil. 

What  is  most  astonishing  is,  not  the  existence  of  such  fossils, 
but  the  inconceivable  quantity  of  them.  It  is  no  exaggeration, 
but  the  simple  fact,  to  say  that  the  road  and  the  entire  face  of 
the  country,  in  many  places,  are  covered  with  them.  Dr.  Ander¬ 
son  gave  special  attention  to  the  fossils  of  Lebanon  ;  and  in  the 
appendix  to  the  official  report  of  the  United  States  Expedition  to 
the  Dead  Sea  will  be  found  a  very  interesting  description  of  the 
fossils  of  Syria,  illustrated  by  thirty-two  plates,  in  which  more  than 
two  hundred  and  fifty  specimens  have  been  accurately  delineated. 
Many  of  the  original  specimens  in  those  plates  once  belonged  to 
me,  and  I  recognize  in  them  the  familiar  features  of  old  friends. 

Instead  of  going  direct  to  the  tents,  we  have  been  riding  for 
nearly  an  hour  through  an  almost  pathless  wilderness  of  ragged 
rocks  and  across  stony  fields  to  visit  the  remains  of  two  ancient 
temples  near  the  ruins  of  that  old  tower  now  called  Kul’at  el 
Fukra,  the  castle  of  the  water-shed. 

One  is  surprised  and  astonished  to  find  such  remains  of  an¬ 
tiquity  in  a  bleak  mountain  solitude  like  this.  Where  were  the 
people  that  required  such  temples  for  their  worship? 

Farther  south  are  the  shapeless  remains  of  the  nameless  town, 
but  who  its  inhabitants  were  is  not  known  with  any  certainty. 


CASTS  OF  FOSSIL-SHELLS  ON  LEBANON, 


223 


■  ,  '  - 

. 


CASTS  OF  FOSSIL-SHELLS  COLLECTED  ON  LEBANON, 


224 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


This  massive  square  tower  stands  on  the  water-shed  of  this  re¬ 
gion,  and  commands  a  fine  view  southwards  down  Wady  es  Salib. 
It  was  built  of  large  stones,  without  mortar — some  of  them  six  feet 
long.  The  entrance  faced  the  east,  and  over  it  is  a  portion  of  a 
Greek  inscription,  nearly  illegible,  but  which  Dr.  Robinson  says 
contains  “  the  name  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius  Claudius.’'  There 
is  a  staircase,  ending  now  at  the  upper  story,  which  probably  led 
to  the  top  of  the  tower.  The  whole  structure,  with  its  interior 
chambers,  is  in  a  ruinous  condition.  It  may  have  been  a  sepulchral 
monument,  and  never  intended  for  purposes  of  defence. 

Let  us  walk  through  these  fields  of  Indian  corn  to  the  ruins  of 
the  principal  temple,  in  the  midst  of  that  labyrinth  of  rocks,  five 
minutes  south  of  the  tower. 

No  more  appropriate  site  could  have  been  chosen  for  a  fortress, 
but  a  temple  is  singularly  out  of  place  here.  The  entire  edifice 
must  have  presented  a  very  picturesque  appearance,  with  its  rock- 
hewn  court  and  portico  of  many  columns,  facing  eastwards  towards 
the  Lebanon  and  the  rising  sun. 

This  labyrinth  of  limestone  rocks  and  the  temple  in  the  midst 
are  graphically  described  by  Dr.  Robinson  : 

“  The  singularity  is,”  he  says,  “  that  the  strata  are  perpendicu¬ 
lar,  and  have  been  worn  away  by  time  and  weather,  so  as  to  pre¬ 
sent  various  forms  of  columns,  needles,  blocks,  and  ridges,  separated 
by  narrow  clefts,  chasms,  passages,  little  chambers,  and  recesses ; 
the  whole  rising  up  some  twenty  or  thirty  feet  or  more,  and  all 
exceedingly  wild  and  rugged.  On  the  eastern  side  the  rocks  were 
cut  away  for  a  space  large  enough  for  the  temple  and  a  portion 
of  its  court.  The  walls  of  rock  thus  formed  served,  towards  the 
front,  as  sides  of  the  court ;  but  the  remaining  part  of  the  court, 
farther  east,  was  built  out  with  walls  of  a  yellowish-colored  lime¬ 
stone,  with  an  entrance  in  front  by  a  portico  of  many  columns,  all 
of  the  same  kind  of  stone.  Indeed,  the  whole  front  of  the  court 
seems  to  have  been  highly  ornamented.  The  body  of  the  temple 
stood  farther  back,  amongst  the  rocks,  and  on  a  terrace  higher  than 
the  court.  It  was  built  of  the  same  yellowish  limestone.  The 
stones  are  large,  and  were  laid  up  with  cement.  The  noble  portico 
on  the  eastern  front  was  composed  of  either  four  or  six  large  col- 


not  less  than  one  hundred  feet  long  by  fifty  feet  broad.  But  so 
entire  is  the  prostration  and  confusion  that  accuracy  is  out  of  the 
question.”  1  A  statement  which  we  can  fully  confirm. 

In  the  field  east  of  the  temple  are  the  remains  of  a  plain  but 
massive  enclosure,  constructed  of  large  blocks  of  hewn  stone,  pro¬ 
bably  a  tomb.  Some  of  the  stones  are  over  twelve  feet  long  and 
three  feet  thick,  but  there  are  no  inscriptions  nor  any  architectural 
ornamentation  upon  them.  Traces  of  foundations  are  also  to  be 
seen  to  the  south  and  north,  and  a  few  rock-cut  tombs. 

A  short  distance  below  this  temple  the  road  from  the  plain  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Dog  River  passes  along  to  the  Natural  Bridge, 
and  we  shall  follow  it  to  our  tents. 

Looking  down  this  wady  and  over  the  mountains  between  us 

1  Rob.  Res.  vol.  iii.  pp.  612,  613. 


RUINED  TEMPLE  NEAR  KUL’AT  EL  FUKRA.  225 

umns  of  rose-colored  limestone  three  feet  nine  inches  in  diameter, 
with  Corinthian  capitals.  From  long  exposure  these  columns  now 
appear  blue  on  the  outside.  The  temple  we  judged  to  have  been 


RUINED  TEMPLE  NEAR  KUL’AT  EL  FUKRA. 


226 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


and  the  sea,  that  road  must  be  extremely  rugged  and  wild,  and 
in  many  places  remarkably  picturesque. 

It  is  only  by  penetrating  into  these  mountains  along  such  un¬ 
frequented  paths,  descending  into  profound  depths,  and  rising  to 
sublime  heights,  that  any  adequate  idea  of  what  Lebanon  really  is 
can  be  obtained.  Following  the  northern  bank  of  the  river  to  the 
weir,  the  path  winds  through  the  pines,  and  zigzags  up  the  pre¬ 
cipitous  side  of  that  rocky  chasm  of  the  Dog  River  for  half  an 
hour.  Reaching  the  summit  of  the  ridge,  the  ascent  is  gradual  but 
steady,  along  a  worn  and  stony  road,  for  about  two  hours  to  the 
village  of  ’Ajeltun.  In  many  places  the  view  to  the  north  and 
south,  and  over  the  sea  westward,  is  extensive  and  magnificent. 

For  miles  north-east  of  ’Ajeltun  the  scenery  is  very  peculiar  and 
striking.  The  path  passes  through  the  midst  of  a  region  of  lime¬ 
stone  rock  of  fantastic  shapes  and  sizes,  resembling  houses,  castles, 
fortresses,  temples,  columns,  buttresses,  and  towers,  round,  square, 
and  tapering  to  a  needle-point.  Some  of  those  natural  columns 
are  over  forty  feet  high,  and  are  surmounted  by  large,  flat  slabs  of 
rock,  looking,  at  a  distance,  like  gigantic  centre -tables.  Issuing 
from  that  labyrinth  near  the  village  of  Kulei’at,  the  road  descends 
steeply  for  an  hour  down  Wady  es  Salib  to  the  banks  of  the  north¬ 
ern  branch  of  the  Dog  River.  The  water  in  that  gorge  dries  up 
in  the  autumn,  for  the  stream  from  the  fountains  of  Nahr  el  Leben 
and  Nahr  el  ’Asal  is  entirely  absorbed  by  irrigation. 

The  valley  of  Nahr  es  Salib,  especially  the  bed  of  the  stream, 
is  a  wild  chaos  of  enormous  rocks  which  have  been  brought  down 
by  the  winter  floods,  or  have  fallen  from  the  cliffs  on  either  side  of 
the  wady.  Those  cliffs  rise  in  many  places  almost  perpendicularly 
for  twelve  and  fifteen  hundred  feet,  and  the  ascent,  where  it  is  pos¬ 
sible,  is  not  only  difficult  but  actually  dangerous.  The  distance 
from  ’Ajeltun  to  the  Natural  Bridge  is  about  four  and  a  half  hours 
to  an  unencumbered  rider,  but  it  took  our  party,  on  one  occasion, 
seven  hours,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  descending  and  ascending 
the  profound  gorge  of  Nahr  es  Salib.  An  easier  but  much  longer 
road  to  the  Natural  Bridge  leads  from  Kulei’at,  through  a  region  of 
fantastic,  castellated  rocks,  around  the  northern  side  of  the  gorge, 
and  by  the  village  of  Fureiya,  in  the  valley  below  Neb’a  el  ’Asal. 


CANAL  IRRIGATION.— SOWING  IN  AUTUMN— NEB’A  EL  LEBEN.  22 7 

From  where  does  this  canal,  along  which  we  have  been  riding, 
derive  its  abundant  supply  of  water,  and  of  what  special  service  is 
it  in  this  bleak  and  rocky  region  ? 

It  comes  from  Neb’a  el  Leben,  and  is  used  entirely  for  irriga¬ 
tion.  On  these  lofty  declivities  of  Lebanon,  which  we  are  now 
traversing,  the  peasants  sow  their  wheat  and  barley  in  August  and 
September,  that  the  seed  may  take  firm  root  before  the  fields  get 
buried  under  deep  snow,  which  often  begins  to  fall  in  October,  and 
remains  till  the  following  April.  As  there  rarely  is  sufficient  rain 
in  the  autumn  to  soften  the  soil,  that  early  sowing  can  only  be 
accomplished  by  flooding  the  ground  with  water  from  such  canals. 
When  sufficiently  saturated,  a  man,  with  the  wheat  in  a  basket, 
scatters  the  seed  over  the  surface,  while  another  starts  his  plough, 
drawn  by  the  leanest  of  lean  kine,  and  mixes  up  the  earth,  wheat, 
and  stones  in  a  very  miscellaneous  manner. 

The  only  result  one  would  expect  from  this  soil,  treated  in  that 
fashion,  would  be  an  abundant  harvest  of  stones. 

There  are  the  tents  pitched  on  the  south  side  of  the  canal,  and 
commanding  a  magnificent  view  down  Wady  el  Leben,  and  over  the 
mountains  far  away  northwards.  The  Natural  Bridge  is  not  five 
minutes  distant  from  the  tent  door. 

September  2d.  Evening. 

I  have  been  down  to  the  Natural  Bridge,  and  have  followed  the 
foaming,  dashing  stream  up  the  wild  chasm  to  its  source.  It  bursts 
out  amongst  the  rocks  under  the  cliffs  of  Jebel  Sunnin,  and  is  as 
clear  and  cold  as  ice.  Leben,  I  suppose,  suggests  to  the  Arab  mind 
the  purest  and  most  refreshing  beverage  with  which  the  delicious 
water  of  that  great  fountain  can  be  compared. 

Neb’a  el  Leben,  fountain  of  milk,  and  Neb’a  el  ’Asal,  fountain  of 
honey,  farther  north,  in  a  figurative  sense  abundantly  confirm  the 
Scripture,  and  emphatically  illustrate  the  promise  of  the  Lord  to 
the  Hebrews  concerning  this  country:  “  I  will  bring  you  up  out  of 
the  affliction  of  Egypt  unto  a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey” 
— “  a  land  of  fountains  that  spring  out  of  the  hills.”  1 

One  of  the  most  impressive  views  of  that  astonishing  bridge  is 
obtained  from  beneath  the  gigantic  span  of  the  rocky  arch.  From 

1  Exod.  iii.  17  ;  Deut.  viii.  7. 


228 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


JISR  EL  HAJR — THE  NATURAL  BRIDGE. 


there  the  wild  gorge  of  the  river  below  the  bridge,  and  that  of  the 
stream  from  Neb’a  el  ’Asal  on  the  north-east,  and  beyond  them  the 
cliffs  of  the  distant  mountains  of  the  Kesrawan,  are  seen  at  once, 
as  if  looking  through  the  chaotic  ruins  of  a  mountain  tunnel. 

I  have  visited  this  wild,  mountainous,  and  rocky  region  several 
times  during  the  past  forty  years,  and  with  ever-increasing  inter¬ 
est.  The  height  of  Jisr  el  Hajr,  or  the  stone  bridge,  measuring  on 
the  northern  side,  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  bed  of 


THE  NATURAL  BRIDGE.— EL  KESRAWAN.— THE  MARONITES.  229 

the  stream  ;  on  the  southern  side  it  is  about  half  that  height.  The 
span  is  over  a  hundred  and  sixty  feet,  and  the  curve  is  so  regular 
and  clean  cut  that  one  can  scarcely  believe  that  it  is  entirely  natu¬ 
ral.  The  thickness  of  the  rock  above  the  arch  is  thirty  feet ;  and 
the  breadth  on  top,  where  the  road  passes  over  it,  from  ninety  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  There  is  an  excavated  amphitheatre 
south  of  the  bridge,  about  three  hundred  feet  in  diameter,  and 
enclosed  by  a  perpendicular  wall  of  limestone  rock  about  one  hun¬ 
dred  feet  high.  In  those  cliffs,  and  in  the  sides  of  the  chasm, 
down  which  the  stream  from  Neb’a  el  Leben  rushes,  flocks  of  wild 
pigeons  and  hundreds  of  field-sparrows  have  built  their  nests,  and 
thither  they  gather  in  the  evening  in  merry  conclave. 

The  region  west  of  our  present  position,  extending  from  the 
Dog  River  on  the  south,  to  Nahr  Ibrahim,  the  classic  Adonis,  on 
the  north,  is  called  el  Kesrawan,  the  Holy  Land  of  the  Maronites. 
“There  the  wicked  [Druses]  cease  from  troubling;  and  there  the 
weary  [Maronites]  be  at  rest.”  Though  the  Maronites  are  met 
with  in  all  parts  of  Syria,  no  Druses  are  seen  in  the  Kesrawan,  and 
none  are  allowed  to  reside  there.  From  the  time  of  Neibuhr  and 
Volney,  at  the  least,  travellers  have  been  made  familiar  with  the 
Kesrawan,  its  villages,  churches,  convents,  monks,  nuns,  priests,  bish¬ 
ops,  and  patriarchs.  All  these  proclaim  aloud  the  piety  and  zeal  of 
the  clergy,  and,  alas !  the  ignorance  and  superstition  of  the  people. 

The  Maronites  are  of  Syriac  origin,  and  the  earliest  notice  of 
them  is  as  schismatic  heretics  of  the  Monothelitic  sect,  settled 
along  the  head-waters  of  the  Orontes,  in  the  fifth  century.  They 
derive  their  name  from  John  Maro,  their  first  bishop  and  patron 
saint,  who  was  killed  by  Justinian.  During  the  fierce  persecutions 
directed  against  them  by  the  Emperors  of  Constantinople  they  re¬ 
tired  to  the  inaccessible  heights  of  Lebanon,  and  there  set  at  defi¬ 
ance  all  the  wiles  and  assaults  of  their  enemies.  When  the  Crusa¬ 
ders  invaded  this  country  they  united  with  them  against  the  Sara¬ 
cens,  and  in  the  twelfth  century  they  renounced  their  heretical 
dogma  of  the  divine  and  human  nature  of  Christ  having  but  one 
will,  and  became  reconciled  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

It  was  during  their  long  rehellion  against  the  Catholic  faith  that 
they  were  generally  called  Mardaites,  from  a  word  which  signifies 

Q 


230 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


rebels.  Though  they  have  become  bigoted  Papists,  Syriac  is  even 
yet  their  sacred  language ;  and  their  ecclesiastics  are  required  to 
read  parts  of  their  liturgy  in  that  language.  They  are  eminently 
religious,  and  singularly  intolerant  and  superstitious.  Every  ham¬ 
let  has  its  church,  and  many  a  conspicuous  mountain  summit  is 
crowned  with  a  convent  for  monks  or  nuns,  or  for  both  ;  and  it  is 
said  that  at  least  one-third  of  the  land  in  the  Kesrawan  belongs 
to  the  convents  and  other  ecclesiastical  institutions. 

Their  parish  priests  are  generally  selected  by  the  people  from 
amongst  themselves,  and  may  be  married  before  being  ordained. 
If  the  wife  of  the  priest  dies  he  cannot  marry  a  second,  and  must 
remain  a  widower  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  Like  the  priests,  the 
bishops  are  all  natives  of  the  country,  and  they  elect  the  patriarch, 
who  is  confirmed  by  the  Pope.  The  Maronite  Patriarch  is,  in  fact, 
the  Pope  of  Lebanon.  He  is  the  spiritual  head  of  the  sect,  and 
exercises  great  authority  over  its  temporal  affairs.  Plis  office  is 
one  of  dignity  and  power;  and  he  usually  resides,  in  ecclesiastical 
state,  at  the  celebrated  convent  of  Kanobin,  in  the  wild  gorge  of 
the  sacred  river  el  Kadisha,  below  the  Cedars. 

The  Maronites,  the  most  numerous  body  of  Christians  in  el 
Kesrawan,  amount  to  over  one  hundred  thousand.  The  people  are 
tillers  of  the  soil,  cultivators  of  silk,  and  manufacturers  and  traders 
in  a  small  way;  but  generally  all  are  very  poor  and  extremely  igno¬ 
rant.  Education  is  not  encouraged,  and  liberty  of  conscience  is 
unknown.  Two  or  three  colleges,  so  called,  testify  to  the  value 
the  Pope,  the  Jesuits,  and  the  Maronites  place  upon  the  education 
of  candidates  for  the  Roman  Church.  The  college  at  Ghuzir  and 

A 

that  at  ’Antura  are  in  the  hands  of  the  Lazarists  and  Jesuits.  The 
most  celebrated,  however,  is  that  of  the  Maronites  at  ’Ain  Warkah. 
But  the  entire  hierarchy  is  an  omnipresent  and  stifling  religious 
incubus;  and  all  classes  and  conditions  of  the  people  are  devoted 
to  the  worship  of  saints,  and  especially  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

Have  the  Maronites  on  Lebanon  no  feudal  families  of  sheikhs 
and  emirs,  like  those  of  the  Druses  ? 

The  chiefs  of  the  Mardaites,  or  rebels,  have  dwindled  down  to 
but  three  families  of  sheikhs — those  of  Beit  el  Khazin,  in  the  Kes¬ 
rawan  ;  of  Beit  Habeish,  farther  north ;  and  of  Beit  ed  Dahdah, 


FEUDAL  FAMILIES.— MONASTERY  BELLS. 


23I 


north  of  them.  Their  chronicles  are  largely  made  up  of  domestic 
quarrels,  intrigues,  horrible  assassinations,  and  petty  wars,  and  they 
carry  up  their  genealogy  to  a  fabulous  date ;  but  the  earliest  notice 
of  those  sheikhs  goes  back  no  farther  than  the  sixteenth  century. 
They  have  now  greatly  declined  in  wealth  and  importance ;  and, 
like  the  emirs  of  Beit  Shehab  and  el  Lema,  they  are  surely  and 
rapidly  subsiding  into  the  category  of  ordinary  fellahin.  Such 
feudal  families  are  a  curse  to  any  people,  and  the  sooner  they  are 
absorbed  into  the  far  greater  family  of  the  human  race  the  better; 
and  yet  the  Maronites  glory  in  their  sheikhs,  their  record,  and 
their  mountain  retreat  of  el  Kesrawan. 

I  can  readily  believe  that  these  rude  and  hardy  mountaineers, 
residing  in  such  romantic  wilds  and  almost  isolated  from  the  world, 
have  become  intensely  attached  to  their  secluded  valleys  and  ra¬ 
vines,  their  towering  cliffs  and  rugged  mountains,  and  to  the  primi¬ 
tive  simplicity  of  their  native  villages  and  unpretentious  homes. 

That  is  certainly  the  case.  They  are  a  romantic  and  pictu¬ 
resque  people ;  and  their  religion  also,  such  as  it  is,  appears  to  be 
omnipresent.  One  is  never  out  of  the  sight  of  a  priest,  a  nun,  a 
monk,  or  a  bishop  ;  and  if  not  those,  then  a  cross,  a  church,  or  a 
convent.  Morning,  noon,  and  at  evening  the  mountains  and  val¬ 
leys  resound  with  the  ringing  of  many-toned  bells,  and  the  effect 
is  most  impressive  and  suggestive.  During  the  solemn  silence  of 
the  night  the  monastery  bell  rings  out  its  mighty  peal  on  the 
ambient  air;  and  immediately,  to  the  right  and  to  the  left,  from 
some  lofty  peak  or  profound  ravine,  others  chime  in  with  their  me¬ 
lodious  responses,  which  echo  and  re-echo  along  the  mountain-sides, 
and  far  up  the  snowy  summits  of  Lebanon  ;  and  then  the  deep, 
rich  tones  cease,  and  the  chorus  dies  away,  and  all  is  still  again. 


232 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


VII. 

THE  NATURAL  BRIDGE  TO  THE  CEDARS. 

Bird’s-eye  View  of  the  Kesrawan. — Picturesque  Hamlets  and  Flourishing  Villages. — Con¬ 
vents  Isolated  in  Winter. — Nahr  es  Salib. — Flooded  Fields  and  Ploughed-up  Roads. — 
Cascade. — Neb’a  el  ’Asal. — Wady  Shebruh. — Volcanic  Action  and  Fields  of  Trap- 
rock. — Energy  and  Industry  of  the  People. — Products  of  the  Soil. — Lebanon  Wine. — 
Zuk  Musbah. — ’Arak. — Sacramental  Wine  used  by  Papists  and  Greeks. — The  Juice 
of  the  Grape. — The  Wine  Used  at  the  Last  Supper  and  the  Feasts  of  the  Jews. — 
“  Unfermented  Wine.” — Wine,  Ancient  and  Modern. — The  Wine  of  the  Bible. — The 
Hebrew  Debash  and  Arabic  Dibs. — Winter  on  Lebanon. — Monotonous  Life  of  the 
Natives. — Mountain  Houses. — Miscellaneous  Company. — Animals,  Smoke,  and  Fleas. 
—  Smoking  and  Sleeping. — The  Return  of  Spring. — Biblical  Allusions  to  Manners 
and  Customs. — Ancient  and  Modern  Habitations. — Reminiscences  of  a  Former  Tour. 
— Lost  in  a  Fog. — Magnificent  Prospect. — The  Lebanon  Range. — Descent  to  ’Afka. 
— Walnut  and  Sycamore  Trees. — Venus  and  Adonis. —  Goats  in  the  Clefts  of  the 
Rock. — A  Tremendous  Cliff. —  Scene  from  the  Bridge. —  Mugharat  ’Afka. —  Source 
of  the  Adonis. — Three  Cascades. — Temple  of  Venus. — Syenite  Columns. — The  Wor¬ 
ship  of  Adonis. — Destruction  of  the  Temple  by  Constantine. — Retrospective. — The 
Damsels  of  Phoenicia. — “Women  Weeping  for  Tammuz.” — The  Poetry  of  Milton, 
and  the  Vision  of  Ezekiel. — “Smooth  Adonis  ran  purple  to  the  Sea.” — Ancient  and 
Modern  ’Afka. — Metawileh. — The  Valley  of  Nahr  Ibrahim. — Bridge. — Emir  Ibrahim. 
— Mar  Maron. — Burj  Fatrah. — Ancient  Aqueduct. — Plateau. — Wady  el  Muneitirah. — 
Wady  el  Mugheiyireh. — Eagles  and  Ravens. — Natural  Bridge. — Grotto  at  el  ’Aukurah. 
— Wine-vats. —  El  ’Aukurah. — Trap -rock.  —  Burckhardt. —  Native  Hospitality. — The 
Avenger  of  Blood. — Lofty  Plateau. — Arab  Encampment. — Transportation  of  Sheep 
to  Egypt. — Pasture-lands  of  the  Kurds. — Funnel-shaped  Pits. — Jebel  Jaj. — El  Mesh- 
nakah. — Burr  el  Haithy. — “  Timber  of  Cedar.” — Wady  Fedar. — M.  Renan’s  De¬ 
scription  of  the  Ruins  at  el  Meshnakah.  —  Rock -cut  Tombs. — “Baal  a  la  tete 
Rayonee.” — Figures  Carved  in  the  Rock  at  el  Ghineh. — “The  Image  of  Venus.” — 
Ard  ’Akluk. —  Hid  Treasure. —  Inscriptions  on  the  Rocks. —  Dr.  De  Forest.  —  M. 
Renan. — The  Emperor  Adrian. — Tannurin  el  Foka. — Fog  in  Autumn. — Fossil  Fish. 
— Hakil. — Duma. — Iron  Ore. — Wady  Tannurin. — Ard  Tannurin. — Wady  eel  Duweir. 
— Wady  el  Jauzeh. — Jebel  en  Nuriyeh. — Theoprosopon. — Nahr  el  Jauzeh. — Kul’at  el 
Museilihah. — Black-mail. — Cedar-grove. — The  Emir  Beshir  and  the  British  Fleet. — 
Manufacture  of  Pitch. — Trees  Cut  Down  will  often  Sprout  Again. — Ruins  of  a  Con¬ 
vent. — Amyun. — El  Kurah. — El  Hadith. — Wady  el  Kadisha. — The  Holy  River. — Deir 


BIRD’S-EYE  VIEW  OF  THE  KESRAWAN. 


233 

Kanobm. — Maundrell’s  Visit  to  Kanobm. — As’ad  esh  Shidiak. — Hasrun. — Convers¬ 
ing  Across  the  Chasm. — Exceptional  Cultivation. — Gorge  of  the  Kadisha  Described 
by  Dr.  Robinson. — “The  Beauty  and  the  Grandeur  of  Lebanon.” — Bsherreh. — 
Bridge  over  the  Holy  River. — Productiveness  of  the  Soil. — The  Cedars  of  God. — 
A  Sabbath  of  Rest  among  the  Cedars  of  Lebanon. — The  Cedar  pre-eminently  the 
Biblical  Tree. — El  Arz. — Biblical  Allusions  to  the  Cedar. — Cedar  Wood. — The  Palaces 
of  David  and  Solomon  and  the  Temple  of  the  Lord. — The  Temples  of  Zerubbabel 
and  Herod  and  the  Graven  Images  of  a  God. — Fragments  of  Cedar  among  the  Ruins 
of  Nineveh. — Cedar  not  Mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. — Juniper. — Pine. — The 
Thistle  and  the  Cedars  of  Lebanon. — The  Destruction  of  the  Ancient  and  Modern 
Cedar. — Sunday-school  under  the  Cedars. — The  Cedar-tree  of  the  Bible. — The  Lo¬ 
cality  of  the  Cedars  Described  by  Dr.  Robinson. — Dean  Stanley. — Canon  Tristram. — 
Glacial  Moraines. — The  present  Cedar-grove. — Age  of  the  Cedars. — The  Glory  of 
Lebanon. — Four  Cedar -trees  Intertwined  and  Growing  together.  —  Dean  Stanley’s 
Description  of  Old  and  Young  Trees  supporting  one  another. — Graceful  Form  and 
Shape  of  the  Cedar. — Vain  Effort  to  Protect  the  Young  Cedars. — Lebanon  could  be 
Covered  with  Cedars.  —  Cedars  in  the  Parks  and  Gardens  of  Europe.  —  “Full  of 
Sap.” — The  Cedar  not  Used,  for  Building  Purposes. — Feast  of  the  Cedars. — Modern 
Chapel. — Decline  of  Religious  Zeal. 

September  5th. 

EARLY  this  morning  I  again  walked  up  to  the  source  of  Nahr 
el  Leben,  and  watched  the  great  volume  of  water  glide  forth  noise¬ 
lessly  from  the  base  of  the  cliffs  of  majestic  Sunnin  towering  far 
above  it.  Though  the  stream  was  soon  lost  to  sight  amongst  the 
rocks  below,  I  could  hear  the  roar  of  its  waters  as  they  rushed 
foaming  down  the  many  cascades  towards  the  Natural  Bridge. 
From  the  lofty  heights  above  the  fountain  I  obtained  a  bird’s-eye 
view  of  the  Kesrawan,  down  to  the  sea-shore,  over  the  summits  of 
those  lower  ranges  of  Lebanon  which  appear  so  precipitous  and 
rugged  from  Beirut.  That  city  itself  and  the  Bay  of  St.  George 
were  distinctly  visible  far  away  to  the  south-west. 

It  seems  scarcely  credible  that  a  region  so  limited  in  extent, 
and  so  broken  up  with  bleak  and  barren  mountains,  should  never¬ 
theless  be  studded  with  picturesque  hamlets  and  flourishing  vil¬ 
lages.  They  crown  many  a  lofty  ridge,  and  cling  to  rocky  ledges 
and  sloping  hill-sides  that  seem  to  be  quite  unapproachable.  Some 
of  the  convents,  built  upon  isolated  pinnacles,  are  in  fact  cut  off 
for  days  and  even  weeks  from  all  communication  with  the  outer 
world  by  the  snows  of  winter;  while  others,  hid  away  in  deep  ra¬ 
vines,  are  sometimes  nearly  overwhelmed  by  sliding  avalanches. 


234 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Where  are  we  to  encamp  this  evening  ? 

At  ’Afka,  near  the  fountain  of  Nahr  Ibrahim,  the  source  of  the 
river  Adonis ;  and  it  is  time  we  were  in  the  saddle.  After  crossing 
the  Natural  Bridge,  we  will  ride  over  the  intervening  plateau  and 
descend  to  Neb’a  el  ’Asal,  the  fountain  of  honey,  from  whence 
issues  the  twin  stream  which  unites  with  that  from  Neb’a  el  Leben, 
and  together  form  Nahr  es  Salib,  the  northern  branch  of  the  Dog 
River.  It  is  a  short  half  hour’s  ride  to  the  north-east ;  and,  as  is 
usual  at  this  season,  I  see  that  the  farmers  have  flooded  the  fields, 
to  prepare  them  for  sowing  their  winter  wheat.  We  must  pick 
our  way  through  the  spongy  soil  as  best  we  can,  with  no  little 
discomfort  to  the  horses  and  their  riders. 

They  have  actually  ploughed  up  the  road  through  the  fields, 
leaving  not  a  trace  of  it  to  guide  us  on  our  way. 

That  is  the  custom  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  and  I  have 
often  been  misled  and  perplexed  by  it.  But  the  difficulty  is  now 
over,  and  we  will  soon  reach  the  fountain.  The  stream  from 
Neb’a  el  Leben,  just  before  it  unites  with  the  waters  from  Neb’a 
el  ’Asal,  plunges  over  that  high  ledge  of  rocks  west  of  us  into  the 
ravine  below  in  one  unbroken  cascade. 

The  scenery  around  this  Neb’a  el  ’Asal  is  desolate  and  dreary, 
and  there  is  nothing  so  grand  and  picturesque  in  its  immediate 
neighborhood  as  at  the  Natural  Bridge — only  a  volume  of  water 
gliding  forth  between  a  chaotic  mass  of  volcanic  rocks  and  flowing 
in  various  directions  over  newly-ploughed  fields. 

The  quantity  of  water  is  much  greater  during  the  rainy  sea¬ 
son,  but  it  is  always  clear  and  cold.  The  natives  pronounce  it 
the  best  in  these  mountains.  We  will  not  only  make  a  practical 
test  of  its  virtues,  here  at  the  fountain-head,  but  also  fill  our 
“  bottles  ”  with  it,  for  there  is  no  other  spring  betwen  this  and 
’Afka  of  equal  excellence.  The  road  from  this  place  will  lead  us 
northward  for  several  miles  up  Wady  Shebruh,  a  long  valley  hav¬ 
ing  the  main  Lebanon  range  towering  upwards  on  the  east,  and 
a  parallel  lower  ridge  bounding  it  on  the  west. 

The  greater  part  of  this  region,  around  the  head-waters  of  the 
Dog  River,  appears  to  have  been  thrown  up  into  its  wild,  rugged, 
and  “dislocated”  condition  by  volcanic  action.  The  soil  of  the 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE  SOIL.— THE  WINE  OF  LEBANON. 


fields  on  both  sides  of  the  road  is  of  a  very  dark  color,  and  seems 
to  be  composed  altogether  of  disintegrated  trap-rock. 

It  appears  in  many  places  in  amorphous  masses  several  hun¬ 
dred  feet  thick  ;  but  the  land  is  extremely  fertile,  and  produces 
exuberant  crops  of  wheat  and  barley.  Although  the  entire  region 
northward  to  the  Cedars  is  exceedingly  mountainous,  rocky,  and 
rugged,  and  cut  up  by  profound  chasms  and  deep  valleys,  yet 
every  available  spot  where  a  few  handfuls  of  earth  can  be  scraped 
together  is  carefully  cultivated  and  thoroughly  irrigated.  The 
labor  required  to  level  down  the  fields,  to  build  up  and  repair  the 
terrace  walls,  and  to  keep  open  the  small  canals  for  irrigation,  re¬ 
quires  a  degree  of  energy  and  industry  amongst  the  people  which 
is  amply  rewarded  by  abundant  harvests.  Wheat  and  barley,  In- 
dian-corn  and  all  the  principal  cereals  raised  in  this  country  are 
grown  in  the  higher  regions,  and  cover  the  hill-sides  and  climb  the 
mountain  heights.  The  mulberry,  the  vine,  the  fig  and  the  olive, 
the  walnut,  the  apple  and  the  pomegranate,  and  many  other  fruit- 
trees  nestle  in  the  green  valleys,  giving  beauty  and  variety  to 
scenery  itself  unsurpassed  by  any  on  the  Lebanon. 

I  have  heard  it  stated  that  most  of  the  wine  of  Lebanon  is 
produced  in  the  Kesrawan.  Is  much  of  it  made  there  at  present? 

The  quantity  is  quite  limited,  although  the  quality  is  said  to 
be  good  by  judges  of  such  matters.  The  best  is  made  at  Zuk 
Musbah ;  and  the  light  wines  obtained  from  some  convents  are 
especially  celebrated.  A  few  of  those  “  self-denying  institutions” 
are  provided  with  the  “still  and  worm”  for  the  distillation  of  ’arak 
from  the  fruit  of  the  vine,  a  favorite  stimulant  throughout  the 
land,  and  some  of  the  inmates  are  said  to  be  too  fond  of  that 
fiery  kind  of  “wine-spirit”  for  their  own  good. 

Do  the  priests  or  the  monks  use  any  substitute  for  wine  in  their 
religious  ceremonies  during  the  observance  of  the  Lord’s  Supper  ? 

There  is  not  even  a  tradition  in  the  Papal  or  Greek  Church  to 
countenance  such  a  practice  ;  on  the  contrary,  both  affirm  that 
sacramental  wine  must  be  genuine  wine. 

Certain  modern  critics  maintain  that  “the  good  wine”  drank  at 
the  wedding  in  Cana  of  Galilee,  and  the  “fruit  of  the  vine”  used 
and  alluded  to  by  our  Lord  at  the  institution  of  the  holy  supper, 


236 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


was  the  pure  juice  of  the  grape.1  Has  any  such  beverage  been 
known  in  ancient  or  modern  times  in  this  country  ? 

The  juice  of  either  ripe  or  unripe  grapes  is  now  occasionally 
used  as  a  refreshing  beverage,  similar  to  lemonade,  especially  on 
the  mountains  or  in  places  where  lemons  are  unobtainable.  It 
is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  such  a  beverage  was  both  known 
and  used  in  this  land  from  time  immemorial.  From  the  context 
it  is  evident  that  “the  good  wine”  of  the  miracle  at  Cana  was  of 
an  intoxicating  nature  ;  and  there  is  no  proof  that  the  “  fruit  of 
the  vine”  used  at  the  Last  Supper  was  not  real  wine.  It  is  worthy 
of  remark  in  this  connection  that  the  Jews  give  the  same  name  to 
the  wine  which  they  use  during  the  observance  of  the  Passover, 
and  that  their  invariable  custom  has  been,  and  is  now,  to  use  such 
wine  at  their  feasts.  Christ  says  of  himself,  “  The  Son  of  Man  is 
come  eating  and  drinking ;  and  ye  [the  Pharisees]  say,  Behold  a 
gluttonous  man,  and  a  winebibber;”  if  Jesus  drank  wine  on  ordi¬ 
nary  occasions,  he  would  conform  to  the  undeviating  custom  of 
the  Jews  and  drink  wine  at  the  Passover.2  It  is  well  to  remember 
that  there  is  no  mention  either  in  the  Old  or  New  Testament  of 
“the  juice  of  the  grape”  having  been  used  as  a  substitute  for 
wine,  or  even  as  a  refreshing  beverage. 

This  matter  of  wine — especially  “unfermented  wine” — has  been 
frequently  and  earnestly  discussed  by  those  living  in  countries 
where  it  does  not  exist  as  a  beverage  ;  is  there  now,  or  has  there 
ever  been,  any  substance  to  which  such  a  qualifying  designation 
can  be  applied  in  this  country  ? 

Wine  is  the  fermented  juice  of  the  grape;  and,  so  far  as  its 
essential  elements  are  concerned,  is  substantially  the  same  in  all 
countries.  Its  color,  taste,  aroma,  and  intoxicating  properties  de¬ 
pend  upon  the  quality  of  the  grape  and  the  method  of  its  manu¬ 
facture.  The  juice  of  the  grape,  in  the  process  of  wine-making, 
always  has,  and  always  will,  pass  through  fermentation  into  the 
alcoholic  state  ;  it  then  becomes  wine.  No  other  kind  of  wine  is 
known  in  Syria,  and,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  it  never  had  any 
actual  existence.  There  is  no  evidence  that  there  has  occurred  anv 
important  variation  in  the  manufacture,  the  use,  or  the  effects  of 

2  Luke  vii.  34. 


1  John  ii.  10  ;  Matt.  xxvi.  29. 


THE  WINE  OF  THE  BIBLE.— WINTER  ON  LEBANON. 


wine  from  remote  antiquity,  and  it  is  idle  to  build  theories  in  regard 
to  the  existence  or  the  use  of  “  the  unfermented  juice  of  the 
grape  ”  upon  mere  suppositions  which  have  no  basis  in  fact. 

The  common  name  for  wine  in  the  Bible,  in  Greek,  Latin,  and 
English,  is  almost  identical  in  sound,  and  equally  comprehensive  in 
signification.  In  Arabic  the  specific  name,  “  khamr,”  expresses  its 
nature,  because  it  is  fermented  ;  and  the  Hebrew  word,  when  not 
qualified  by  some  explanatory  term,  has  just  the  same  meaning. 
No  doubt  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  words,  translated  “wine”  in  some 
parts  of  the  Bible,  were  applied  to  various  preparations  of  wine 
mixed  with  other  beverages;  there  was  also  “spiced  wine,”  “sweet 
wine,”  and  “new  wine,”  but  the  principal  ingredient  was  wine — not 
unfermented  grape- juice,  not  syrup,  not  honey;  and  the  effects 
actually  produced,  and  intended  to  be  produced,  were  essentially 
the  same  as  they  are  in  modern  times. 

Is  the  Hebrew  “debash,”  rendered  “honey,”  the  Arabic  dibs? 

It  is  a  comprehensive  term,  and  was  used  for  both  honey  of 
bees  and  honey  of  grapes,  and  in  the  latter  sense  is  equivalent  to 
dibs.  The  best  dibs  is  now  made  at  Bhamdun,  by  boiling  down 
the  juice  of  ripe  grapes  one-half  or  two-thirds  to  the  consistency  of 
syrup.  A  small  quantity  of  clay  is  mixed  with  it  to  clarify  it,  after 
which  it  is  beaten  until  it  becomes  quite  thick.  It  is  of  a  golden 
color,  and  will  remain  sweet  for  a  long  time.  Dibs  is  stored  in 
jars  or  skins  for  winter  use,  and  is  generally  eaten  on  or  with 
bread,  but  it  is  not  used  and  never  regarded  as  a  beverage. 

How  do  these  Maronite  mountaineers  pass  the  time  during  the 
winter,  cut  off  as  they  are  from  the  outer  world  by  the  snow  ? 

The  difference  between  winter  and  summer,  in  these  higher 
regions  of  Lebanon,  is  almost  inconceivable  to  any  one  who  has 
not  had  personal  experience  of  it.  Now  the  country  is  everywhere 
alive  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  villages,  and  many  of  them  are 
almost  deserted.  Even  the  women  and  children  are  abroad  in  the 
fields  and  vineyards,  and  their  voices  are  both  merry  and  musical. 
But  two  or  three  months  hence  you  will  not  meet  a  living  creature 
on  these  mountain-roads.  The  flocks  will  all  have  been  taken  from 
their  temporary  folds  on  the  mountain-sides,  and  either  sent  down 
to  the  plains  below  or  housed  with  their  shepherds  in  the  hamlets 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


238 

and  villages.  The  very  birds — the  crow  and  the  raven,  the  eagle 
and  vulture — will  have  flown  to  a  milder  climate. 

Owing  to  the  winter  rains  the  roads  and  paths  will  then  be 
nearly  obliterated,  or  become  the  channels  of  roaring  torrents ; 
mud  and  slush  and  snow  will  be  encountered  on  every  side  ;  while 
chilling  winds  blow  through  the  wadys,  and  freezing  blasts  rage 
around  the  ice-clad  crags;  and  woe  to  the  luckless  wayfarer  whom 
accident  or  necessity  compels  to  be  abroad.  The  natives  who 
have  not  or  cannot  emigrate  to  the  cities  on  the  sea-shore  pass 
the  time  as  best  they  can  in  the  villages,  taking  care  of  the  stock, 
keeping  up  the  smoky  fires,  and  dropping  in  now  and  then  upon 
their  neighbors  to  while  away  the  dreary  hours  with  such  con¬ 
verse  as  their  circumstances  suggest.  Their  low  habitations  are  but 
poorly  lighted  and  ventilated  even  in  summer.  In  winter  every 
crevice  is  closed,  and  what  small  windows  there  may  be  are  plas¬ 
tered  up  tight,  so  that  neither  air  nor  light  can  penetrate  except 
through  the-  door  into  the  one  large  room  which  constitutes  the 
whole  house.  Within  that  one  room  are  gathered  men,  women, 
and  children,  unto  the  second  and  third  generation  ;  dogs  and 
donkeys,  cows  and  sheep,  goats  and  chickens — in  short,  everything 
living  and  moving  in  and  about  the  place. 

To  us  such  a  life  would  be  dismal  in  the  extreme. 

I  have  sometimes  spent  the  night  in  the  midst  of  such  a  mis¬ 
cellaneous  company,  and  occasionally  with  the  addition  of  camels, 
horses,  and  mules,  the  latter  a  very  disturbing  element.  It  does 
well  enough  as  an  interesting  experiment,  but  a  night  at  a  time 
is  quite  sufficient  to  test  one’s  powers  of  endurance.  Two  un¬ 
avoidable  evils  are  intimately  associated  with  those  winter  gath¬ 
erings  around  the  social  hearth,  and  both  are  intolerable  —  the 
pungent  smoke,  which  has  no  way  of  escape,  and  the  fleas,  which 
have  no  desire  to  do  so.  In  such  dismal  abodes  there  is  no  light 
to  read  by,  no  book  to  read,  and  but  little  useful  occupation  either 
for  old  or  young.  The  grand  resource  is  smoking  and  sleeping. 
Of  tobacco  there  seems  to  be  an  inexhaustible  supply,  and  the 
sleeper  is  rarely  exhorted  to  consider  the  ways  of  the  ant  and  be 
wise.  Thus  these  people  hibernate,  like  bears  in  their  dens,  until 
the  winter  storms  blow  over  and  the  mild  breath  of  returning 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  HOUSES.— REMINISCENCES. 


239 


spring  gradually  melts  the  snow  from  their  neighborhood.  Then 
they  come  forth  and  shake  themselves,  and  prepare  to  follow  their 
usual  avocations,  under  a  clear  sky  and  a  warm  sun.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  this  description  specially  applies  to  the  life 
of  the  unsophisticated  mountaineers,  which  is  essentially  the  same 
throughout  the  elevated  regions  of  Syria  and  Palestine. 

Was  it  always  thus  in  this  land  ? 

The  manners  and  customs  of  the  peasants  and  farmers  appear 
to  have  changed  but  little  from  very  ancient  times.  The  allusions 
to  such  matters  in  the  Bible  are  few  and  incidental ;  but  we  may 
infer  from  them,  and  from  other  circumstances,  that  the  ordinary 
habitations  of  the  villagers,  even  at  the  beginning  of  our  era,  were 
no  better  than  they  are  now,  and  the  stall  of  the  ox  and  the 
manger  were  then,  as  now,  in  the  house.  There  are  no  houses  of 
that  period  standing  at  the  present  day  in  any  of  the  places  fre¬ 
quented  by  our  Lord  in  Galilee  and  the  adjacent  regions ;  but  at 
the  sites  of  some  of  those  “cities”  mentioned  by  Josephus  there 
are  foundations  which  indicate  very  inferior  habitations.  As  they 
must  be  those  of  the  largest  and  most  substantial  houses,  the 
greater  part,  it  would  seem,  were  so  small  and  ephemeral  as  to 
leave  no  trace  behind.  “Cities”  of  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  ac¬ 
cording  to  his  accounts,  occupied  sites  where  a  modern  village  of 
as  many  hundreds  would  scarcely  find  sufficient  room. 

I  am  continually  being  reminded  by  the  scenery  through  which 
we  are  riding  to-day  of  other  rambles  over  these  picturesque  moun¬ 
tains.  This  is  not  the  first,  nor  even  the  fourth,  time  that  I  have 
passed  this  way.  On  one  occasion  the  presence  of  a  party  of 
ladies  and  gentlemen  added  greatly  to  the  interest  of  the  excur¬ 
sion.  We  followed  the  valley  from  Neb’a  el  ’Asal  northward  to 
the  base  of  a  perpendicular  cliff,  where  the  road  turns  abruptly  to 
the  right  and  ascends  the  steep  side  of  the  mountain.  It  took 
an  hour’s  hard  climbing  to  reach  the  top  of  the  pass,  where  we 
were  promised  a  glorious  outlook  down  to  the  sea  over  the  region 
drained  by  Nahr  Ibrahim,  the  ancient  river  Adonis. 

Long  before  reaching  the  summit  we  were  completely  enve¬ 
loped  by  a  dense,  palpable  mist,  driven  up  the  ravine  by  the  west 
wind,  and  nothing  could  be  seen  ten  steps  ahead  of  us.  The 


240 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


descent  was  even  longer  than  the  ascent,  and  in  many  places  all 
dismounted  and  walked,  to  relieve  both  horse  and  rider.  Soon  we 
lost  our  way,  and  the  whole  caravan  seemed  about  to  plunge  off 
the  narrow  plateau  into  a  fathomless  abyss  of  cloudy  vapor.  It 
was  impossible,  however,  to  go  very  far  wrong,  since  the  tremen¬ 
dous  chasm  of  the  river  on  the  left,  and  the  cliffs  of  Lebanon 
towering  to  the  sky  on  the  right,  allowed  of  but  little  margin  to 
wander  on  either  side.  After  rambling  hither  and  thither,  now  on 
the  edge  of  the  cliffs,  and  then  through  the  thick  bushes,  bewil¬ 
dered  with  numberless  goat -paths,  we  finally  got  safely  through 
that  tangled  wilderness,  just  as  the  mist  began  to  rise  and  reveal 
the  deep  gorge  of  Nahr  Ibrahim  below. 

There  we  stopped  and  lunched  upon  the  brink  of  a  precipice 
which  descends  sheer  down  many  hundred  feet  into  the  valley  of 
the  river.  Just  before  we  reached  ’Afka  there  suddenly  burst  upon 
us  a  most  magnificent  prospect.  The  sun  broke  through  the  fog, 
filling  the  profound  gorge  of  the  river  Adonis  with  golden  light, 
and  revealing  the  fantastic  buttresses  and  rounded  towers  of  the 
mountain  ramparts.  It  was  difficult  to  believe  that  they  were  not 
designed  by  man  for  the  defence  of  the  valley,  but  their  colossal 
proportions  dispelled  all  thought  of  human  art. 

This  long  range  of  Lebanon  on  our  right  rises  several  thousand 
feet,  terrace  above  terrace  and  ledge  above  ledge  of  perpendicular 
rock.  Masses  of  rock  in  some  places  seem  to  have  been  rolled 
from  the  summits  above  and  swept  down  the  mountain-side. 

Many  kinds  of  trees  spring  out  of  crevices  in  those  gigantic 
walls ;  and  along  the  narrow  margin  of  those  ledges  bushes  and 
underbrush  grow  and  spread  out  into  clumps,  green  and  shady,  but 
absolutely  impenetrable ;  even  goats  cannot  enter  except  in  places 
where  the  shepherd  has  cut  a  way  through  for  them. 

This  has  been  a  long  and  fatiguing  descent,  and,  from  the  im¬ 
posing  appearance  of  those  massive  buttresses  ahead  of  us,  on  the 
right,  towering  to  the  sky,  and  which  seem  to  bar  our  further  pro¬ 
gress,  I  conclude  that  we  are  not  far  from  our  camping-place. 

'Afka  is  directly  below  us,  but  before  we  can  reach  it  we  will 
have  to  zigzag  down  the  mountain-side  along  a  road  rough  and 
rocky,  and  through  tangled  bushes  and  clumps  of  small  trees  for 


VENUS  AND  ADONIS.— GOATS  ON  THE  CLIFFS. 


241 


some  distance.  After  passing  by  the  ruined  temple  of  Venus,  and 
crossing  the  bridge  over  the  Adonis,  we  will  arrive  at  our  tents, 
pitched  on  the  brink  of  the  flowing  river,  and  in  the  midst  of  a 
forest  of  walnut  and  sycamore  trees. 

’Afka,  September  5th.  Evening. 

This  is  the  most  romantic  spot  we  have  visited  in  our  travels 
through  this  country.  With  its  cavern  and  fountains,  its  river  and 
ruins,  grove,  myth,  and  fable,  it  rivals  Banias. 

Here,  according  to  ancient  mythology,  the  beautiful  Adonis, 
the  favorite  of  Venus,  was  killed  by  a  wild-boar,  nor  would  she  be 
consoled  for  his  loss  or  allow  his  lifeless  body  to  be  removed  until 
the  gods  decreed  that  he  should  return  to  her  during  the  spring 
and  summer,  and  that  she  might  go  to  him  in  the  winter.  And 
thus  we  have  a  reference,  in  this  tragic  myth,  to  the  changes  of 
the  seasons  —  the  joyous  spring  and  the  generous  summer,  the 
dreary  autumn  and  the  mournful  winter. 

Let  us  walk  out  to  the  bridge,  climb  into  the  cavern  above  it, 
and  then  visit  the  ruined  temple  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley. 
The  stream  which  we  have  just  crossed  rises  near  the  cavern,  tum¬ 
bles  over  the  road,  and  falls  into  the  river  below  the  bridge. 

See  that  flock  of  goats  creeping  like  ants  along  the  perpendicu¬ 
lar  precipice,  so  high  above  our  heads.  How  did  they  get  there? 
and  how  can  they  escape  from  their  perilous  position  ? 

The  cliff  above  the  cavern  is  more  than  a  thousand  feet  high, 
•but  the  rock  strata  form  regular  ledges,  one  above  the  other, 
extending  to  a  considerable  length,  and  overgrown  with  bushes. 
As  for  the  goats,  they  manifest  no  anxiety  about  their  exalted 
position  or  its  supposed  dangers.  On  the  contrary,  they  appear 
to  be  enjoying  themselves  amongst  the  bushes  up  there,  utterly 
regardless  of  the  glorious  prospect  all  around  and  the  roar  of  these 
mighty  waters  hundreds  of  feet  below  them. 

This  stone  bridge  with  its  rounded  arch  may  not  be  as  ancient 
as  some  we  have  crossed,  but  the  picturesque  scenery  which  it  com¬ 
mands  is  unsurpassed  by  any  of  them.  Cliff  and  cave,  streams  and 
water- falls  —  this  amphitheatre  of  rocks  around  it,  and  the  placid 
basin  of  clear,  cold  water  above  it — all  combine  to  make  a  natural 
picture  of  wonderful  beauty  and  grandeur. 


242 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


We  are  now  about  two  hundred  feet  above  the  bank  of  the 
river  near  where  our  tents  are  pitched. 

Scrambling  up  those  great  masses  of  fallen  rocks  and  into  this 
cavern  is  a  feat  not  easily  accomplished. 

When  I  first  visited  Mugharat  ’Afka  a  wide  natural  arch  spanned 
the  cavern  near  its  mouth,  and,  by  creeping  over  it,  I  reached  an 
upper  ledge,  along  which  I  penetrated  into  the  mountain  for  a 
short  distance,  but  discovered  nothing  very  remarkable  about  it. 
In  winter  the  stream  which  issues  out  of  the  cavern  is,  probably, 
the  overflow  of  the  main  fountain  springing  up  within  the  hidden 
and  deeper  recesses  of  the  mountains.  The  streams  that  now  burst 
forth  from  amongst  the  rocks  below  the  cave  are  connected  with 
the  principal  source  of  the  river  Adonis,  and  thus,  in  summer,  they 
would  be  sufficient  to  draw  off  the  water,  as  the  quantity  is  then 
greatly  decreased.  Rushing  down  amongst  the  rocks,  they  fill  the 
little  basin  above  the  bridge,  and  then  the  stream  from  it  sweeps 
on  for  a  short  distance  and  falls,  in  quick  succession,  over  the 
cliffs  in  three  regular  and  beautiful  cascades. 

On  our  way  to  the  ruins  of  the  temple  we  will  be  obliged  to 
cross  another  stream,  which  comes  tumbling  down  the  ravine  from 
the  north-west  and  enters  the  river  below  the  falls. 

Water,  water  everywhere,  and  what  a  deafening  roar!  This 
temple  must  have  commanded  a  magnificent  prospect  —  up  the 
river,  across  the  falls,  over  the  bridge  to  the  deep  cavern  above, 
and  away  to  the  top  of  that  sublime  cliff. 

The  site  was  well  chosen  on  this  bluff  at  the  extreme  end  of 
the  projecting  ridge.  The  temple  probably  stood  upon  a  plat¬ 
form  on  the  highest  of  a  succession  of  terraces  raised  up  from  the 
banks  of  the  little  stream  that  now  flows  out  below  it.  The  edi¬ 
fice  itself  could  not  have  been  a  very  large  or  imposing  structure, 
to  judge  from  its  present  ruins — a  confused  mass  of  well-squared 
stone,  with  very  little  architectural  ornamentation.  Some  of  the 
stones  are  large,  and  all  are  limestone,  quarried  from  the  rock  in 
this  region.  One  is  surprised  to  find  under  the  rubbish  a  column 
of  red  or  Syenite  granite,  like  the  one  in  the  village  of  ’Afka, 
which  must  have  been  brought  from  Egypt  to  Jebeil,  and  then 
transported  up  and  down  these  mountains  with  incredible  toil. 


MUGHARAT  ’AFKA— SOURCE  OF  THE  ADONIS. 


J 


DAMSELS  OF  PHCENICIA.— “  WOMEN  WEEPING  FOR  TAMMUZ.”  243 

Byblus,  the  modern  Jebeil,  was  the  reputed  birthplace  of 
Adonis,  and  devoted  to  his  worship;  and  this  temple  of  Venus 
was  erected  here  in  commemoration  of  his  tragic  fate.  Here  were 
practised  —  in  the  month  of  Tammuz,  or  midsummer  —  the  most 
licentious  rites,  down  to  the  time  of  Constantine.  That  emperor, 
according  to  Eusebius  and  Sozomen,  deemed  such  a  temple  un¬ 
worthy  of  the  light  of  the  sun,  and  decreed  its  destruction.  These 
ruins  bear  emphatic  testimony  to  the  thoroughness  with  which  his 
orders  were  executed.  There  is  something  very  impressive  in  the 
fact  that  we  are  looking  upon  the  same  scenery  to-day  which  wit¬ 
nessed  the  celebration  of  the  burial  of  Adonis,  by  the  damsels  of 
Phoenicia,  many  thousand  years  ago.  We  are  listening  to  the 
solemn  cadence  of  the  same  river,  which  murmured  a  requiem  as 
they,  with  dishevelled  hair  and  weeping  and  wailing,  followed  the 
funeral  procession  to  this  temple  upon  whose  ruins  we  now  stand  ! 

Ezekiel  says,  “There  sat  women  weeping  for  Tammuz"  at  the 
gate  of  the  Lord’s  house.1  Was  the  worship  of  Venus  and  Adonis 
transferred  from  this  temple  to  that  at  Jerusalem? 

The  Grecian  Adonis  was  probably  none  other  than  the  more 
ancient  Phoenician  deity  Tammuz  ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  the 
weeping  of  the  Jewish  women  was  in  commemoration  of  the  cele¬ 
brations  which  took  place  annually  at  Byblus  and  in  this  place 
during  the  month  of  Tammuz,  corresponding  to  our  July.  Milton, 
marshalling  the  gods  of  Canaan  before  Satan,  thus  alludes  to 
Adonis  and  his  worship  : 


Thammuz  came  next  behind, 
Whose  annual  wound  in  Lebanon  allured 
The  Syrian  damsels  to  lament  his  fate 
In  amorous  ditties  all  a  summer’s  day  ; 
While  smooth  Adonis  from  his  native  rock 
Ran  purple  to  the  sea,  supposed  with  blood 
Of  Thammuz  yearly  wounded  :  the  love-tale 
Infected  Zion’s  daughters  with  like  heat ; 
Whose  wanton  passions  in  the  sacred  porch 
Ezekiel  saw,  when,  by  the  vision  led, 

His  eye  survey’d  the  dark  idolatries 
Of  alienated  Judah.2 


1  Ezek.  viii.  14. 

R 


2  Paradise  Lost,  Book  I.,  lines  446  to  457. 


244 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


The  widely -known  fable  which  ascribes  the  red  color  of  this 
river  to  the  blood  of  the  beautiful  Adonis  may  be  thus  explained  : 
The  first  rains  of  winter  carry  down  a  large  amount  of  sand,  which 
gives  to  the  water,  and  even  the  sea  near  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
a  reddish  color.  I  once  encamped  for  two  days  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  making  excursions  up  the  gorge  as  far  as  was  practicable, 
and  found  vast  formations  of  red  sandstone  on  both  sides,  and  par¬ 
ticularly  along  the  north-eastern  bank.  On  a  former  visit  I  dis¬ 
covered  what  may  possibly  be  the  true  origin  of  that  mythical 
transformation,  here  at  the  very  place  where  Adonis  is  supposed 
to  have  been  killed.  Just  below  our  tents  there  is  a  mass  of 
amorphous  trap-rock,  friable  and  loose,  and  of  a  blood-red  color, 
quite  sufficient  to  cause  “  smooth  Adonis  from  his  native  rock 
run  purple  to  the  sea.” 

’Afka,  September  6th. 

We  will  have  a  long,  and  in  some  parts  a  fatiguing,  ride  to¬ 
day.  This  route  from  ’Afka  to  the  Cedars  commands  magnificent 
views  of  the  distant  sea,  and  will  lead  us  through  some  of  the 
grandest  scenery  in  Lebanon. 

The  farther  one  penetrates  into  these  mountains  the  deeper  is 
the  interest  they  inspire.  From  the  time  when  the  women  of 
Phoenicia  were  accustomed  to  visit  that  temple  of  Venus,  thou¬ 
sands  of  years  ago,  until  the  day  when  Constantine  ordered  its 
destruction,  a  considerable  town  must  have  risen  near  this  grand 
and  picturesque  source  of  the  Adonis. 

The  ancient  Apheca  was  deserted  long  ago.  A  few  stones  re¬ 
main,  larger  and  better  squared  than  the  rest,  but  they  are  the 
only  traces  of  antiquity  to  be  seen  at  this  once  celebrated  place. 
The  inhabitants  of  modern  ’Afka  barely  exist  in  a  village,  beauti¬ 
fully  situated  in  the  midst  of  groves  of  walnut  and  other  trees,  on 
the  south  side  of  the  valley  and  west  of  the  ruined  temple.  They, 
and  the  people  who  occupy  this  wretched  hamlet  on  the  north  side 
of  the  river  through  which  we  have  just  passed,  are  all  Metawileh, 
miserably  poor,  notorious  thieves,  and  about  the  most  degraded  gen¬ 
eration  we  have  seen  in  this  country.  Being  the  sole  representatives 
of  their  sect  in  this  region,  their  houses  were  burned  during  the  last 
civil  war,  and  they  have  been  but  partially  repaired  since. 


VALLEY  OF  THE  ADONIS.— LOFTY  BRIDGE.— BURJ  FATRAH.  245 

At  sunrise  this  morning  I  had  a  grand  view  of  the  valley  of 
Nahr  Ibrahim  and  the  river  gorge,  quite  down  to  the  sea,  from  a 
high  cliff  above  the  cavern.  I  should  like  to  explore  that  region, 
for  it  appears  to  be  well  wooded  and  romantic. 

The  river  valley  is  lined  with  many  kinds  of  trees — oak,  syca¬ 
more,  kharnub,  bay,  plane,  orange,  and  mulberry.  But  notwith¬ 
standing  the  brilliant  foliage,  the  magnificent  scenery,  and  the 
ceaseless  and  deafening  roar  of  the  river  as  it  tumbles  over  the 
rocks,  cascades,  and  mill-dams,  the  valley  of  Nahr  Ibrahim  is  very 
sickly,  especially  in  the  summer  and  autumn. 

The  gorge  is  wild,  and  in  many  places  inaccessible.  Profound 
chasms  break  down  into  it,  on  either  side,  upon  whose  beetling 
crags  and  projecting  ridges  a  convent  or  a  village  is  often  seen 
standing  out  against  the  sky,  or  clinging  to  the  rocks  far  above  the 
foaming  torrents  of  the  river.  Near  its  mouth  Nahr  Ibrahim  is 
crossed  by  a  lofty  bridge  of  a  single  arch,  which  has  a  span  of 
sixty-three  feet,  and  an  elevation  of  thirty-six  feet  above  the  wa¬ 
ter.  That  bridge  appears  to  be  erected  upon  the  foundations  of 
one  more  ancient,  probably  Roman.  Arab  historians  inform  us 
that  it  was  built  by  Emir  Ibrahim,  a  nephew  of  Mar  Yohanna 
Maron,  who  lived  in  the  eleventh  century;  and  from  him  the  river 
is  said  to  take  its  present  name.  That  Mar  Yohanna  must  not  be 
confounded  with  John  Maron,  from  whom  the  Maronites  as  a  sect 
derive  their  name. 

I  have  ascended  the  mountain  on  the  north  side  of  the  river 
gorge  for  two  hours,  to  examine  the  ruins  of  Burj  Fatrah,  not  far 
from  el  Harf,  a  village  situated  on  a  conical  peak  seventeen  hun¬ 
dred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  remains  are  insignificant, 
but  they  may  mark  the  site  of  a  shrine  dedicated  to  the  worship 
of  Thammuz.  Burj  Fatrah  is  perched  upon  the  edge  of  a  preci¬ 
pice  overhanging  the  gorge  of  the  river,  and  it  made  my  head 
dizzy  to  gaze  down  into  the  fearful  abyss  and  see  the  eagles  sail¬ 
ing  about  above  their  nests  far  below  my  stand-point.  The  pro¬ 
found  depths  resounded  with  the  ceaseless  roar  of  the  river — that 
eternal  anthem  which  the  Phoenician  pilgrims  must  have  listened 
to  with  mysterious  reverence  as  they  toiled  up  those  mountains 
towards  the  temple  of  Venus,  near  the  fountain  of  the  Adonis. 


246  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

The  only  remains  of  any  importance  in  the  valley  of  Nahr  Ibra¬ 
him  are  the  broken  arches  of  an  ancient  aqueduct  that  conveyed 
the  water  of  the  river  to  Jebeil.  It  was  carried  along  the  cliffs,  on 
the  south  side  of  the  gorge,  until,  near  the  narrow  plain  between 
the  mountain  and  the  sea-shore,  it  crossed  over  to  the  north  side. 
The  gorge  there  is  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  wide  from 
cliff  to  cliff.  The  arches  of  the  first  tier  of  the  aqueduct  are 
eleven,  and  of  about  twenty-two  feet  span,  supported  by  massive 
buttresses,  eighteen  feet  thick,  most  of  which  are  still  standing. 
The  main  arch,  above  the  bed  of  the  river,  had  a  span  of  fifty  feet. 
Above  the  first  tier  of  arches  there  was  another,  much  narrower, 
and  proportionately  higher.  The  canal  of  the  aqueduct  appears  to 
have  been  upon  the  top  of  them.  The  entire  height  of  the  aque¬ 
duct  above  the  bed  of  the  river  was  about  one  hundred  feet. 

Only  one  arch  is  now  perfect,  and  it  is  apparently  Saracenic. 
Indeed,  most  of  the  masonry  of  the  buttresses  is  of  the  same  order, 
but  the  lower  part  of  them  was  built  of  larger,  bevelled  stones,  leav¬ 
ing  no  doubt  as  to  the  antiquity  of  the  original  structure.  The 
cliffs  on  either  side  of  the  river  are  in  many  places  almost  perpen¬ 
dicular,  and  hence  most  of  the  wall  built  into  or  on  their  sides  to 
support  the  aqueduct  has  fallen  away.  The  wonder  is  how  it  was 
possible  to  construct  the  work  along  such  precipices.  Upon  reach¬ 
ing  the  plain  the  canal  was  carried  northward  through  the  modern 
village  of  en  Nahra.  A  short  distance  beyond  that  village  the  line 
of  the  canal  is  over  one  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  road  we  have  been  following  northward  is  nearly  level 
along  this  elevated  plateau,  which  extends  westward  between  the 
chasms  of  Wady  el  Muneitirah  and  Wady  el  Mugheiyireh.  The 
streams  from  ’Afka  and  ’Akurah,  the  main  tributaries  of  Nahr 
Ibrahim,  flow  through  those  valleys.  This  plateau  is  walled  in — 
south,  east,  and  north — by  cliffs  of  great  height  and  remarkable 
outline,  closely  resembling  colossal  towers  and  gigantic  castles. 

I  notice  flocks  of  small  birds  flying  about  the  trees  and  chat¬ 
tering  among  the  branches  of  the  bushes,  while  hawks,  vultures, 
and  eagles  sail  majestically  along  over  the  profound  chasms,  and 
the  omnipresent  raven  drops  headlong  from  the  cliffs  above. 

This  pleasant  ride  of  two  hours  has  brought  us  to  a  natural 


GROTTO  AT  ’AKURAH.— WINE-VATS.— EL  ’AKURAH.  247 

bridge  of  a  single  rock  across  the  ravine,  over  which  the  road 
passes,  and  beneath  which  is  the  entrance  to  Mugharat  el  ’Akurah. 

Our  party  of  ladies  and  gentlemen  spent  a  whole  morning  ex¬ 
ploring  the  hidden  recesses  of  that  cavern,  and  were  greatly  im¬ 
pressed  by  their  subterranean  experiences.  Getting  down  to  the 
low  entrance  of  the  cave  was  accomplished  with  difficulty,  but,  once 
inside  of  the  grotto,  we  found  the  floor  comparatively  level.  With 
many  tapers,  casting  faint  gleams  of  light  into  the  darkness,  we 
crept  on  and  in  for  about  one  hundred  yards ;  then,  leaving  the 
main  grotto,  and  turning  to  the  left  along  a  broad  passage,  we 
followed  it  for  perhaps  two  hundred  yards.  The  floor  in  that  part 
is  uneven  and  slippery.  Numberless  pools  of  water,  some  shallow, 
others  deep,  filled  to  overflowing  by  dripping  stalactites  pendant 
from  the  roof,  rendered  our  progress  slow  and  rather  critical. 

Near  the  extreme  end  of  that  passage,  which  it  was  supposed 
we  were  the  first  to  explore,  is  a  lofty  grotto,  whose  sides  are 
incrusted  with  translucent,  crystallized  spar,  through  which  the  light 
from  our  tapers  shone  with  a  bright  red  color.  What  with  singing 
and  shouting  to  wake  up  the  slumbering  echoes,  breaking  off  speci¬ 
mens  of  stalactites,  and  an  occasional  plash  into  the  ice-cold  water 
of  some  treacherous  pool,  we  remained  much  longer  in  the  grottoes, 
than  we  supposed.  When  we  got  back  to  the  entrance  it  was  time 
to  lunch,  and  that  we  enjoyed  exceedingly,  sitting  on  the  smooth 
rock  floor  at  the  mouth  of  the  cave.  In  former  times  that  floor 
had  been  levelled,  and  the  vats,  troughs,  and  channels  necessary 
for  a  wine-press  were  excavated  out  of  the  solid  rock.  The  pro¬ 
spect  outwards,  looking  under  the  natural  bridge  and  down  the 
deep  gorge,  was  extraordinary  and  very  picturesque. 

The  mighty  range  of  Lebanon  is  here  flanked  and  sustained  by 
numerous  round  towers  and  many -shaped  buttresses,  even  more 
gigantic  than  those  above  the  cave  at  the  fountain  of  the  Adonis. 

This  village  of  ’Akurah  is  a  mile  or  more  from  the  grottoes,  and 
has  a  plentiful  supply  of  water.  It  abounds  in  groves  of  walnut- 
trees,  and  is  surrounded  by  vineyards  and  mulberry  terraces.  Being 
a  centre  for  this  part  of  the  country,  it  has  a  blacksmith  and  car¬ 
penter,  and  a  few  shops,  but  the  inhabitants  are  rude  and  fanatical. 
Through  a  cleft  in  that  perpendicular  wall  of  rock  extending  be- 


248 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


hind  the  village,  and  which  is  over  one  thousand  feet  high,  a  road 
passes  up  the  mountain  from  Jebeil  to  Ba’albek. 

From  ’Akurah  the  level  road  we  have  been  travelling  thus  far 
ceases,  and  we  must  toil  up  the  mountain  to  the  north-west  of  the 
village,  for  two  thousand  feet  or  more,  over  an  immense  formation 
of  trap-rock  extending  westward  for  several  miles. 

Burckhardt  spent  a  night  in  ’Akurah  in  1810.  Learning  Arabic 
in  Aleppo,  he  assumed  the  character  of  a  native,  and,  travelling 
through  the  country,  threw  himself  upon  the  hospitality  of  the 
people.  He  says:  “The  mountaineers,  when  upon  a  journey,  never 
think  of  spending  a  para  for  their  eating,  drinking,  or  lodging.  On 
arriving  in  the  evening  at  a  village  they  alight  at  the  house  of  some 
acquaintance,  if  they  have  any,  which  is  generally  the  case,  and  say 
to  the  owner,  ‘  I  am  your  guest.’  The  host  gives  the  traveller  a 
supper  consisting  of  milk,  bread,  and  burgul,  cracked  wheat,  and, 
if  rich  and  liberal,  feeds  his  mule  or  mare  also.  When  the  traveller 
has  no  acquaintance  in  the  village  he  alights  at  any  house  he 
pleases,  ties  up  his  beast,  and  smokes  his  pipe  till  he  receives  a 
welcome  from  the  master  of  the  house,  who  makes  it  a  point  of 
honor  to  receive  him  as  a  friend  and  to  give  him  a  supper.  In  the 
morning  he  departs  with  a  simple  1  Good-bye.’  ”  1 

Burckhardt  generally  received  a  kind  reception,  but  at  ’Akurah 
he  was  shabbily  treated.  The  inhabitants,  he  says,  have  “  a  bad 
name  amongst  the  people  of  this  country,”  and  “  are  accused  of 
avarice  and  inhospitality.”  They  neither  receive  travellers  nor  give 
a  supper,  nor  sell  them  provisions  for  ready  money.  “  The  conse¬ 
quence  of  which  conduct  is,  that  the  Akourans,  when  travelling 
about,  are  obliged  to  conceal  their  origin,  in  order  to  obtain  food 
on  the  road.”  Not  to  go  supperless,  Burckhardt  made  the  sheikh 
believe  that  he  was  “  a  Kourdine  in  the  service  of  the  Pasha  of 
Damascus,”  and  he,  becoming  alarmed,  sent  him  some  bread  and 
cheese.  Such  were  some  of  the  customs  in  these  mountains  se¬ 
venty  years  ago  ;  but  the  traveller  of  the  present  day  finds  native 
hospitality  greatly  changed,  and  is  more  likely  to  be  cheated  by 
exorbitant  prices  than  to  receive  gratuitous  entertainment. 

I  first  became  aware  of  the  existence  of  el  ’Akurah  and  its 

1  Burckhardt,  p.  24. 


AVENGER  OF  BLOOD.— LOFTY  PLATEAU.— ARAB  ENCAMPMENT.  249 

people  by  the  following  incident  :  Late  one  evening  during  the 
winter  of  1835  I  was  startled  by  the  abrupt  entrance  into  my  room 
of  a  man  completely  disguised  by  his  cloak,  who  threw  himself 
down  upon  the  floor  before  me,  exclaiming,  “  I  am  your  suppliant.” 
Upon  inquiry  I  found  that  he  belonged  to  ’Akurah,  and  having 
killed  a  man  in  the  church,  which  we  saw  in  passing,  he  had  fled 
to  Beirut,  pursued  by  the  avengers  of  blood.  Some  one  had  di¬ 
rected  him  to  my  house,  as  the  safest  asylum,  and  that  accounted 
for  his  unwelcome  intrusion.  Through  the  influence  of  his  rela¬ 
tives  and  friends  the  affair  was  finally  settled  by  the  payment  of 
a  considerable  sum  as  blood-money. 

The  great  elevation  which  we  have  now  reached,  on  the  highest 
part  of  this  ridge,  commands  a  wide  prospect  over  a  wilderness  of 
bristling  pinnacles,  gigantic  cliffs,  and  profound  valleys — a  vast  and 
varied  scene,  such  as  no  pen  can  describe  and  no  pencil  portray. 

There  is  not  a  human  habitation  for  many  miles  on  this  lofty, 
cold,  and  desolate  plateau  ;  but  at  this  season  of  the  year  num¬ 
berless  goat-paths  traverse  it  in  every  direction.  They  seem  all 
equally  well  marked,  and  the  traveller,  if  not  provided  with  a  local 
guide,  will  inevitably  get  bewildered  and  lost.  He  might,  much  to 
his  surprise,  stumble  against  a  camel,  and  make  the  startling  dis¬ 
covery  that  he  has  strayed  into  an  Arab  encampment. 

The  top  of  Lebanon  is  certainly  the  last  place  where  one  would 
expect  to  find  those  roving  sons  of  the  desert. 

There  is  a  tribe  of  sedentary  or  resident  Arabs  who  pass  the 
winter  on  the  sea-coast,  and  pasture  their  insignificant  flocks  and 
herds  on  these  heights  in  the  spring  and  summer.  In  October 
they  strike  their  tents,  and  with  their  cattle  and  flocks  descend  to 
the  milder  regions  below.  Before  the  transportation  of  sheep  by 
steamers  from  this  country  to  Egypt  became  general  the  high  and 
level  districts  on  Lebanon  were  the  pasture-lands  of  the  Kurds. 
They  came  from  the  north  of  Syria  in  the  spring  with  thousands 
of  sheep,  which  they  sold  as  they  proceeded  through  the  country 
— in  the  summer  to  the  villagers  on  the  mountains,  and  in  winter 
to  the  residents  of  the  cities  on  the  plains. 

There  are  no  fountains  on  those  highest  levels  of  Lebanon,  but 
in  the  spring  the  melting  of  the  snow  affords  drink  for  men  and 


250 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


cattle.  Snow-water  is  often  found  during  the  summer  in  funnel- 
shaped  holes  or  pits  formed  in  the  ground  by  the  snow.  There  are 
hundreds  of  them  on  these  lofty  ranges ;  but,  from  my  experience, 
I  can  caution  those  who  desire  to  explore  the  summits  of  Lebanon 
not  to  expect  to  find  an  abundance  of  water  in  them.  I  could  not 
get  a  drop  from  any  of  them  in  June. 

This  entire  region  down  to  the  sea  belonged,  I  suppose,  in 
ancient  times  to  Byblus,  the  modern  Jebeil,  and  this  part  of  it 
presents  a  most  extraordinary  appearance. 

That  long  range  of  limestone  rocks,  west  of  our  route,  piled 
up  in  utter  confusion,  is  called  Jebel  Jaj.  It  is  composed  entirely 
of  huge  isolated  bowlders,  amongst  which  are  many  oak-trees,  old, 
gnarled,  and  scraggy,  whose  lower  branches  have  been  hacked  and 
hewn  off  by  charcoal-burners  and  shepherds.  Long  ago  I  spent  a 
night  on  the  east  side  of  that  rocky  mountain.  The  object  of  that 
excursion  was  to  visit  some  ruins  at  a  place  called  el  Meshnakah. 
After  ascending  the  mountain  east  of  Jebeil  for  three  hours  we 
came  to  Burr  el  Haithy,  evidently  an  ancient  site.  Up  to  that 
place  we  had  been  accompanied  by  some  workmen  sent  to  con¬ 
struct  a  road  by  which  the  beams,  cut  down  from  a  neighboring 
forest  of  pine-trees,  could  be  transported  on  camels  to  the  sea-shore 
at  the  mouth  of  Nahr  Ibrahim.  It  was  in  that  way,  perhaps,  that 
the  “timber  of  cedar”  for  Solomon’s  temple  was  brought  “down 
from  Lebanon  unto  the  sea”  by  the  “servants”  of  Hiram.1 

Burr  el  Haithy  is  not  far  from  el  Meshnakah,  or  the  place  of 
hanging,  as  its  Arabic  name  implies ;  but  our  guide  took  a  wrong 
path,  and  soon  involved  us  in  one  of  the  worst  w’ar — a  rocky  place, 
abounding  in  tangled  thorny  thickets  —  that  I  ever  encountered. 
It  was  only  by  dismounting,  and  forcing  our  frightened  animals 
over  breakneck  rocks  half  concealed  by  the  thick  thorn-bushes, 
-that  we  got  through  the  w’ar — not  to  el  Meshnakah,  however,  but 
to  the  bottom  of  the  tremendous  Wady  Fedar.  We  then  followed 
up  the  wady  to  a  ruin  in  the  vicinity,  and  finally  encamped  for  the 
night  at  the  foot  of  Jebel  Jaj.  The  next  morning  we  returned  to 
Jebeil,  greatly  disappointed  at  not  having  accomplished  our  pur¬ 
pose  of  visiting  the  ruins  at  el  Meshnakah. 

1  i  Kings  v.  8,  9. 


M.  RENAN’S  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  RUINS  AT  EL  MESHNAKAH.  25 1 

M.  Renan  was  more  fortunate,  and  in  his  splendid  work,  “  Mission 
de  Phenice,”  he  gives  a  detailed  description  of  the  place  and  the 
ruins.  He  speaks  in  glowing  terms  of  the  wild  and  romantic  sce¬ 
nery,  and  is  convinced  that  the  remains  are  those  of  a  temple  dedi¬ 
cated  to  the  worship  of  Tammuz,  Venus,  and  Adonis.  The  enclo¬ 
sure  of  the  temple  was  rectangular,  three  hundred  and  twenty-five 
feet  long  by  one  hundred  and  sixty-six  feet  wide.  The  entrance 
was  from  the  east.  The  walls — never  very  solid — are  now  mostly 
prostrate.  Corinthian  capitals  and  entablatures  are  found  scattered 
amongst  the  debris,  but  their  style  and  execution  are  rude  and 
imperfect.  Short  columns  are  also  found  in  a  depression  near  the 
eastern  end  of  the  main  court  of  the  temple. 

There  are  tombs  with  several  loculi  hewn  in  the  rock — of  a  kind 
common  all  over  Lebanon — having  heavy  stone  covers.  About  five 
hundred  feet  north  of  the  court  a  passage  was  cut  through  the 
rock,  and  on  each  side  of  the  entrance  to  it  is  a  large  figure  in  a 
niche  having  Ionic  pilasters  and  a  cornice.  On  the  sides  of  those 
figures  are  smaller  ones,  in  the  same  general  style,  but  all  are  so 
defaced  that  M.  Renan  is  uncertain  about  their  origin.  As  in 
nearly  every  other  collection  of  such  tombs  in  Syria,  there  are  no 
inscriptions  upon  those  at  el  Meshnakah,  which  may  imply  that 
neither  Greeks  nor  Romans  had  any  connection  with  them. 

Ten  minutes’  walk  to  the  east  of  the  entrance  to  the  temple 
court  are  the  remains  of  a  small  sanctuary,  and  there  was  found, 
on  a  block,  a  figure  which  M.  Renan  says  represents  Baal,  “  a  la 
tete  rayonee.”  If  really  meant  for  Baal,  that  figure  is  a  very  inter¬ 
esting  one.  M.  Renan  found  cut  on  the  rocks  at  el  Ghimeh,  south 
of  el  Meshnakah,  between  Nahr  Ibrahim  and  Mu’amaltein,  a  group 
representing  a  man  in  a  short  tunic,  carrying  a  lance,  with  which  he 
is  about  to  strike  a  bear  standing  up  to  attack  him.  Near  that 
group  is  the  figure  of  a  woman  seated,  apparently  mourning. 
These  very  naturally  suggest  the  pathetic  myth  of  Venus  and 
Adonis,  only  the  bear  ought  to  be  a  boar.  Another  group,  not 
far  distant,  consists  of  a  man  with  two  hunting-dogs. 

M.  Renan’s  quotation  from  Macrobius  is  very  pertinent  when 
taken  in  connection  with  those  groups:  “  The  image  of  Venus  is 
found  in  Mount  Lebanon  having  the  head  veiled,  in  a  sorrowful 


252 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


attitude,  holding  her  face  in  her  left  hand  enveloped  in  her  robes. 
Tears  are  believed  to  flow  from  the  eyes  of  those  beholding  her.” 
As  Macrobius  was  a  non-Christian  writer,  about  the  beginning  of 
the  fifth  century,  he  may  not  only  have  seen  the  image  of  Venus, 
but  also  “ assisted”  personally  at  her  worship. 

Ard  ’Akluk,  as  this  plateau  is  called  which  we  have  been  tra¬ 
versing,  extends  from  the  top  of  the  ascent  above  el  ’Akurah  north¬ 
ward  for  about  two  hours  to  the  region  around  Tannurin  el  Foka. 
Owing  to  its  lofty  position,  near  the  summit  of  the  Lebanon  range, 
the  melting  snow  by  day  feeds  the  little  rills  that  cross  its  surface  ; 
and  the  heavy  dew  at  night  refreshes  the  green  grass,  giving  to  this 
little  plain  the  appearance  of  a  pasture  land  well  supplied  with 
springs  of  water,  and  surrounded  by  high  mountains,  jagged  cliffs, 
rocky  precipices,  and  profound  gorges.  Most  of  Ard  ’Akluk  be¬ 
longs  to  the  village  of  Tannurin  et  Tahta,  or  lower  Tannurin,  which 
is  out  of  sight  in  a  deep  valley  to  the  north-west  of  us. 

Many  years  ago  I  spent  several  hours  rambling  over  the  wide, 
rock-strewn  wilderness  east  of  the  range  of  Jebel  Jaj,  in  order  to 
examine  some  inscriptions  upon  the  rocks.  A  number  of  peasants 
at  work  in  the  fields  volunteered  to  conduct  me  to  them.  In  the 
language  of  the  natives  a  large  isolated  rock  upon  which  letters 
are  inscribed  is  called  a  burj,  which  means  a  tower.  I  soon  dis¬ 
covered  that  the  eagerness  of  those  peasants  to  show  me  the 
mysterious  “  writing  on  the  rocks,”  was  occasioned  by  the  belief 
that  the  inscriptions  indicated  the  place  where  “  hid  treasure  ”  was 
to  be  found.  They  kept  watch  over  my  movements,  and  were 
suspicious  that  my  object  in  copying  the  letters  was  to  obtain  the 
key,  dalul,  or  indicator,  and  that,  having  found  the  place,  I  would 
come  again,  secretly,  and  rob  the  buried  treasure. 

I  examined  some  of  those  rocks  and  copied  a  few  of  the  in¬ 
scriptions,  but  there  were  rarely  more  than  two  or  three  words, 
generally  only  as  many  letters.  Nearly  all  that  I  saw  were  on  large 
isolated  rocks,  but  some  are  cut  upon  the  sides  of  cliffs,  and  are 
somewhat  longer.  I  could  make  nothing  of  them,  except  that  the 
name  of  the  Emperor  Adrian  was  found  in  most  of  them.  Dr. 
H.  A.  De  Forest  afterwards  copied  a  number  of  those  singular 
“  writings  on  the  rocks.”  M.  Renan  devotes  no  less  than  twenty- 


EMPEROR  ADRIAN.— TANNURiN  EL  FOKA.— FOG  IN  AUTUMN.  253 

one  folio  pages  of  his  work,  “  Mission  de  Phenice,”  to  those  inscrip¬ 
tions.  He  copied  eighty,  found  in  more  than  sixty  places,  and 
heard  of  others.  His  surmise  may  be  the  true  one,  as  to  the  origin 
of  those  cuttings,  that  they  were  inscribed  on  the  rocks,  by  order 
of  the  Emperor  Adrian,  to  mark  out  the  parts  of  the  forest  in 
that  region  which  belonged  to  the  Roman  Government  from  those 
which  were  owned  by  private  individuals. 

M.  Renan  is  not  quite  correct,  however,  in  supposing  that,  with 
the  exception  of  Dr.  De  Forest,  he  was  the  first  traveller  who  had 
seen  and  copied  those  inscriptions.  Others  had  done  the  same 
many  years  before  ;  but  to  him  belongs  the  credit  of  having  care¬ 
fully  examined  and  illustrated  them.  None  but  those  who  have 
attempted  to  penetrate  that  rocky  wilderness  in  Wady  Tannurin 
and  scale  those  perpendicular  cliffs  or  cross  those  yawning  chasms, 
can  adequately  appreciate  the  fatigue  or  even  the  danger  attend¬ 
ing  such  an  achievement  ;  and,  after  all,  the  results  are  very 
meagre  and  unsatisfactory  to  the  explorer. 

This  small  hamlet  which  we  are  passing  through  belongs  to 
Tannurin,  and  called  after  it  Tannurin  el  Foka,  or  the  upper.  The 
place  is  only  inhabited  during  the  summer  by  some  peasants  from 
the  village  below,  who  plant  Indian-corn  and  various  kinds  of  vege¬ 
tables  in  every  available  spot.  About  the  middle  of  September 
they  gather  in  their  crops,  and  send  everything  down  to  the  village 
before  the  first  snows  of  winter  render  this  region  inaccessible. 
During  many  tours  through  this  part  of  Lebanon  I  have  had  oc¬ 
casion  to  encamp  two  or  three  times  at  Tannurin  el  Foka.  Once, 
soon  after  our  tents  were  pitched,  a  dense  fog  enveloped  us,  and 
night  came  on,  cold  and  bleak,  and  “  sabled  all  in  black.” 

That  was  something  novel  in  my  experience  on  these  moun¬ 
tains  so  early  in  the  autumn;  but  the  outer  darkness  only  made 
the  well-lighted  tents  more  cheerful  and  the  party  more  social. 
The  peasants — men,  women,  and  children — brought  us  chickens, 
eggs,  green  corn,  leben,  and  plenty  of  fire -wood.  They  told  us 
that  after  two  or  three  weeks  the  entire  region  would  be  wholly 
forsaken,  nor  would  a  traveller  pass  over  the  road  we  had  followed 
from  ’Akurah  until  March  or  April  of  the  next  year. 

Midway  between  our  present  route  and  the  sea-shore  is  some 


254 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


of  the  grandest  scenery  in  Lebanon.  Gigantic  cliffs  break  down  in 
all  directions,  most  of  them  nearly  perpendicular,  and  all  dipping 
westward  at  various  angles.  They  open  up  distant  views  over 
valley,  hill,  and  narrow  plain  to  the  sandy  shore  and  out  upon  the 
boundless  Mediterranean  beyond.  Soon  after  coming  to  this  coun¬ 
try  I  visited  a  locality  of  fossil  fish  at  Hakil,  a  village  far  down 
below  us  on  the  left.  The  fossils  were  found  at  the  bottom  of  a 
deep  wady,  and  at  that  time,  when  the  locality  was  unknown,  one 
could  gather  excellent  specimens  by  the  mule-load. 

The  fish  were  small  but  well  preserved,  and  the  rock  in  which 
they  were  embedded  could  be  split  into  thin  laminae,  and,  no  matter 
how  thin,  each  face  was  coated  with  fossil  fish.  Their  number 
when  thus  packed  in  the  soil  must  have  been  very  great.  The 
largest  specimen  I  obtained  appeared  to  have  a  small  fish  in  its 
mouth,  as  though  caught  in  the  act  of  swallowing  its  victim. 
Besides  fish,  many  of  the  specimens  had  between  the  laminae  per¬ 
fectly  preserved  leaves  and  other  vegetable  matter.  When  that 
locality  became  better  known  it  was  visited  by  many  travellers,  and 
the  people  of  the  village,  finding  they  could  sell  the  fossils,  gath¬ 
ered  them  up  so  thoroughly  that  on  my  last  visit  to  the  place 
no  good  specimens  could  be  obtained. 

From  Hakil  the  road  led  over  rough  ridges  and  through  deep 
valleys  for  about  three  hours  to  the  large  village  of  Duma,  where 
I  spent  two  nights  and  part  of  three  days  in  the  hospitable  family 
of  the  Greek  priest.  On  the  summit  of  a  lofty  ridge  south  of  the 
village  some  natives  were  engaged  in  digging  out  and  smelting 
iron  ore.  I  was  told  by  them  that  the  work  would  soon  be  aban¬ 
doned,  owing  to  the  stifling  heat  and  want  of  ventilation  at  the 
bottom  of  the  deep  shaft  from  where  the  ore  was  procured. 

Wady  Tannurin  seems  to  drain  the  western  slopes  of  Lebanon ; 
where  does  the  little  river  running  through  it  enter  the  sea? 

This  region  is  called  Ard  Tannurin,  but  the  wady  takes  differ¬ 
ent  names.  Below  the  village  of  Tannurin  it  joins  Wady  ed 
Duweir,  which  near  the  sea  bears  the  name  of  Wady  el  Jauzeh. 
On  the  north  of  it  are  the  stupendous  cliffs  of  Jebel  en  Nuriyeh. 
That  ridge  extends  far  out  into  the  sea  and  terminates  in  a  pre¬ 
cipitous  promontory  several  hundred  feet  high.  It  is  called  Ras 


RAS  ESH  SHUKAH.— NAHR  EL  JAUZEH.  255 

esh  Shukah,  the  famous  Theoprosopon,  or  Face  of  God,  of  the 
ancients,  and  is  the  most  conspicuous  cape  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  Mediterranean.  As  there  is  no  room  for  a  road  around  the 
base  of  that  lofty  promontory,  the  highway  to  Tripoli  and  the 
north  passes  up  Wady  el  Jauzeh  for  some  distance,  and  then 


kCjl’at  el  museilihah. 


crosses  over  the  cape  and  down  to  the  plain  on  the  other  side. 
Nahr  el  Jauzeh  rises  in  Ard  Tannurin,  and  the  stream  below  us 
in  Wady  Tannurin  is  one  of  the  main  branches  of  that  river.  El 
Jauzeh  enters  the  sea  a  short  distance  south  of  Ras  esh  Shukah, 
and  between  that  point  and  el  Batrun,  the  ancient  Botrys. 

To  the  north-east  of  el  Batrun,  in  Wady  el  Jauzeh,  and  where 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


256 

that  valley  is  exceedingly  narrow  and  completely  shut  in  by  tower-* 
ing  cliffs,  are  the  ruins  of  a  Saracenic  castle,  now  called  Kul’at  el 
Museilihah,  which  was  built  upon  a  high  and  isolated  rock,  nearly 
perpendicular  on  all  sides.  It  commanded  the  bridge  over  the 
stream  and  the  highway,  and  travellers  and  caravans  were  obliged 
to  pay  whatever  black-mail  was  levied  upon  them  by  lawless  native 
sheikhs  who  frequently  occupied  it  in  former  times.  The  castle 
has  long  been  in  a  dilapidated  condition,  and  trees  and  bushes 
have  grown  up  among  the  ruins.  I  found  nothing  more  formida¬ 
ble  about  it  than  a  shepherd  lad  peacefully  watching  over  his 
flock  of  black  and  white  goats  as  they  scaled  its  rocky  heights  to 
reach  the  bushes  growing  upon  the  edge  of  its  overhanging  cliffs. 

From  this  Wady  Tannurin  the  road  leads  up  a  long  and  steep 
ascent,  only  to  descend  again  by  a  difficult  and  muddy  path  into  a 
deep  ravine.  Passing  westward  along  the  farthest  side  of  it,  we 
will  come  to  an  extensive  grove  of  cedar-trees.  There  are  many 
hundreds  of  them,  but  all  are  comparatively  young  and  small. 
They  spread  over  the  rocky  ridges  between  the  villages  of  Tannu¬ 
rin,  Niha,  and  el  Hadith,  about  four  miles  farther  north. 

This  old  man  from  Tannurin,  who  accompanies  us  as  guide, 
repeats  essentially  the  same  story  about  those  cedars  that  I  had 
heard  many  years  ago.  The  young  trees,  he  says,  have  sprung  up 
from  the  roots  of  older  cedars,  cut  down  by  order  of  the  Emir 
Beshir  Shehab  to  furnish  tar  and  pitch  for  the  British  fleet,  which 
was  then  in  this  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  watching  the  proceed¬ 
ings  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  in  Egypt  and  Syria. 

It  is  quite  unexpected  to  hear  from  such  an  authority  here  on 
Lebanon  of  Napoleon  and  the  English  fleet,  and  of  events  that 
occurred  in  the  beginning  of  this  century. 

The  old  man  says,  also,  that  other  forests  have  disappeared  in 
a  similar  manner — for  the  manufacture  of  pitch — and  that  the  work 
of  denudation  is  still  going  on  in  these  mountains.  Whether  or 
not  his  stories  are  strictly  true,  one  of  them  is  sufficient  to  account 
for  the  general  disappearance  of  cedar  forests  on  Lebanon. 

A  few  old  stumps  are  still  seen  amongst  these  young  cedars, 
yet  not  enough  to  prove  that  this  forest  sprang  from  them. 

The  natives  continually  cut  away  the  old  stumps,  to  obtain 


EL  HADITH.— RUINS  OF  A  CONVENT.— EL  KURAH.  257 

resinous  chips,  which  make  kindling-wood  for  their  fires,  and  often 
serve  the  purpose  of  an  oil-lamp.  The  account  of  our  guide  in 
regard  to  the  origin  of  this  cedar-grove  reminds  us  of  the  well- 
known  fact,  referred  to  in  the  fourteenth  chapter  of  Job,  that 
trees  cut  down  to  the  roots  will  often  sprout  again. 

We  have  come  to  the  end  of  this  cedar-grove,  and  must  now 
follow  our  guide  northward  to  el  Hadith.  Returning  from  my 
first  visit  to  the  well-known  Cedars  above  Bsherreh,  in  November, 
1834,  we  were  overtaken  at  el  Hadith  by  a  cold  and  drenching 
rain  ;  and  fearing  that  it  might  be  the  precursor  of  a  snow-storm, 
which  would  effectually  block  up  the  mountain -passes,  we  deter¬ 
mined  to  descend  to  the  plain.  The  road  was  extremely  rough, 
and  the  rain  made  the  rocks  so  slippery  that  my  horse  fell  several 
times,  and  once  I  was  thrown  off  amongst  the  stones.  Two  hours 
from  el  Hadith  we  saw  the  ruins  of  a  convent,  built  upon  an 
arch  thrown  midway  across  a  chasm  in  a  high  cliff,  two  or  three 
hundred  feet  below  its  summit,  and  as  many  above  the  torrent  at 
its  base.  The  last  occupants,  it  was  said,  were  robbers,  who  had 
been  captured  and  put  to  death  by  the  Turkish  authorities. 

After  reaching  the  plain  a  ride  of  two  hours  brought  us  to 
Amyun,  where  we  spent  the  night.  It  is  the  largest  village  in  the 
Kurah,  a  district  which  extends  westward  to  the  sea,  and  north¬ 
ward  to  the  city  of  Tripoli.  El  Kurah  is  an  irregular  plain,  some¬ 
what  elevated  above  the  sea,  having  a  substratum  of  cretaceous 
rock,  hard  on  the  surface,  and  softer  beneath.  The  soil  is  admi¬ 
rably  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  olive-tree,  and  the  numerous 
villages  situated  upon  the  plain  are  surrounded  by  olive-groves, 
which  impart  an  appearance  of  life  and  beauty  to  what  would 
otherwise  be  a  bare  and  barren  expanse.  The  river  Kadisha  mean¬ 
ders  through  the  Kurah  in  a  deep  and  narrow  vale,  overhung  by 
perpendicular  cliffs,  which  only  decrease  in  height  as  it  leaves  the 
mountains  and  approaches  the  sea. 

From  el  Hadith  our  course  changes  from  north  to  east,  having 
the  stupendous  gorge  of  Wady  el  Kadisha  far  below  us  on  the 
left.  This  valley  is  so  deep,  and  the  cliffs  on  either  side  so  pre¬ 
cipitous,  that  the  river  at  the  bottom  of  it  cannot  be  seen  from 
many  points  along  the  road. 


258 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


I  notice  several  convents  upon  projecting  rocks,  and  quite  a 
number  of  churches  and  villages  clinging  to  the  steep  and  pictu¬ 
resque  terraces  on  the  north  side  of  the  wady. 

This  is  a  sacred  region  to  the  Maronites ;  and  the  Kadisha  is 
the  holy  river,  because  it  rises  near  the  “Cedars  of  God.”  Amongst 
the  convents  is  Deir  Kanobin,  which  has  a  history  fifteen  hundred 
years  long,  and  not  always  very  peaceful  or  Christian.  It  derives 
its  name  from  the  Greek  word  for  convent,  but  it  has  been  the 
seat  for  many  generations  of  the  Maronite  patriarch,  and  the  princi¬ 
pal  summer  residence  of  the  present  incumbent  of  that  high  office. 
The  convent  has  not  essentially  changed  since  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  when  Maundrell  visited  it,  and  the  scenery 
not  at  all.  His  description  of  it  and  its  surroundings  is  graphic 
and  exceedingly  interesting  : 

“  Its  situation  is  admirably  adapted  for  retirement  and  devo¬ 
tion,  for  there  is  a  very  deep  rupture  in  the  side  of  Lebanon,  run¬ 
ning  at  least  seven  hours’  travel  directly  up  the  mountain.  It  is 
on  both  sides  exceeding  steep  and  high,  clothed  with  fragrant 
greens  from  top  to  bottom,  and  everywhere  refreshed  with  foun¬ 
tains,  falling  down  from  the  rocks  in  pleasant  cascades,  the  inge¬ 
nious  work  of  nature.  These  streams,  all  uniting  at  the  bottom, 
make  a  full  and  rapid  torrent,  whose  agreeable  murmuring  is  heard 
all  over  the  place,  and  adds  no  small  pleasure  to  it. 

“  Kanobin  is  seated  on  the  north  side  of  this  chasm,  on  the 
steep  of  the  mountain,  at  about  midway  between  the  top  and  the 
bottom.  It  stands  at  the  mouth  of  a  great  cave,  having  a  few 
small  rooms  fronting  outwards  that  enjoy  the  light  of  the  sun ;  the 
rest  are  all  under  ground.  Kanobin  had  for  its  founder  [in  the 
fourth  century]  the  Emperor  Theodosius  the  Great  ;  and  though 
it  has  been  several  times  rebuilt,  yet  the  patriarch  assured  me  the 
church  was  of  the  primitive  foundation.  It  stands  in  the  grotto, 
but  fronting  outwards  receives  a  little  light  from  that  side.  The 
valley  of  Kanobin  was  anciently,  as  it  well  deserves,  very  much 
resorted  to  for  religious  retirement.  You  see  here  still  hermi¬ 
tages,  cells,  monasteries,  almost  without  number.  There  is  not 
any  little  part  of  rock  that  jets  out  upon  the  side  of  the  moun¬ 
tain  but  you  generally  see  some  little  structure  upon  it  for  the 


EL  HASRUN.— EXCEPTIONAL  CULTIVATION.— EL  KADIS  HA.  259 

reception  of  monks  and  hermits,  though  few  or  none  of  them  are 
now  inhabited.”1  A  statement  essentially  true  at  present. 

The  “convent,”  or  Deir  Kanobin,  was  the  prison,  and  near  it 
is  the  tomb  of  As’ad  esh  Shidiak,  a  learned  native,  and  the  first 
Protestant  martyr  on  Mount  Lebanon. 

It  has  taken  us  a  little  over  an  hour  from  el  Hadith  to  reach 
this  beautiful  and  well-wooded  village. 

It  is  called  Hasrun,  and  is  situated  on  the  edge  of  the  precipice 
overhanging  the  deep  wady  of  the  same  name.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  valley  is  Hadshit ;  and  though  the  villagers  can  call  to 
each  other  across  the  profound  chasm,  it  takes  two  hours  to  pass 
from  one  place  to  the  other.  An  hour  farther  on  we  will  cross 
the  Kadisha,  and  half  an  hour  from  there  we  will  enter  the  lower 
part  of  Bsherreh,  although  its  actual  distance  from  Hasrun  as  the 
crow  flies  is  not  two  miles. 

This  region  is  justly  celebrated  for  its  exceptional  cultivation  ; 
every  available  spot  where  a  handful  of  earth  can  be  made  to  pro¬ 
duce  a  blade  of  wheat  or  a  single  vegetable  is  terraced  up  and 
thoroughly  irrigated.  Besides  wheat,  barley,  Indian-corn,  and  the 
cereals  and  vegetables  of  this  country,  the  potato  is  successfully 
cultivated  in  the  fields  along  the  steep  mountain-sides.  Patches 
of  tobacco,  mulberry  gardens,  and  extensive  vineyards  climb  the 
mountain  heights,  surround  the  villages,  and  descend  into  the  deep 
wadys  far  below,  while  here  and  there  and  everywhere,  in  little  val¬ 
leys  and  sheltered  nooks,  silver-leafed  poplars,  walnuts,  figs,  apples, 
pears,  plums,  peaches,  quinces,  and  other  fruit -bearing  trees  are 
seen  in  all  their  leafy  perfection. 

As  the  road  winds  along  the  brink  of  this  gorge  of  the  Kadisha, 
with  its  perpendicular  sides  over  a  thousand  feet  high,  we  can  look 
down  from  time  to  time  into  its  profound  depths. 

“  The  gorge,”  says  Dr.  Robinson,  “  is  for  the  most  part  deeper 
and  wilder  than  any  other  in  Lebanon.  Its  great  depth,  its  sides 
— rocky,  precipitous,  and  dark — closely  approaching  each  other  be¬ 
low,  and  then  in  some  parts  gradually  sloping  off  and  opening  out 
above ;  the  rich  cultivation  and  exuberant  fertility  of  every  spot 
where  earth  can  be  made  to  lie;  the  gardens  of  fruit-trees,  the 

1  Early  Travels,  pp.  502,  503. 


26o 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


mulberry  plantations,  and  the  fields  of  grain  and  vegetables  cloth¬ 
ing  and  adorning  its  sides,  and  mingling  everywhere  with  bold, 
romantic  rocks  and  precipices ;  the  villages,  sometimes  peeping 
from  among  the  trees,  and  sometimes  perched  picturesquely  on 
the  rocks ;  the  convents,  thrust  into  curious  remote  nooks  and  in¬ 
accessible  places,  sometimes  deep  in  the  valley,  and  sometimes  on 
the  summits  of  the  surrounding  mountains — all  these  presented  a 
scene  singularly  wild,  picturesque,  and  beautiful.”1 

As  we  descend  into  the  valley,  in  order  to  ford  the  Kadisha, 
purling  rills  and  shooting  streams  everywhere  cross  our  path  and 
disappear  in  the  depths  below,  and  the  scenery  in  all  directions  is 
grand  and  sublime — the  deep  gorge  and  basin  ;  the  streams  from 
the  sources  of  the  Kadisha  tumbling  and  foaming  along  their  chan¬ 
nels  to  form  the  holy  river;  the  convents,  the  verdure,  and  the 
villages ;  the  great  wady  which,  from  the  bottom  to  the  summit  of 
the  mountain,  appears  only  as  one  unbroken  slope;  and  the  magni¬ 
ficent  snow-capped  range  of  the  Lebanon  above  the  cedars,  which 
forms  the  amphitheatre  in  which  all  are  contained  —  these  here 
combine  the  beauty  and  the  grandeur  of  Lebanon.2 

Bsherreh,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  gorge,  is  a  large  village, 
and  the  houses,  rising  tier  above  tier  up  the  mountain-side,  give 
it  quite  a  striking  and  imposing  appearance. 

It  is  surrounded  and  half  concealed  by  groves  of  silver-leafed 
poplar  and  walnut  trees,  oak  woods,  fig  orchards,  mulberry  terraces, 
vegetable  gardens,  vines  and  vineyards  ;  but  a  near  acquaintance 
reveals  the  same  neglect  and  squalor  which  characterize  every  vil¬ 
lage  on  Lebanon.  The  streets  are  mere  lanes — crooked,  narrow, 
and  filthy — winding  at  random  up  and  down  amongst  the  houses. 
There  are  a  few  shops  where  the  mountaineers  procure  their  sup¬ 
plies  of  groceries,  clothing  materials,  and  other  necessaries.  We 
must  there  replenish  our  exhausted  commissariat,  have  our  horses 
re-shod,  and  allow  the  men  time  to  purchase  barley  for  the  animals 
and  supplies  for  themselves  during  our  stay  at  the  Cedars,  and  for 
two  days’  journey  beyond,  until  we  reach  Ba’albek. 

The  holy  river  is  here  divided  into  several  streams,  and  fording 
them  is  not  so  formidable  as  I  had  expected. 

1  Rob.  Res.,  vol.  iii.  p.  597.  2  Rob.  Res.,  vol.  iii.  p.  597. 


A  PRIMITIVE  BRIDGE.— BSHERREH.— “  THE  CEDARS  OF  GOD.”  261 

Earlier  in  the  season  I  have  crossed  el  Kadisha — with  horses 
and  loaded  mules — on  one  of  the  most  primitive  of  bridges,  even  in 
this  rural  region,  constructed  by  laying  trunks  of  trees  across  the 
stream,  and  placing  slabs  of  stone  upon  them,  covering  the  whole 
with  thorn-bushes,  grass,  and  earth. 

Bsherreh  is  abundantly  supplied  with  water;  and  the  gardens 
in  its  immediate  neighborhood,  although  apparently  just  clinging 
to  the  cliffs  below,  and  climbing  the  mountain  above  the  village, 
are  very  productive.  The  arable  lands  are  extensive,  and  yield 
good  crops  of  wheat,  barley,  Indian-corn,  tobacco,  and  potatoes. 
While  our  men  are  making  their  purchases  we  will  pass  on  and 
up  towards  our  camping- ground.  It  will  take  an  hour’s  steady 
climbing,  over  a  road  steep,  rough,  and  slippery,  to  reach  our  desti¬ 
nation  ;  but  the  extensive  views  obtained  as  we  ascend  are  cer¬ 
tainly  amongst  the  most  impressive  in  this  part  of  Lebanon. 

The  dark  clouds  overhead  have  passed  away,  and  the  setting 
sun  fills  the  gorge  of  the  holy  river  far  below  us  with  its  mellow 
light.  Those  trees  standing  like  sentinels  watching  our  approach 
are  the  advance-guard  of  the  grove  under  whose  solemn  and  sug¬ 
gestive  shadow  we  propose  to  pass  a  quiet  Sabbath  amongst  the 
far-famed  “  Cedars  of  God.” 

Sunday,  September  7th. 

I  could  spend  a  week  here,  merely  to  breathe  the  cool,  fresh 
air,  fragrant  with  aromatic  odors  from  “the  trees  of  the  Lord  [that] 
are  full  of  sap ;  the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  which  he  hath  planted  ; 
where  the  birds  make  their  nests;”  and  to  enjoy  the  universal 
quiet  and  the  solemn  grandeur  of  these  venerable  patriarchs  of  the 
grove,  which  is  so  very  impressive.1  Tree  and  branch  and  twig 
and  leaf  are  still  and  motionless,  keeping  a  Sabbath  of  reverent 
rest,  and  there  is  nothing  to  disturb  the  peacefulness  of  the  place. 
Even  the  ravens  and  crows  and  the  tiny  finches  seem  to  glide  in 
and  out  of  the  uppermost  boughs  with  unwonted  sobriety. 

The  cedar  was  pre-eminently  the  Bible  tree,  greatly  admired 
and  esteemed  by  the  Jews,  and  its  Hebrew  name  is  still  preserved 
in  the  modern  Arabic  one,  el  arz.  “To  the  sacred  writers  the 
cedar  was  the  noblest  of  trees  —  the  monarch  of  the  vegetable 

1  Psa.  civ.  16,  17. 


262 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


kingdom.  ‘  Solomon  spake  of  trees,  from  the  cedar-tree  that  is  in 
Lebanon  even  unto  the  hyssop  that  springeth  out  of  the  wall.’ 1 
To  the  prophets  it  was  the  favorite  emblem  for  greatness,  splen¬ 
dor,  and  majesty;  hence  kings  and  nobles,  the  pillars  of  society, 
are  everywhere  cedars  of  Lebanon.”2  And  to  the  Psalmist  it  was 
the  type  of  increasing  prosperity  for  the  righteous :  “  he  shall  grow 
like  a  cedar  in  Lebanon.” 3  The  cedar  was  celebrated  in  Bible 
times  for  its  great  height.  According  to  Amos  the  Lord  says, 
“Yet  destroyed  I  the  Amorite  before  them,  whose  height  was  like 
the  height  of  the  cedars.”4  Isaiah  tells  us  that  “the  day  of  the 
Lord  of  hosts  shall  be  upon  all  the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  that  are 
high  and  lifted  up.”  5  “Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,”  in  his  pride 
and  arrogance,  “  reproached  the  Lord  and  said,  With  the  multitude 
of  my  chariots  I  am  come  up  to  the  height  of  the  mountains,  to 
the  sides  of  Lebanon,  and  will  cut  down  the  tall  cedars  thereof.”6 
And  so  Ezekiel  represents  the  Lord  as  saying,  “  I  will  also  take 
of  the  highest  branch  of  the  high  cedar;”  and  the  same  idea  is 
implied  in  other  passages  of  the  Bible.7 

The  cedar  had  special  claims  to  be  regarded  with  reverence  by 
the  Jews,  and,  owing  to  its  fragrance,  its  yielding  readily  to  the 
skilful  hand  of  the  artificer,  and  its  durability,  cedar-wood  appears 
to  have  been  considered  by  them  as  amongst  the  choicest  of  woods. 
It  was  always  present  in  the  palaces  of  their  kings,  and  may  be 
said  to  have  “assisted”  in  the  worship  of  God  in  the  Jewish 
temples.  “The  king  [David]  said  unto  Nathan  the  prophet,  See 
now,  I  dwell  in  an  house  of  cedar,  but  the  ark  of  God  dwelleth 
within  curtains.”8  “Solomon  built  also  the  house  of  the  forest  of 
Lebanon,  upon  four  rows  of  cedar  pillars,  with  cedar  beams  upon 
the  pillars,  and  it  was  covered  with  cedar  above  upon  the  beams.”9 
“  Solomon  covered  the  house  [the  temple  of  God]  with  beams  and 
boards  of  cedar;  and  the  cedar  of  the  house  within  was  carved 
with  knobs  and  open  flowers:  all  was  cedar:  the  altar  was  cedar 
overlaid  with  pure  gold.”10  In  the  time  of  Zerubbabel  the  men  of 

1  1  Kings  iv.  33.  9  Rob.  Res.,  vol.  iii.  p.  591.  3  Psa.  xcii.  12. 

4  Amos  ii.  9.  5  Isa.  ii.  12,  13.  6  2  Kings  xix.  20-23. 

7  Ezek.  xvii.  22.  8  2  Sam.  vii.  2,  9  1  Kings  vii.  2,  3. 

10  1  Kings  vi,  9,  10,  15-18,  20. 


IMAGE  OF  A  GOD.— CEDAR -WOOD  IN  NINEVEH.  263 

Sidon  and  Tyre  brought  “  cedar  trees  from  Lebanon  to  the  sea 
of  Joppa,”  as  was  done  in  the  days  of  Solomon,  to  be  used  in 
building  the  second  temple  “  according  to  the  grant  that  they 
had  of  Cyrus;”1  and  Josephus  tells  us  that  “the  roofs”  of  Herod’s 
temple  “were  adorned  with  cedar  curiously  graven.”2 

Isaiah  leads  us  to  infer  that  cedar-wood  was  used  in  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  graven  images  by  cunning  workmen ;  that  the  worshipper 
of  idols  “  chooseth  a  tree  that  will  not  rot ;  he  heweth  him  down 
cedars ;  he  burneth  part  thereof  in  the  fire  ;  with  part  thereof  he 
eateth  flesh  ;  he  roasteth  roast,  and  is  satisfied  ;  yea,  he  warmeth 
himself,  and  saith,  Aha,  I  am  warm,  I  have  seen  the  fire  ;  and  the 
residue  thereof  he  maketh  a  god,  even  his  graven  image.”3  That 
the  cedar  “will  not  rot”  appears  to  be  confirmed  by  specimens 
taken  from  the  most  ancient  ruins  which  man  has  explored. 
“Fragments  of  cedar-wood,  about  three  thousand  years  old,  were 
found  in  the  ruins  of  Nineveh  by  Mr.  Layard,  and  are  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  They  were  first  supposed  to  be  yew;  but  a  care¬ 
ful  microscopic  examination  made  by  Mr.  Carruthers,  with  the 
odor  they  emitted  when  burnt,  proved  it  to  be  cedar-wood.” 4 

There  is  no  mention  of  the  cedar-tree  in  the  New  Testament. 

Simply,  I  suppose,  because  our  Lord  and  his  disciples  had  no 
occasion  to  allude  to  it.  Nor  is  it  necessary  to  insist  that,  in  the 
fifty  or  more  notices  found  in  the  Old  Testament,  reference  is 
always  made  to  the  cedar  of  Lebanon.  Evidently  it  did  not  grow 
in  the  desert,  and  the  cedar -wood  mentioned  in  Leviticus  and 
Numbers  was  probably  a  species  of  juniper.5  So  also  the  state¬ 
ments  in  Ezekiel,  that  masts  of  cedar  were  made  for  the  ships  of 
Tyre,  may  have  had  reference  to  exceptional  cases,  as  the  ordinary 
pine  of  the  country  was  better  adapted  for  such  purposes.6 

The  parable  of  the  trees  inviting  the  bramble  to  rule  over  them, 
and  the  indignant  reply,  “  Let  fire  come  out  of  the  bramble  and 
devour  the  cedars  of  Lebanon  ” — the  allegory  of  the  thistle  pro¬ 
posing  the  marriage  of  its  son  to  the  daughter  of  the  cedar — “  and 
there  passed  by  a  wild  beast  that  was  in  Lebanon  and  trode  down 

1  Ezra  iii.  7.  2  Wars  v.  5,  2.  3  Isa.  xl.  20;  xliv.  14,  16,  17. 

4  Hist,  of  Bib.  Plants,  p.  123.  5  Lev.  xiv.  4,  6,  7  ;  Numb.  xix.  6. 

6  Ezek.  xxvii.  5. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


264 

the  thistle  ” — both,  I  suppose,  are  as  well  adapted  to  rebuke  the 
proud  and  pretentious  now  as  they  were  then.1 

Alas !  flames  far  more  destructive  than  any  “  out  of  the  bram¬ 
ble  ”  have  devoured  “  the  goodly  cedars.”  “  Open  thy  doors,  O 
Lebanon,  that  the  fire  may  devour  thy  cedars.”2  And  not  only 
has  the  charcoal-burner  consumed  “the  glory  of  Lebanon”  in  his 
smouldering  pits,  but  forked  lightning  sometimes  rends  asunder 
the  strongest  and  shatters  the  tallest  trees  amongst  them.  “The 
voice  of  the  Lord  breaketh  the  cedars ;  yea,  the  Lord  breaketh  the 
cedars  of  Lebanon.”3  Isaiah  tells  us  that  they  rejoiced  at  the  fall 
of  Babylon,  “saying,  Since  thou  art  laid  down  no  feller  is  come 
up  against  us;”  yet  more  barbarous  fellers  than  the  hosts  of 
Babylon  have  raised  their  Vandal  axes  against  “the  cedars  of 
God,”  not  to  build  and  adorn  the  palaces  of  kings  and  the  tem¬ 
ples  of  the  Lord,  but  to  burn  and  destroy,  and  to  manufacture  into 
tar  and  pitch  for  the  navy  of  a  Christian  nation.4 

On  some  of  my  former  visits  to  this  grove  I  have  found  the 
nights  extremely  cold,  even  in  the  middle  of  September.  Several 
years  ago,  in  company  with  a  party  of  ladies  and  gentlemen — Eng¬ 
lish,  Scotch,  French,  and  American — we  came  here  to  spend  the 
day  of  rest.  Saturday  had  been  cold,  misty,  and  gloomy,  and  this 
grove  was  enveloped  in  a  dense  fog.  Sunday  morning,  however, 
dawned  upon  us  clear  and  bright,  and  the  day  was  one  of  unal¬ 
loyed  enjoyment,  not  soon  to  be  forgotten.  In  the  presence  of 
such  impressive  scenes  and  scenery  conversation  seemed  almost  an 
impertinence,  and  the  morning  was  spent  in  wandering  through  the 
grove  in  silent  meditation.  Our  party  dined  beneath  the  verdant 
canopy  of  these  venerable  trees,  and,  as  was  natural,  the  topics  of 
conversation  were  mostly  suggested  by  our  immediate  surround¬ 
ings.  As  the  cedar  was  pre-eminently  a  Biblical  tree,  it  was  pro¬ 
posed  that  we  form  ourselves  into  a  Sunday-school  class,  the  lesson 
being  the  Cedars  of  Lebanon;  and  we  proceeded  to  search  out  and 
read  over  the  passages  in  the  Bible  in  which  they  were  mentioned, 
and  to  compare  the  ancient  with  the  modern  tree. 

I11  order  to  correspond  to  the  Biblical  descriptions,  the  cedar- 

]  Judges  ix.  15;  2  Chron.  xxv.  18. 

3  Psa.  xxix.  5. 


2  Zecli.  xi.  1. 
4  Isa.  xiv.  8. 


EL  ARZ— THE  CEDARS 


THE  CEDARS  OF  LEBANON.— OLD  GLACIAL  MORAINES.  265 

tree  should  be  tall,  goodly,  choice,  excellent ;  flourishing  and  abun¬ 
dant,  with  spreading  branches  and  umbrageous  foliage,  and  of  great 
strength  and  durability.  “The  Assyrian  was  a  cedar  in  Lebanon 
with  fair  branches,  and  with  a  shadowing  shroud,  and  of  an  high 
stature;  and  his  top  was  among  the  thick  boughs.  His  height 
was  exalted  above  all  the  trees  of  the  field,  and  his  boughs  were 
multiplied,  and  his  branches  became  long.  Not  any  tree  in  the 
garden  of  God  was  like  unto  him  in  his  beauty;  so  that  all  the 
trees  of  Eden  envied  him.”1 

“  The  cedars  [of  this  grove]  are  not  less  remarkable,”  says  Dr. 
Robinson,  “  for  their  position  than  for  their  age  and  size.  The 
lofty  ridge  of  the  mountain  trends  slightly  towards  the  east ;  and 
then,  after  resuming  its  former  direction,  throws  off  a  spur  of  equal 
altitude  towards  the  west,  which  sinks  down  gradually  into  the 
ridge  terminating  at  Ehden.  This  ridge  sweeps  round  so  as  to 
become  nearly  parallel  with  the  main  ridge,  thus  forming  an  im¬ 
mense  recess  or  amphitheatre,  approaching  the  horseshoe  form  ; 
surrounded  by  the  loftiest  ridges  of  Lebanon  [over  six  thousand 
feet  high  and],  which  rise  still  [three  or  four  thousand  feet]  above 
it,  and  are  partly  covered  with  snows.  In  the  midst  of  this  amphi¬ 
theatre  [on  a  group  of  half  a  dozen  small  knolls]  stand  the  cedars, 
utterly  alone,  with  not  a  tree  besides,  nor  hardly  a  green  thing  in 
sight — [‘at  the  apex  of  the  vegetable  world’2].  The  amphitheatre 
fronts  towards  the  west ;  and,  as  seen  from  the  cedars,  the  snow 

extends  round  from  south  to  north.  High  up  in  the  recess  the 

deep,  precipitous  chasm  of  the  Kadisha  has  its  beginning,  the 
wildest  and  grandest  of  all  the  gorges  of  Lebanon.”3 

Canon  Tristram  aptly  remarks  that  the  general  appearance  of 
this  grove  is  of  a  thick  clump,  as  though  it  was  the  remnant  of 
some  ancient  forest.4  The  little  rocky  knolls  upon  which  it  stands, 
and  which  Dr.  Hooker  believes  to  be  “old  moraines  deposited  by 
glaciers,”  cover  but  a  few  acres  of  the  arena  enclosed  within  this 
vast  amphitheatre,  and  the  trees  themselves  do  not  exceed  four 
hundred,  of  all  sizes  and  ages.  There  is  a  regular  gradation  from 
small  and  comparatively  young  trees  to  the  largest  and  oldest  patri- 

1  Ezek.  xxxi.  3,  5,  8,  9.  2  Dean  Stanley. 

8  Rob.  Res.,  vol.  iii.  pp.  590,  591.  4  Land  of  Israel,  p.  629. 


266 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


archs  of  the  forest.  The  large  trees  are  about  twelve  in  number, 
and  have  several  trunks,  dividing  into  three  or  more  great  branches 
a  few  feet  from  the  ground.  Of  those  trees  some  are  over  forty 
feet  in  circumference,  others  thirty  and  twenty  feet  in  girth.  They 
are  from  fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  “with  fair  branches,”  and 
their  “  shadowing  shroud  ”  spreads  widely  around. 

Nothing  very  satisfactory  has  yet  been  ascertained  in  regard  to 
the  age  of  these  cedars,  nor  are  they  more  ready  to  reveal  it  than 
those  who  have  an  uneasy  consciousness  of  “length  of  days.”  Very 
different  estimates  have  been  made  by  botanists  and  others,  vary¬ 
ing  from  eight  hundred  to  two  thousand  and  even  three  thousand 
years  ;  but  the  method  of  ascertaining  their  approximate  age  by 
counting  the  growths,  or  concentric  circles,  in  a  section  of  the 
trunk  does  not  appear  to  be  very  reliable. 

Some  of  these  trees  are,  certainly,  very  old ;  they  have  names 
and  dates  of  persons  known  and  unknown  to  fame  carved  upon 
their  gnarled  and  knotted  trunks  many  generations  ago,  and  the 
growth  of  the  tree  since  then  is  hardly  perceptible. 

One  cannot  look  upon  these  patriarchs  of  the  forest — the  glory 
of  Lebanon — without  feeling  that  they  are  endowed  with  a  species 
of  immortality — their  ancient  (story!  —  their  glory  and  renown! 
coming  down  the  ages  from  “the  garden  of  God” — “the  cedars 
of  Lebanon  which  he  hath  planted” — to  the  temple  of  the  Lord — 
from  the  time  of  David,  Solomon,  and  Hiram  to  the  days  of  Ze- 
rubbabel  and  Herod  the  Great.  As  they  stand  now  they  have 
stood  for  many  centuries,  looking  down  in  tranquil  repose  upon 
the  ephemeral  generations  of  mankind  as  they  passed  on  to  ob¬ 
livion  ;  and  it  is  their  great  antiquity  and  renown  which  are  their 
chief  glory,  and  attract  so  many  from  all  parts  of  the  earth  to 
make  “  pilgrimages  ”  to  this  “sacred  grove,”  and  to  meditate 
within  the  mystic  circle  of  its  “  shadowing  shroud.” 

Wandering  through  the  grove  this  morning,  I  noticed,  near  the 
south-west  part  of  it,  four  trees  that  have  become  inextricably  in¬ 
tertwined.  About  twenty-five  feet  from  the  ground  two  of  them 
have  grown  together,  and  a  large  branch  of  the  third  has  passed 
into  and  through  the  trunk  of  the  second  tree,  near  the  same 
place.  Twenty  feet  higher  up,  a  stout  limb  from  the  third  tree 


FOUR  CEDAR-TREES  INTERTWINED 


267 


AN  AGED  CEDAR  OF  LEBANON. 


has  also  passed  through  the  second,  and,  still  higher  up,  a  strong 
branch  from  it  is  similarly  united  with  the  same  tree.  Finally,  the 
third  tree  has  become  firmly  joined  to  the  fourth,  and  no  one  of 
the  four  could  be  felled  without  cutting  down  all  the  others. 

I  suppose  that  growing  together  was  the  result  of  friction  after 
the  several  branches  had  become  permanently  intertwined.  Dean 
Stanley  probably  alludes  to  the  same  unusual  spectacle  when  he 


268 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


says:  “In  one  or  two  instances  the  boughs  of  these  aged  trees  are 
held  up  by  a  younger  tree ;  others,  again,  of  the  smaller  ones, 
whose  trunks  are  decayed,  are  actually  supported  in  the  gigantic 
arms  of  their  elder  brethren.” 

The  form  and  shape  of  the  cedar  give  to  it  a  very  striking 
and  graceful  appearance.  In  places  where  it  can  grow  naturally 
and  freely  the  tree  assumes  somewhat  the  symmetry  of  its  beau¬ 
tiful  cone.  The  branches  spread  out  horizontally  from  the  main 
trunk,  and  the  lower  ones  are  the  longest.  These  again  divide  into 
other  boughs,  which  preserve  the  same  horizontal  direction,  and 
so  on  to  the  smallest  twig ;  and  even  the  leaves  follow  the  same 
general  arrangement.  Climb  into  one  of  these  trees,  and  you  will 
see  a  succession  of  verdant  floors  beneath  your  feet,  and  similar 
floors  overhead,  spreading  around  the  trunk,  and  gradually  con¬ 
tracting  their  circuit,  as  you  approach  the  topmost  boughs.  The 
cedar -cones  stand  upon  or  rise  perpendicularly  out  of  that  green 
flooring.  Travellers  gather  and  carry  them  to  their  distant  homes, 
and  they  are  found  in  private  cabinets  more  frequently  than  almost 
any  other  memento  from  the  Holy  Land. 

Forty-five  years  ago,  when  visitors  and  travellers  were  few  and 
far  between,  I  found  hundreds  of  young  trees  and  shoots  springing 
up  from  the  seeds  of  the  ripe  cones,  and  from  the  roots  of  the  aged 
cedars ;  and  an  effort  was  made  to  protect  them  from  the  goats  and 
cattle  of  the  shepherd  and  the  peasant.  That,  however,  was  soon 
abandoned,  and  during  the  summer  and  autumn  this  grove  is  over¬ 
run  by  men  and  animals,  and  the  young  cedars  are  trampled  upon 
and  destroyed.  This  shows  that,  instead  of  four  hundred,  there 
might  be  as  many  thousand  trees  in  the  grove,  and  that  the  whole 
of  the  lofty  ridges  of  Lebanon  could  again  be  covered  with  cedars. 

It  is  some  consolation  to  know  that,  if  this  forest  of  cedar 
should  slowly  die  out  and  disappear  through  the  negligence  and 
vandalism  of  the  natives  and  the  ruinous  policy  of  the  Turks,  the 
tree  itself  will  not  be  lost.  It  has  been  propagated  from  seeds 
in  the  parks  and  gardens  of  Europe,  and  there  are  specimens  of 
the  cedar  in  England,  I  suppose,  as  fine  as  these  in  this  “  sacred 
grove”  upon  the  heights  of  goodly  Lebanon. 

The  wood,  bark,  cones,  and  even  the  slender  leaves  of  the  cedar 


FEAST  OF  THE  CEDARS.— PRIEST  AND  CHAPEL.  269 

are  “  full  of  sap,”  as  the  Psalmist  has  it,  imparting  to  them  their 
peculiar  fragrance  and  their  abiding  life  ;  and  it  was  that  which 
rendered  cedar-wood  valuable,  and  also  imperishable ;  but,  owing 
principally  to  the  scarcity  of  the  tree,  the  timber  is  now  rarely 
used  for  building  purposes  in  this  country. 

During  most  of  my  former  visits  a  holy  quiet  seemed  to  pervade 
this  grove,  and  I  have  always  regarded  it  with  those  feelings  of 
reverence  and  solemnity  which  no  other  spot  on  Lebanon  is  calcu¬ 
lated  to  inspire.  I  am  not  surprised,  therefore,  that  even  to  this 
day  it  is  invested  with  a  religious  sanctity  by  multitudes  of  Chris¬ 
tians.  The  Maronites  of  these  mountains  assemble  here  in  Au¬ 
gust,  and  celebrate  the  Feast  of  the  Cedars  under  these  venerable 
trees.  More  than  forty  years  ago,  on  my  second  visit  to  this  grove, 
I  heard  “mass”  performed  in  a  rude  and  rustic  chapel,  which  has 
given  place  to  the  little  edifice  lately  erected  by  the  poor  priest 
who  now  solicits  aid  from  travellers  for  its  maintenance  and  his 
own  support.  He  complains,  and  not  without  reason,  of  the  sad 
decline  of  religious  zeal  in  these  modern  times. 


270 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


VIII. 

THE  CEDARS  TO  HURMUL  AND  BA’ALBEK. 

The  Summit-level  of  the  Lebanon  Range. — The  Cedar  Mountain. — Jebel  Mukhmal. — 
Pass  over  Lebanon  Described  by  Dr.  Buchanan. — Ehden. — Paradisus. — Yusuf  Karam. 
—  Pass  around  the  West  End  of  Lebanon. —  Tripolis. —  El  Mina.  —  Small  Islands 
North-west  of  Tripoli. — The  Castle  of  Tripoli. — Library  at  Tripoli  Burnt  during  the 
Crusades.  —  Burckhardt.  —  Tarablus  esh  Sham.  —  Terminus  of  the  Euphrates  Valley 
Railroad. — Ruwad,  Arvad. — Cyclopean  Wall. — Alexander  the  Great. — Tartus,  Tor- 
tosa. — Castle  and  Church  at  Tartus. — Bombardment  of  Tartus. — Antaridus. — Ancient 
Quarries. — Idol-temple. — Remains  near  ’Ain  el  Haiyeh. — Sepulchral  Monuments. — 
M.  Renan. — Marathus. — Area. — Tell  ’Arka. — Temple  of  Alexander. — The  Emperor 
Severus. — The  Holy  Lance. — Ruins  of  Area. — Tunnel. — Fossil  Shells. — Exuberant 
Verdure  and  Grand  Scenery. — Nahr  el  Barid. — Orthosia. — Ruined  Temple  on  Harf 
es  Sphiry. — Dining  with  the  Beg  at  Sir. — The  Man  of  Uz. — The  Sabbatical  River. 
— Fauwar  ed  Deir. — Intermitting  Fountains. —  Gray  Squirrels  and  Walnut-trees. — 
Fountain  and  Overhanging  Cliff. — View  from  the  Pass  above  Sir. — Cloud-burst. — 
Homer. — Tydens.  —  Dislocated  Strata.  — Wheat  and  Snow.  —  Sheepfolds.  —  ’Ain  el 
Beida. — Natives  Making  Tar. — A  Mountain  Meadow. — Et  Tubban. — Water-shed. — 
Wady  Farah. — “Boundless  Contiguity  of  Shade.” — ’Ain  el  Ayun. — Dahar  el  Kudhib. 
— A  Camp-fire  on  Lebanon. — Personal  Incident  at  Hurmul. — Local  Rebellion. — 
Hurmul. — Woodland  Scenery  on  Lebanon  Described  by  Van  de  Velde. — “  The  En¬ 
trance  of  Hamath.” — Dr.  Robinson. — Ribleh. — Pharaoh  and  Josiah. — Nebuchadnezzar 
and  Zedekiah. — A  Dreadful  Massacre. — The  Camping-ground  of  Fierce  Conquerors. 
— The  Hittites. — The  Kheta. —  Egyptian  Inscriptions. — Rameses  II. —  M.  Ebers. — 
Battle  near  Ivadesh  between  the  Egyptians  and  the  Kheta. — The  “Right  Arm”  of 
Rameses  II. — Pentaur. — The  Iliad  of  the  Egyptians. — “I  was  alone.” — Rameses  II. 
Fighting  the  Kheta,  with  Two  Lions  at  his  Side. — A  Warlike  and  Powerful  People. — 
The  Report  of  the  Spies  sent  by  Moses. — Frequent  Communication  between  Egypt 
and  Syria  in  Patriarchal  Times. — Egyptian  Influence  in  Syria. — Site  of  Ketesh. — 
Kedes. — Laodicea. — Tell  Neby  Mindau. — Lake  of  Hums  or  Kedes. — Stone  Dam. — 
Abulfeda. — Canal  to  Hums. — Rivulets  and  Corn-fields. — The  Fountains  of  the  Oron- 
tes  Described  by  Van  de  Velde. — Neb’a  el  ’Asy. — The  Orontes. — The  Monk’s  Cavern. 
— Kamu’a  el  Hurmul. — Hunting  Scenes  Delineated  on  the  Kamu’a. — Outlook  over 
the  Plain  from  the  Kamu’a. — The  Canal  from  ’Ain  Lebweh  to  Iva’a. — Perpendicular 
Banks  above  Neb’a  el  ’Asy. — Ras  Ba’albek. — Conna. — Wady  Fikeh. — El  ’Ain. — 


SUMMIT-LEVEL  OF  LEBANON.— THE  CEDAR  MOUNTAIN.  27 1 

Ain. — The  Water-shed. — A  Night  in  a  Bedawin  Encampment. — Lebweh. — Lybo. — 
Saracen  and  Crusader. — Neb’a  Lebweh. — An  Oasis  in  the  Desert. — Lake  Yemmuneh. 
— Disappearance  of  the  Water  of  the  Lake. — Ruined  Temple  at  Yemmuneh. — Vil¬ 
lages  on  the  Hill-sides,  not  in  the  Plain. — Lone  Column  in  the  Buka’a.—  Ancient 
Temple  and  Rock-cut  Tombs  at  Nahleh. 

September  8th. 

INSTEAD  of  following  the  ordinary  road  from  the  Cedars  to 
Ba’albek,  we  will  take  a  more  circuitous  course,  across  the  ranges 
of  northern  Lebanon,  to  the  source  of  the  river  Orontes,  near 
Kamu’a  el  Hurmul,  and  thence  southward,  ascending  the  broad 
valley  between  the  two  ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Anti -Lebanon  to 
Ba’albek.  That  route  will  lead  us  through  regions  about  which 
very  little  is  known  ;  but  we  have  only  to  follow  the  muleteers, 
who  have  already  started  with  a  guide  for  Sir,  where  we  are  to 
encamp  for  the  night.  Our  course  for  the  first  three  hours  will  be 
westward  along  the  lofty  ridge  which  comes  to  an  end  above  the 
picturesque  village  of  Ehden. 

It  is  evident  that  our  tour  to  the  Cedars  has  not  brought  us  to 
the  termination  of  goodly  Lebanon. 

Far  from  it.  This  mountain  -  range  extends  at  least  twenty 
miles  farther  to  the  north-east,  and  then  it  descends  gradually 
down  to  the  lower  hills  of  Jebel  ’Akkar,  which  connect  it  with  the 
mountains  of  the  Nusairiyeh.  The  characteristic  feature  of  the 
range  is  also  changed.  From  Taum  Niha,  on  the  extreme  south, 
up  to  this  lofty  peak  east  of  the  Cedars,  the  summit-level  of  Leba¬ 
non  is  quite  narrow — not  more  than  a  mile  wide.  But  from  there 
northward  it  expands  into  an  elevated  plateau  at  least  ten  miles 
broad — a  cold,  barren,  and  uninhabited  region,  fit  haunt  of  bears, 
wolves,  jackals,  and  other  wild  animals. 

Nothing,  certainly,  in  this  country  can  exceed  in  grandeur  this 
vast  amphitheatre  around  the  Cedars ;  and  the  views  of  the  grove, 
and  those  of  lofty  Lebanon  towering  above  it,  which  we  obtain  from 
many  projecting  points  along  our  road,  will  never  be  forgotten. 

The  range  is  here  called  Jebel  el  Arz,  the  Cedar  Mountain; 
and  the  highest  peak  overhanging  the  grove  is  Jebel  Mukhmal. 
It  is  more  than  ten  thousand  two  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea — probably  the  most  elevated  point  of  land  in  all  Syria, 
higher  than  Sunniti,  and  even  Mount  Hermon.  To  those  coming 


272 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


from  Ba’albek  to  the  Cedars  the  outlook  from  the  top  of  the  pass 
over  them  is,  perhaps,  the  most  extensive  in  this  region.  For  about 
two  hours  the  road  winds  up  the  steep  mountain  -  side,  affording 
many  fine  views  of  the  distant  range  of  Anti-Lebanon  and  the  far- 
off  ruins  of  Ba’albek  ;  the  broad  and  varied  plain  of  Coelesyria,  and 
the  silvery  lake  of  el  Yemmoneh,  gleaming  in  the  sunlight;  the 
bleak  little  village  of  ’Ainata,  built  upon  a  spur  of  the  mountain, 
its  beautiful  grove  of  walnut-trees  almost  directly  below ;  and  the 
magnificent  and  nearly  perpendicular  sweep  of  the  Lebanon  range 
extending  southward  far  as  the  eye  can  follow. 

Such  is  the  prospect  from  the  eastern  side  of  Lebanon  over 
the  plain  of  Coelesyria.  The  outlook  westward  from  the  top  of 
the  pass  above  the  Cedars  is  thus  described  by  Dr.  Buchanan:  “As 
we  approached  the  summit  of  the  mountain  our  path  lay  over  un¬ 
broken  snow.  Never  shall  I  forget,  while  memory  lasts,  the  mag¬ 
nificence  of  the  view  which  burst  upon  us  when  we  suddenly  turned 
the  narrow  ridge  of  the  mountain.  Before  gaining  this  point  we 
had  many  times  turned  round  to  gaze  with  rapture  on  the  scene 
we  were  leaving  behind.  But  grand  as  that  view  was,  it  seemed 
almost  tame  and  commonplace  in  comparison  with  the  wonderful 
and  glorious  sight  that  opened  upon  us  when  we  at  length  reached 
the  summit  of  this  gigantic  mountain  wall  and  looked  over  to  the 
other  side.  The  range  of  the  Lebanon  at  this  particular  point  is 
so  narrow  as  almost  to  resemble  the  top  of  a  wall.  This  singular 
peculiarity  is  caused  by  the  immense  gash  made  by  the  valley  of 
the  Kadisha,  which  nearly  cuts  the  mountain  through. 

“We  were  now  standing  at  the  top,  and  on  the  very  brink  of 
this  crevasse,  which  descends  rapidly  to  the  broad  and  beautiful 
plain  that  stretches  out  from  the  western  base  of  the  mountain  to 
the  sea-shore  at  Tripoli.  It  is  made  up  of  a  succession  of  vast 
basins  or  cavities,  with  sudden  breaks  or  precipices  dropping  sheer 
down  from  one  to  another,  and  walled  in,  all  the  way  down,  by 
mountain  heights  overhanging  this  abyss  on  either  hand.  The 
bottom  of  the  uppermost  of  these  large  cavities  lay  about  fifteen 
hundred  feet  beneath  us.  Sweeping  forward  from  the  point  where 
we  stood,  the  mountain  encloses  it  on  two  sides,  rising  at  the  same 
time  several  thousand  feet  higher  above  it  than  at  the  point  where 


SCENE  FROM  THE  TOP  OF  THE  PASS  ABOVE  THE  CEDARS.  273 

we  stood.  We  were  therefore  looking  down  into  this  enormous 
cavity,  and  away  downwards  and  onwards  to  the  plain  and  the 
sea,  between  these  stupendous  heights. 

“  It  is  amongst  these  heights  the  Lebanon  attains  its  loftiest 
elevation — the  cluster  of  peaks  immediately  in  front  of  us  on  the 
right  rising  over  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level,  while  those 
on  the  left  are  not  much  lower,  and  both  of  them,  from  their  sum¬ 
mits  down  to  the  vast  hollow  or  cavity  between  them,  exhibited 
one  unbroken  mass  of  dazzling  snow.  It  is  necessary  to  conceive 
of  this  foreground  in  order  to  form  any  correct  idea  of  the  striking 
and  almost  supernatural  appearance  of  the  scene  which  here  met 
our  startled  and  bewildered  eyes. 

“  Light  fleecy  clouds  were  sailing  across  our  line  of  vision  from 
one  mountain -side  to  another.  The  glorious  blue  heaven  was 
above  our  heads.  Far  down  beneath  us,  at  the  bottom  of  the 
gorge,  gleamed  [the  Holy  River]  in  the  bright  sunshine,  and  the 
plain  seemed  almost  at  our  feet.  [On  its  outer  margin]  was  Tri¬ 
poli,  shining  brightly  above  the  dark  foliage  of  the  groves  and  gar¬ 
dens  around  it ;  and  there  was  the  sea,  as  blue  as  the  sky,  [rising 
up  to]  those  fleecy  clouds  ....  and  there  was  another  expanse  of 
blue  [rising  above  them]  to  the  sky.  It  was  the  sea  seen  at  the 
same  moment  both  below  and  above  the  clouds !  We  stood 
amidst  the  snow  gazing  in  a  sort  of  ecstasy  on  this  wonderful  and 
truly  glorious  scene.  The  first  object  that  attracted  our  notice,  in 
a  corner  of  the  huge  cavity  or  basin  immediately  beneath  us,  was 
a  group  of  trees — one  solitary  clump — standing  apparently  on  a 
floor  of  gray  rock,  only  a  few  hundred  yards  beneath  the  line  of 
the  snow.  These  were  the  Cedars  of  Lebanon.”  1 

Our  road  from  the  Cedars,  though  rough  and  rocky,  has  been 
endlessly  diversified  by  distant  views  of  mountain  scenery,  com¬ 
bining  every  element  of  beauty,  grandeur,  and  sublimity.  We 
have  had  glimpses  of  the  profound  gorge  of  the  holy  river  Kadi- 
sha ;  have  seen,  far  below  and  above  us,  several  villages  and  con¬ 
vents  ;  have  crossed  green  valleys  and  purling  streams  ;  have  been 
refreshed  by  the  waters  of  cold  and  sparkling  fountains ;  and  have 
at  last,  after  a  pleasant  ride  of  three  hours,  arrived  at  this  pretty 

1  Notes  of  a  Clerical  Furlough,  p.  432-434. 

T 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


2/4 

village  of  Ehden,  embowered  in  verdure,  and  surrounded  by  vine¬ 
yards,  mulberry  terraces,  and  pine,  fig,  and  walnut  trees. 

Ehden  is  about  five  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  from  its  advantageous  position,  on  the  slope  of  the  mountain 
at  the  north-western  angle  of  the  great  amphitheatre  around  the 
Cedars,  it  commands  a  magnificent  outlook  in  all  directions.  It 
has  abundant  fountains,  substantial  houses  and  churches,  and  the 
inhabitants  are  remarkably  enterprising  and  prosperous.  Nor  is  it 
entirely  unknown  to  fame  :  it  has  been  confounded  by  Maronite 
monks  with  the  Paradisus  of  the  ancients,  and  “  is  said  to  have 
been  the  birthplace  of  the  Maronite  scholar,  Gabriel  Sionita,  the 
editor  of  the  Syrian  version  in  the  Paris  Polyglot.”1  Formerly  it 
was  the  seat  of  a  Maronite  bishop,  and  more  recently  it  became 
the  refuge  of  a  Maronite  rebel  against  the  Government,  Yusuf 
Karam,  the  ruins  of  whose  dwelling  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
middle  of  the  village.  In  the  winter  this  place  is  buried  in  deep 
snow,  and  those  of  the  inhabitants  who  can  do  so  then  descend 
to  Zugharta,  a  large  village  on  the  south  side  of  a  fertile  valley 
between  the  foot-hills  of  the  mountain  and  the  city  of  Tripoli. 

Since  leaving  Ehden  the  direction  of  our  ride  has  changed  to 
the  north-east,  and  from  the  top  of  this  pass  around  the  west  end 
of  the  mountain  we  must  bid  farewell  to  the  city  of  Tripoli  and 
that  vast  expanse  of  land  and  sea. 

Owing  to  the  great  transparency  of  the  atmosphere  to-day 
Tripoli  seems  to  be  surprisingly  near. 

It  is  at  least  seven  thousand  feet  below  us,  and  it  would  take 
more  than  nine  hours  to  reach  it. 

Compared  with  Tyre  and  Sidon,  Tripoli  appears  to  have  but 
little  historic  interest,  either  ancient  or  modern. 

And  yet  it  has  long  been,  and  is  now,  one  of  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  towns  on  this  coast.  The  ancient  geographers  inform  us  that 
it  was  founded  about  700  B.C.  by  three  colonies  from  Arvad — that 
little  island  of  Ruwad,  away  to  the  north — Sidon,  and  Tyre,  and 
that  they  occupied  separate  quarters;  hence  the  name  Tripolis, 
triple  city.  Its  Phoenician  name  is  supposed  to  have  been  Kady- 
tis,  “the  holy;”  and  it  is  inferred  that  the  river  Kadisha,  which 

1  Rob.  Res.  vol.  iii.  p.  587. 


TRIPOLI.— TOWERS  AND  ISLANDS.— THE  CASTLE.  275 

runs  through  the  town,  still  preserves  the  form  and  significance  of 
that  ancient  name.  It  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  nor  even 
alluded  to  by  classic  writers  until  the  times  of  the  Greeks.  El 
Mina,  the  harbor,  appears  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  original  town. 
Tripoli  was  a  member  of  the  Phoenician  league,  and  participated  in 
an  unsuccessful  revolt  against  the  Persians.  In  Alexander’s  time 
it  was  a  seaport  of  the  first  rank,  and  continued  to  increase  in  com¬ 
mercial  importance  until  after  the  Moslem  invasion,  when  the  town. 
Was  destroyed,  and  the  present  city  of  Tarablus  was  founded,  about 
two  miles  inland,  towards  the  south-east.  Tripoli  was  one  of  the 
last  cities  that  surrendered  to  the  Saracens,  on  the  final  overthrow 
of  the  Frank  kingdom  in  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land. 

The  shore  between  the  mouth  of  the  Kadisha  and  the  north¬ 
western  end  of  the  Mina  was  defended  by  a  number  of  square 
towers.  There  were  originally  seven,  but  one  of  them  has  entirely 
disappeared,  and  the  remaining  six  are  dilapidated  and  fast  crum¬ 
bling  into  shapeless  ruins.  The  best-preserved  is  Burj  es  Seba’ar 
the  lions’  tower,  so  called  from  a  tradition  that  two  lions  were  for¬ 
merly  visible  on  a  slab  over  the  entrance — probably  the  shield  and 
arms  of  Count  Raymond  of  Toulouse.  Burj  es  Seba’a  is  ninety 
feet  long  and  sixty-six  feet  wide,  and  it  has  seventy  granite  col¬ 
umns  built  into  its  walls.  All  those  towers  were  probably  con¬ 
structed  during  the  times  of  the  Crusaders.  A  group  of  about  a 
dozen  small  and  rocky  islands  extends  into  the  sea,  from  el  Mina 
towards  the  north-west,  for  several  miles.  The  largest  and  the 
most  distant  is  called  Sha’ishet  el  Kady ;  the  next  is  er  Rumkin  ; 
and  the  third  in  number  and  size  is  en  Nukhl,  distinguished  by  a 
palm-tree,  from  which  the  name  is  derived.  It  is  said  that  a  num¬ 
ber  of  rabbits  inhabited  it  in  former  times,  and  that  there  are  an¬ 
cient  remains  and  several  deep  wells  on  another  island.  Those 
near  the  shore  are  merely  ragged  rocks,  rising  only  a  few  feet  out 
of  the  water,  and  have  nothing  remarkable  about  them. 

When  the  Crusaders  besieged  Tripoli,  in  1104,  Count  Raymond 
built  the  existing  castle  on  the  hill,  then  called  the  Pilgrims’ 
Mount,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Kadisha  into  the  plain,  in  order  to 
protect  pilgrims  and  harass  the  Moslems.  Arab  historians  relate 
the  story  of  the  burning  of  a  great  library,  containing  over  one 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


276 

hundred  thousand  volumes,  in  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Greek,  when 
the  city  was  captured  five  years  after  by  Baldwin,  and  Bertram,  the 
son  of  Count  Raymond.  A  fanatical  priest  in  his  train,  finding 
many  copies  of  the  Koran  in  the  library,  concluded  that  it  con¬ 
tained  nothing  else,  and  ordered  the  entire  collection  to  be  burnt. 
The  library  was  founded  by  Abu  Talib,  an  author  of  some  cele¬ 
brity  ;  and  Moslem  writers  lament  the  destruction  of  so  extensive  a 
library,  but  the  historians  of  the  Crusades  do  not  even  mention  it. 

Tarablus,  or  modern  Tripoli,  is  often  mentioned  by  Arab  writ¬ 
ers,  who  speak  with  enthusiasm  of  its  wealth  and  the  beauty  of 
its  gardens,  surpassed  only  by  those  of  Damascus.  Then,  as  now, 
it  abounded  in  extensive  gardens  of  orange,  lemon,  apricot,  pear, 
plum,  apple,  and  other  fruit  trees ;  but  it  is,  by  way  of  eminence, 
the  city  of  roses.  “Tripoli  is  built  upon  the  declivity  of  the  low¬ 
est  hills  of  the  Lebanon,  and  is  divided  by  Nahr  el  Kadisha  into 
two  parts,  of  which  the  southern  is  the  most  considerable.  On 
the  north  side  of  the  river,  upon  the  summit  of  the  hill,  stands  the 
tomb  of  Sheikh  Abu  Nusr,  and  opposite  to  it,  on  the  south  side, 
the  castle,  built  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades ;  this  castle  has  often 
been  in  a  ruined  state,  but  it  has  lately  been  put  into  complete 
repair.  Many  parts  of  Tripoli  bear  marks  of  the  ages  of  the  Cru¬ 
sades  ;  amongst  these  are  several  high  arcades  of  Gothic  architect¬ 
ure,  under  which  the  modern  streets  run. 

“  In  general  the  town  is  well  built,  and  is  much  embellished  by 
the  gardens,  which  are  not  only  attached  to  the  houses  in  the  town, 
but  cover  likewise  the  whole  triangular  plain  lying  between  it  and 
the  sea.  Tripoli  stands  in  one  of  the  most  favored  spots  in  all 
Syria,  as  the  maritime  plain  and  neighboring  mountains  place  every 
variety  of  climate  within  a  short  distance  of  the  inhabitants.”1 
“  The  path  leading  up  either  hill  [from  the  river  Kadisha]  opens 
on  a  brilliant  and  extensive  landscape  :  of  the  plain,  two  miles  in 
width,  covered  with  gardens  even  to  the  sea ;  of  the  port  on  the 
left,  with  the  islands ;  of  the  heights  of  Lebanon  behind,  and  the 
boundless  and  beautiful  Mediterranean  Sea  in  front — and  over  all 
an  atmosphere  pure,  soft,  and  splendid.”2 

Such  was  Tarablus  esh  Sham,  Tripoli  of  Damascus,  more  than 
1  Burckhardt,  Travels,  p.  163,  164.  2  Carne’s  Syria,  p.  22,  23. 


TARABULUS— TRIPOLI. 


* 


POPULATION  OF  TRIPOLI.— HOME  OF  THE  ARVADITES.  2 77 

threescore  years  ago,  and  such  essentially  it  is  at  the  present  day. 
It  is  the  capital  of  a  military  province,  the  seat  of  a  Greek  bishop; 
contains  churches,  monasteries,  nunneries,  an  orphanage,  one  syna¬ 
gogue,  and  the  Female  Seminary  of  the  American  Mission;  it  has 
spacious  mosks,  with  tall  minarets,  some  of  which  were  once 
Christian'  churches,  and  rejoices  in  ed  Derwishiyeh,  a  monastery  of 
whirling  dervishes,  picturesquely  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Kadisha.  I  might  add  much  more  about  Tri¬ 
poli  and  its  immediate  surroundings;  but  if  we  loiter  along  the  way 
until  all  that  could  be  said  is  told,  our  progress  would  be  slow 
indeed,  and  the  narrative  prolonged  to  weariness. 

What  is  the  number  of  the  inhabitants  in  Tripoli? 

About  twenty  thousand,  including  six  thousand  in  the  Mina.  In 
Tripoli  three-fourths  of  the  population  is  Muhammedan;  in  the  Mina 
the  majority  is  in  favor  of  the  Greeks ;  there  are,  also,  in  both  places 
a  few  Maronites  and  some  Jews.  Tripoli  has  declined  in  commercial 
importance,  and  its  trade  is  not  very  extensive.  It  consists  mainly 
in  silk,  soap,  olive-oil,  tobacco,  oranges,  lemons,  and  even  potatoes 
from  the  gardens  and  fields  in  the  neighborhood.  Sponges  have 
always  been  a  specialty  amongst  the  exports.  They  are  gathered  all 
along  the  shore,  both  to  the  north  and  south  of  Tripoli,  by  native 
and  Greek  divers,  who  frequently  bring  up  portions  of  the  rock 
with  the  sponge  still  adhering  to  them.  If  Tripoli  should  become 
the  terminus  of  the  Euphrates  Valley  Railroad,  leading  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  thus  connecting  Syria  with 
India,  its  future  growth  and  prosperity  would  be  assured  ;  but  it 
has  a  formidable  rival  in  Alexandretta,  whose  harbor  is  safer,  though 
from  Tripoli  the  grade  into  the  interior  would  be  less  difficult. 

It  will  take  five  hours  more  to  reach  our  place  of  encampment, 
and  therefore  we  must  quicken  our  pace.  There  is  neither  village 
nor  human  habitation  between  this  and  Sir. 

Can  you  not  enliven  the  loneliness  of  the  ride  by  giving  some 
account  of  Ruwad,  the  island-home  of  the  Arvadites,  far  away  on 
the  horizon  to  the  north  of  Tripoli?  Since  the  Arvadite  is  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis,  there  must  be  some  remains 
of  special  interest  upon  that  island,  or  in  its  immediate  neighbor¬ 
hood,  for  it  is  one  of  the  oldest  historical  sites  in  the  world. 


2/8 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Except  in  Genesis  x.  1 8,  and  i  Chronicles  i.  1 6,  Arvad,  the  son 
of  Canaan,  and  the  Arvadites,  his  descendants,  are  not  mentioned 
in  the  Bible  until  the  time  of  Ezekiel,  nearly  two  thousand  years 
later.  He  places  “  the  inhabitants  of  Arvad  ”  among  the  mariners 
of  Tyre,  and  with  its  army,  who  “were  upon  thy  walls  round 
about.”  1  Strabo  speaks  of  the  island  as  a  rock  in  the  midst  of  the 
waves,  inhabited  by  mariners,  and  he  says  that  the  houses  were 
exceedingly  lofty,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  limited  area  of  the 
island.  We  hear  little  more  of  Arvad  until  the  time  of  Alex¬ 
ander  the  Great,  when  both  the  island  and  the  adjacent  territory 
submitted  to  that  conqueror,  and  its  “mariners”  assisted  in  the 
siege  of  Tyre.  Arvad  was  an  important  place,  “a  city  of  refuge” 
for  political  fugitives,  under  the  Seleuciclae  ;  and  it  was  one  of 
the  little  kingdoms  with  which  the  Romans  established  friendly 
relations,  and  to  whose  favor  they  commended  the  Jews,  their  con¬ 
federates,  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees.2 

Eventually  Ruwad  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  who 
destroyed  the  city,  expelled  its  inhabitants,  and,  out  of  the  ruins 
of  their  lofty  houses  and  towering  palaces,  they  built  the  modern 
castle  crowning  the  highest  part  of  the  island.  Under  the  Turks 
Ruwad  has  become  a  heap  of  ruins  and  a  barren  rock ;  it  has  now 
no  commercial  or  political  importance,  and  its  inhabitants,  few  in 
number  and  miserably  poor,  far  from  affording  a  refuge  to  the 
fugitive,  can  hardly  protect  themselves  against  the  exactions  of 
their  oppressors.  On  my  first  visit  to  the  island  I  found  the  castle 
and  its  Turkish  appendages  occupied  by  the  families  of  seafaring 
men  —  sailors,  fishers,  and  sponge-divers  —  a  maritime  population 
unique  of  its  kind,  and  numbering  about  two  thousand  in  all. 

The  shape  of  the  island  is  an  irregular  oval,  the  longest  side 
being  from  east  to  west;  but  it  is  very  small,  not  over  three-quar¬ 
ters  of  a  mile  in  circumference,  and  it  was  formerly  enclosed  by 
double  walls,  probably  of  Phoenician  origin.  On  the  western  side, 
close  to  the  margin  of  the  sea,  are  the  remains  of  a  high  wall  built 
of  large  bevelled  stones,  which  in  size  and  appearance  are  Cyclo¬ 
pean,  resembling  those  in  the  foundations  of  the  temple  at 
Ba’albek.  At  one  place  that  wall  is  still  more  than  thirty-five  feet 

1  Ezek.  xxvii.  8,  n.  2  i  Macc.  xv.  23. 


HARBOR  OF  ARVAD.— CASTLE  AT  TORTOSA.  279 

high,  and  was  originally  over  fifteen  feet  thick.  From  isolated 
blocks  and  columns,  mostly  of  basalt,  I  copied  seven  Greek  inscrip¬ 
tions,  containing  forty-two  lines,  in  a  fair  state  of  preservation. 

The  harbor  was  made  by  extending  the  massive  outer  wall  into 
the  sea  at  the  north-west  and  south-east  angles  of  the  island.  The 
water  thus  protected  was  divided  into  two  harbors  by  a  mole  con¬ 
structed  of  immense  stones,  and  carried  a  short  distance  towards 
the  main-land.  Cisterns,  for  the  storing  of  water  and  other  neces¬ 
saries,  and  even  rooms  for  dwelling  purposes,  have  been  excavated 
in  the  rock  in  many  parts  of  the  island  ;  and  upon  the  rain-water 
collected  in  those  cisterns  the  present  inhabitants  mainly  depend 
for  their  ordinary  supply  of  that  indispensable  article. 

The  position  of  Arvad  was  much  more  formidable  than  that  of 
Tyre,  for  it  is  at  least  two  miles  from  the  main-land,  and  the  depth 
of  the  sea  would  have  rendered  it  impossible  for  even  Alexander 
to  deprive  it  of  its  insular  character,  had  he  desired  to  do  so.  As 
Palsetyrus  was  much  larger  than  the  island-city,  so  the  Arvadites 
had  suburbs  on  the  neighboring  coast,  at  Tortosa,  and  for  several 
miles  south  of  it,  far  more  extensive  and  of  greater  interest  than 
anything  that  could  have  been  erected  on  their  island. 

Tartus,  or  Tortosa,  the  ancient  Antaridus  —  situated  on  the 
shore  to  the  north-east  of  Ruwad,  and  not  directly  “opposite,”  as 
its  name  implies — though  once  a  large  place,  is  now  reduced  to  an 
inconsiderable  village  of  less  than  two  thousand  inhabitants,  who 
reside,  mostly,  within  the  castle  of  the  old  city.  That  castle  was 
defended  on  the  land  side  by  double  walls  built  of  massive  bevel¬ 
led  stones,  which  appear  to  rest  upon  their  original  foundations. 
The  walls  had  salient  towers,  and  were  further  protected  by  a 
double  fosse  cut  in  the  solid  rock.  The  one  on  the  outside  of  the 
Avails  is  forty  feet  wide  and  twelve  feet  deep  ;  that  between  the  two 
Avails  is  sixty-three  feet  wide,  and  is  partly  filled  up  with  rubbish. 
On  the  side  towards  the  sea  the  castle  had  only  one  wall,  which  is 
still  in  good  preservation,  having  been  strengthened  along  its  base 
by  a  sloping  abutment  of  large,  smoothly -cut  stones,  probably 
added  by  the  Romans,  to  protect  it  from  the  action  of  the  sea. 
The  entrance  to  the  castle  strikes  the  beholder  with  surprise  by 
its  great  solidity.  It  is  in  a  projection  of  the  outer  wall,  near  to 


28o 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


and  facing  the  sea,  and  was  formerly  reached  by  a  drawbridge 
across  the  fosse.  The  gate  opens  into  a  large  room  with  a  vaulted 
or  groined  roof,  and  on  the  keystone  of  the  entrance  is  a  defaced 
figure  deeply  cut  into  it,  probably  the  arms  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
John.  Crossing  the  inner  fosse  and  passing  through  the  second 
wall,  the  open  court  of  the  castle  is  reached,  having  on  the  left  a 
spacious  hall  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  feet  long  and  fifty-six  feet 
wide.  The  walls  were  seven  feet  thick,  and  the  vaulted  roof  was 
supported  by  five  clustered  columns  in  the  centre  of  the  hall. 
There  were  six  windows  in  the  front  of  that  hall,  and  over  one  of 
them,  carved  in  relief,  is  the  figure  of  a  lamb,  the  favorite  emblem 
of  the  Crusaders,  who  occupied  both  the  castle  and  the  town. 

Some  distance  to  the  south-east  of  the  village  and  outside  the 
walls  are  the  remains  of  a  fine  church,  in  good  preservation,  having 
clustered  columns,  groined  arches,  and  pointed  windows,  and  appa¬ 
rently  of  the  same  age  and  architecture  as  the  hall  in  the  castle.  It 
is  now  used  as  a  mosk,  and  a  minaret  has  taken  the  place  of  a  bel¬ 
fry.  Its  length  is  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet ;  its  breadth,  ninety- 
three  feet ;  and  its  height — over  sixty  feet — must  have  given  it  a 
conspicuous  and  imposing  appearance.  When  the  English  fleet 
bombarded  Tartus  in  1840,  to  dislodge  some  of  Ibrahim  Pasha’s 
troops,  that  church  was  struck  several  times,  and  a  cannon-ball  was 
embedded  in  the  western  wall  over  one  of  the  windows. 

The  history  of  Antaradus  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  of 
Arvad,  for  it  was  colonized  by  the  Arvadites ;  but  during  the  Cru¬ 
sades  the  former  seems  to  have  been  a  place  of  far  greater  impor¬ 
tance  than  the  latter.  Although  the  town  was  once  taken  by 
Saladin,  the  Crusaders  did  not  abandon  the  place  until  after  the 
final  defeat  of  the  Franks  at  the  battle  of  Hattin. 

About  an  hour  from  Tartus,  on  the  right  bank  of  Nahr  Amrit, 
around  ’Ain  el  Haiyeh,  and  for  some  distance  south  of  that  foun¬ 
tain  along  the  road  to  Tripoli,  there  are  extensive  quarries,  an 
excavated  idol -temple,  and  several  sepulchral  monuments.  The 
mystery  about  those  quarries  is,  what  became  of  the  immense 
amount  of  stone  that  was  cut  out  of  them  ?  The  temple — now 
called  el  M’abed,  the  place  of  worship — consists  of  a  court  one 
hundred  and  eighty  feet  long  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 


ROCK-HEWN  TEMPLE.— SEPULCHRAL  MONUMENTS. 


28l 


broad,  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock  to  an  average  depth  of  about 
ten  feet,  the  south  side  being  the  highest.  The  entrance  to  the 
temple  was  probably  from  the  north,  as  that  side  of  the  court  ap¬ 
pears  to  have  been  purposely  cut  away.  In  the  middle  of  the 
court  a  portion  of  the  rock  remains,  about  ten  feet  high  and  more 
than  fifteen  feet  square.  Upon  that  stands,  facing  north,  what  ap¬ 
pears  to  have  been  the  shrine  of  the  idol.  It  was  constructed  of 
three  large  stones,  one  on  either  side,  and  one  at  the  back,  upon 
which  rests  a  huge  concave  block,  like  a  canopy,  fifteen  feet  long, 
twelve  feet  broad,  and  over  six  feet  thick  ;  the  whole  structure 
being  more  than  twenty  feet  high,  and  embellished  with  a  frieze 
and  cornice  similar  to  those  on  some  Egyptian  tombs. 

There  are  ancient  remains  about  ’Ain  el  Haiyeh — traces  of  old 
foundations,  ruins  of  temples,  and  broken  sarcophagi — evidently 
marking  the  site  of  a  place  of  some  importance.  About  a  mile 
south  of  el  M’abed  arc  several  singular  sepulchral  monuments, 
called  el  Maghazil,  the  spindles.  They  consist  of  a  pedestal,  over 
fifteen  feet  square  and  nearly  ten  feet  high,  surmounted  by  a  cy¬ 
lindrical  or  cone-shaped  block  from  six  to  fourteen  feet  in  height, 
upon  which  was  a  pyramidal  stone,  the  entire  height  being  more 
than  thirty  feet.  One  of  those  monuments  was  ornamented  at  the 
base  with  rude  sculptures,  apparently  of  lions ;  and  under  all  of 
them  there  are  rock-cut  tombs,  containing  loculil  of  unusual  size. 

Standing  alone  amidst  sand-hills  and  myrtle  jungles,  nearly  a 
mile  south  of  el  Maghazil,  is  a  very  striking  mausoleum,  called  Burj 
el  Buzzak,  the  snail’s  tower.  At  the  base  it  was  about  thirty-one 
feet  square,  above  the  base  nearly  twenty-eight  feet  square,  and  the 
entire  monument  was  almost  an  exact  cube,  the  height  being  a 
little  more  than  thirty  feet.  It  was  divided  into  two  stories,  con¬ 
sisting  of  one  chamber  in  each,  and  finished  off  with  a  cornice, 
above  which  there  may  have  been  a  pyramidal  stone.  Burj  el 
Buzz&k  was  constructed  of  massive  blocks,  some  of  which  are 
nearly  fifteen  feet  long  and  about  eight  and  a  half  feet  broad,  and 
the  floor  and  roof  of  the  chambers  were  composed  of  two  immense 
slabs,  four  feet  thick.  The  top  of  the  monument  was  reached  by 
a  staircase  ascending  from  the  inside.  M.  Renan,  in  his  “  Mission 
en  Phenicie,”  has  described  and  illustrated  those  curious  sepulchral 


282 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


monuments,  and  he  supposes  that  the  ruins  in  the  neighborhood 
of  ’Ain  el  Haiyeh  are  of  Phoenician  origin. 

The  region  around  the  quarries  at  ’Ain  el  Haiyeh  is  called  Ard 
Amrit  by  the  natives,  and  Amrit  may  be  the  Arabic  form  of  the 
Greek,  Marathus,  the  name  of  a  town  and  colony  founded  by  the 
Arvadites,  the  great-grandsons  of  Noah. 

Our  road,  since  leaving  that  lofty  stand-point  on  Lebanon  over¬ 
looking  the  plain  of  Tripoli  and  the  great  western  sea,  led  us  along 
a  narrow  ledge  of  hard,  smooth  rock,  and  then  descended  into  a 
deep  ravine,  densely  wooded,  on  either  side,  with  a  great  variety  of 
forest  trees — oaks  of  several  kinds,  sycamores,  cypress,  juniper,  and 
terebinth  trees,  and  a  number  of  thorny  bushes,  including  the  bar¬ 
berry  and  the  omnipresent  blackberry — a  region  so  wild  and  unin¬ 
habited  that  only  wolves,  panthers,  and  bears  are  seen  there.  The 
nature  of  the  country  west  and  north  of  us  is  extremely  rough  and 
rocky,  especially  around  the  source  of  the  short  river  of  ’Arka, 
which  enters  the  sea  about  fifteen  miles  north-east  of  Tripoli. 
That  pretty  little  stream  gets  its  name  from  a  village  near  the 
ruins  of  Area,  a  Phoenician  city,  originally  founded  by  the  Arkites, 
the  descendants  of  Canaan’s  seventh  son,  according  to  the  record 
given  in  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis. 

Tell  ’Arka,  the  acropolis  of  the  old  town,  is  situated  above  the 
plain,  about  four  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is  about  a  mile  in  circum¬ 
ference,  of  solid  rock  at  the  base,  but  the  upper  part  was  artificial. 
The  sides  were  quite  steep,  rising  to  more  than  a  hundred  feet, 
and  the  top  was  flat,  covering  an  area  of  nearly  three  acres.  The 
city,  built  upon  a  terrace  overlooking  the  Mediterranean,  lay  around 
the  east,  north,  and  west  sides  of  the  tell.  The  river  comes  rushing 
down  from  the  heights  of  Lebanon  east  of  the  tell.  Leaping  down 
the  mountain-side,  tumbling  over  the  rocks  and  darting  through 
deep  ravines,  it  sweeps  by  the  precipitous  side  of  the  tell,  and, 
passing  under  a  bridge  of  a  single  span,  forces  its  way  through  a 
rocky  channel  out  on  to  the  plain  and  thence  to  the  sea. 

After  the  mention  of  the  Arkite  in  Genesis  x.  17  nothing  is 
definitely  known  of  the  history  of  Area  until  about  the  time  of 
Vespasian  and  Titus,  when  the  city  was  also  called  Caesarea  of 
Lebanon ;  and  there  appears  to  have  been  a  temple  there,  dedicated 


TEMPLE  OF  ALEXANDER.— PETER  AND  THE  HOLY  LANCE.  283 

to  Alexander  the  Great,  in  which  annual  festivals  were  held  in  his 
honor.  Josephus  intimates  that  Titus  passed  by  Area,  on  his  way 
to  Antioch,  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.1  The  emperor 
Alexander  Severus  was  born  in  the  temple  at  Area,  and  received 
his  name  from  that  circumstance.  Area  was  the  seat  of  a  Chris¬ 
tian  bishop,  and  in  the  fifth  century  was  subordinate  to  Berytus. 
Afterwards  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  and  in  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  twelfth  century  was  an  important  fortress,  capable  of 
resisting  all  the  efforts  of  the  Crusaders  to  get  possession  of  it. 

It  was  at  Area,  while  the  army  of  the  Crusaders  was  encamped 
before  the  place,  that  the  dispute  occurred  regarding  the  genuine¬ 
ness  of  the  holy  lance,  with  which  it  was  said  the  Saviour’s  side  had 
been  pierced,  and  which  had  been  discovered  at  Antioch  by  Peter 
Bartholomew,  a  priest  of  Marseilles,  and  intrusted  to  the  custody 
of  Count  Raymond  of  Thoulouse.  As  visions  and  denunciations 
could  not  dispel  the  doubts  of  the  multitude,  Peter  resolved  to  sub¬ 
mit  to  the  trial  or  ordeal  by  fire.  That  quieted  the  camp.  A  fire 
was  kindled  on  the  plain,  and  Peter,  taking  the  holy  lance  in  his 
hands,  passed  through  the  flames  apparently  unscathed.  But  the 
multitude,  in  their  reverence  of  Peter,  rushed  upon  him  to  touch 
the  cross,  tore  off  his  clothes  for  relics,  and  might  have  killed  him, 
had  not  Count  Raymond  with  his  guard  come  to  his  rescue.  The 
deluded  Peter  died  twelve  days  after,  either  from  the  effects  of  his 
burns  or  his  bruises,  or  both,  upbraiding  those  who  had  persuaded 
him  to  make  the  dreadful  trial. 

The  fatal  result  of  that  ordeal  discouraged  the  people  and  their 
leaders,  and  after  a  siege  of  two  months,  perceiving  that  they  could 
not  capture  Area,  they  burnt  their  camp  and  proceeded  on  their 
way  to  the  Holy  City.  After  the  fall  of  Tripoli,  Area  surrendered 
to  Count  William  of  Cerdagne,  and  since  then  it  has  been  taken 
and  retaken  by  Saracen  and  Crusader,  Egyptian  and  Turk.2 

The  ruins  of  the  old  town  are  not  extensive,  and  are  found 
mostly  on  the  north  side  of  the  tell.  They  consist  of  ordinary¬ 
sized  building-stones,  with  here  and  there  amongst  the  heaps  the 
fragments  of  a  granite  column.  The  temple  of  Alexander  stood  on 
the  south-eastern  side  of  the  tell,  where  the  rock  is  perpendicular. 

1  B.  J.  vii.  5,  1.  2  Rob.  Res.  vol.  iii.  p.  578-581. 


284 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Its  columns  have  been  either  shaken  down  the  precipice  by  the 
earthquake  which  destroyed  the  town  in  the  thirteenth  century,  or 
they  have  been  thrown  down  by  the  equally  destructive  Saracen 
and  Turk.  I  counted  sixty-four  lying  on  the  bank  of  the  river, 
one-third  of  which  are  of  red  Syenite,  the  rest  of  gray  granite. 

High  up  in  the  face  of  the  perpendicular  rock,  above  which  the 
temple  stood,  is  a  horizontal  tunnel,  supposed  to  lead  under  that 
edifice.  A  stream  of  water  must  have  passed  through  that  tunnel 
and  fallen  into  the  river,  as  is  apparent  from  the  tufaceous  deposit 
upon  the  rock  below.  The  canal  which  now  conducts  the  water 
to  the  mill,  near  the  bridge,  and  which  is  tunnelled  through  a  spur 
of  the  mountain,  may  have  been  originally  designed  to  convey 
water  to  the  temple  and  the  city.  A  short  distance  above  the 
bridge,  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  is  a  perpendicular  cliff  of 
white  calcareous  sandstone,  in  which  recent  shells  are  thickly  min¬ 
gled,  and  in  as  perfect  preservation  as  when  they  were  cast  up  on 
the  sea-beach.  I  collected  a  number  of  pectens,  cardiums,  and 
venuses.  The  dip  of  that  formation  is  towards  the  sea. 

The  village  of  ’Arka  is  a  mean  little  hamlet,  built  upon  the  ruins 
of  the  old  town  to  the  east  of  the  tell,  and  occupied  by  a  few  fami¬ 
lies  ’of  Christians  and  Moslems,  miserably  poor  and  degraded. 

The  mountain  ridges  around  Sir  are  limestone,  but  much  of 
the  intervening  soil  is  volcanic,  very  black,  and  surprisingly  fertile. 
Here  is  Neb’a  Sir,  near  the  south  side  of  the  village,  and,  though 
this  is  the  dryest  season  of  the  year,  the  fountain  is  sending  forth 
a  powerful  stream,  driving  the  primitive  wheels  of  those  flouring 
mills,  only  a  few  rods  from  its  source. 

In  no  part  of  the  country  have  we  seen  the  trees — oaks,  pines, 
poplar,  walnut,  and  mulberry — so  large  and  flourishing. 

The  cause  of  this  exuberant  growth  is  obvious  enough — water, 
water  everywhere,  and  plenty  of  it.  ; 

The  natural  scenery  above  and  below  the  village  is  extremely 
wild  and  picturesque,  and  on  a  scale  so  grand  that  it  would  require 
a  day  to  ride  around  this  vast  amphitheatre. 

From  the  towering  cliffs  of  Lebanon,  which  have  an  elevation 
of  at  least  nine  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  whole 
of  this  mountainous  region  about  Sir  breaks  down,  rapidly  towards 


NAHR  EL  BARID.— ORTHOSIA.— RUINED  TEMPLE. 


285 

the  plain.  Four  great  and  deep  ravines  descend  from  the  north¬ 
western  end  of  that  “  goodly”  range,  and  their  streams,  uniting 
below  Sir,  form  Nahr  el  Barid,  the  cold  river,  which  goes  tumbling 
and  foaming  in  its  rocky  channel  down  to  the  plain,  about  three 
thousand  feet  below  the  village.  On  the  south  side  of  Nahr  el 
Barid,  above  the  khan,  and  about  two  miles  from  the  sea  and  eight 
miles  north  of  Tripoli,  there  are  some  ancient  remains  of  an  exten¬ 
sive  city,  probably  those  of  Orthosia,  mentioned  in  1  Maccabees 
xv.  37,  as  the  place  to  which  Tryphon  fled  when  besieged  by  King 
Antiochus  in  Dora,  the  modern  Tantura,  south  of  Mount  Carmel. 

On  a  former  occasion,  having  pitched  my  tent  amongst  these 
oak-trees  east  of  “the  palace,”  where  we  are  now  encamped,  I 
called  upon  Khudar  Beg,  the  governor  of  this  district.  After  the 
usual  compliments,  the  sipping  of  coffee,  and  smoking  of  pipes,  I 
requested  the  Beg  to  let  me  have  a  guide  to  the  ancient  temple 
called  Husn  es  Sphiry,  from  a  small  village  of  that  name  near  it. 
The  Beg  declared  that  it  was  impossible  to  go  there  and  return 
that  afternoon,  but  finally  he  ordered  a  rough  old  trooper  to  mount 
his  horse,  and  we  set  off  immediately. 

We  descended  at  once  into  a  rough  and  narrow  path,  muddy 
and  slippery,  and  overhung  with  briers  and  thorn-bushes.  It  took 
an  hour  to  ride  down  to  the  bottom  of  that  ravine,  where  we 
crossed  Nahr  el  Barid.  The  ascent  on  the  opposite  side  was  long 
and  steep,  but  after  an  hour  and  a  quarter’s  hard  climbing  we 
reached  the  temple.  It  stands  on  the  summit  of  a  limestone  ridge, 
called  Harf  es  Sphiry,  which  commands  a  prospect  over  a  vast  and 
varied  region,  including  the  north  end  of  Lebanon,  the  long,  bil¬ 
lowy  ranges  of  Jebel  ’Akkar,  the  Nusairiyeh  mountains,  farther 
north,  and  the  plain  to  Safita,  Tartus,  and  the  island  of  Ruwad. 
And  over  the  top  of  the  eastern  ridges  I  saw  the  plain  of  Hums 
and  Hamath,  stretching  away  to  the  north-east  and  onward  into 
the  sandy  desert  farther  than  the  eye  could  follow. 

The  walls  of  the  temple  were  nearly  perfect,  and,  though  well 
built  of  beautifully  white  and  intensely  hard  limestone,  there  was 
very  little  ornamentation  about  them  ;  and  an  inscription  over  one 
of  the  entrances  to  the  temple  was  the  only  evidence  of  its  Greek 
origin.  Amongst  the  ruins  there  were  two  or  three  small  columns, 


286 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


but  they  had  no  capitals,  and  the  design  of  a  few  adjoining  build¬ 
ings  was  not  easy  to  determine,  as  our  time  was  limited,  and  we 
were  obliged  to  hurry  off  without  sufficiently  examining  the  temple 
or  the  ancient  remains  in  its  neighborhood. 

Long  before  we  got  back  to  the  village  it  became  quite  dark, 
and  much  of  the  ascent  was  beset  with  difficulties  and  dangers, 
appreciated  only  by  those  who  have  learned  from  experience  what 
risks  they  run  who  ride  up  such  mountain  roads  late  at  night.  On 
reaching  the  tent  I  found  a  slave  waiting  for  me  with  a  lantern;  he 
had  been  sent  to  conduct  me  to  “the  palace,”  where  I  was  expected 
to  dine  with  the  Beg.  There  is  but  little  social  distinction  observed 
at  such  feasts  in  the  old  feudal  halls  of  this  country,  especially  in 
such  out-of-the-way  places  as  Sir.  All,  from  the  Beg  and  his 
brothers  down  to  the  humblest  of  his  retainers,  partook  of  the  same 
meal,  and  in  the  same  way,  without  any  plates,  and  using  their  fin¬ 
gers  instead  of  knives  and  forks  or  spoons. 

In  the  main  hall  or  reception  room  a  large,  low,  circular  table, 
without  any  cloth,  was  covered  with  bowls  filled  with  mutton, 
chicken,  and  vegetable  stews,  leben,  olives,  and  pickles ;  there  were 
also  copper  trays  placed  at  intervals  around  the  centre  of  the  table, 
filled  with  rice,  burghul,  kibby,  and  roast  lamb,  torn  in  shreds,  and 
swimming  in  a  sauce  of  butter  and  onions.  Twenty-five  persons 
sat  round  the  table,  with  nothing  but  the  mat  or  a  carpet  under 
them,  and  each  had  at  his  right  hand  half  a  dozen  loaves  of  thin 
bread.  All  ate  rapidly  and  voraciously,  and  each  guest  sprang  up 
as  soon  as  he  was  satisfied  to  give  place  to  another,  who  immedi¬ 
ately  took  the  vacant  seat  without  waiting  for  an  invitation.  After 
leaving  the  table,  water  was  poured  upon  the  hands  of  each  guest 
from  the  same  brass  pitcher  and  over  the  same  ewer ;  and  to  each 
a  cup  of  coffee  was  handed  and  a  pipe  offered,  though  it  was  ex¬ 
pected  that  some  would  smoke  their  own  tobacco. 

Fifty  or  sixty  men  thus  dined  in  about  half  an  hour,  after  which 
the  dishes  were  removed  to  the  harem,  and  the  women  and  chil¬ 
dren  were  obliged  to  content  themselves  with  the  remains  of  the 
feast.  It  would  take  a  large  income  to  feed  so  many  hungry  retain¬ 
ers,  but  of  course  the  Beg  does  not  provide  such  a  dinner  as  that 
every  night.  It  was  intended  to  honor  the  guest,  and  not  without 


THE  MAN  OF  UZ.— THE  SABBATIC  RIVER. 


287 


a  desire  to  impress  him  with  the  splendid  hospitality  of  the  house 
of  Ra’ad.  The  Kady  of  the  district  took  pains  to  acquaint  me 
with  the  antiquity,  wealth,  and  power  of  that  family,  all  of  which  of 
course  I  accepted  upon  such  impartial  testimony.  Rut  an  air  of 
dilapidation  and  appearances  of  unmistakable  poverty  about  “  the 
palace”  and  its  belongings  were  calculated  to  suggest  serious  doubts 
in  regard  to  the  accurate  details  of  the  family  history  and  the  avail¬ 
able  resources  of  its  hospitable  representative. 

Seeing  the  successive  groups  of  hungry  retainers  gathered  about 
the  Beg’s  round  table,  I  thought  of  that  famous  Emir  in  the  land 
of  Uz  called  Job,  and  of  his  solemn  protestations:  “  If  I  have  with¬ 
held  the  poor  from  their  desire,  or  have  eaten  my  morsel  myself 
alone,  and  the  fatherless  hath  not  eaten  thereof,  then  let  mine  arm 
fall  from  my  shoulder  blade.”  1  We  must  pay  our  respects  at  “  the 
palace”  before  night  comes  on,  and  secure  a  guide  for  to-morrow, 
for  though  I  have  crossed  over  the  mountain  eastward  to  Kamu’a 
el  Hurmul,  I  would  not  venture  to  do  it  again  without  taking  a 
competent  native  to  show  us  the  way. 

Sir,  September  8th.  Evening. 

Having  completed  our  arrangements  for  to-morrow,  I  would 
like  to  know  something  about  the  “Sabbatic  River”  which  Jose¬ 
phus  alludes  to  in  connection  with  the  journey  of  Titus  through 
Syria.  I  have  hitherto  regarded  it  as  altogether  mythical,  but  it 
actually  exists,  it  seems,  and  still  keeps  up  its  irregular  flow. 

That  of  the  Jews  is,  indeed,  sufficiently  apocryphal,  but  the  one 
mentioned  by  Josephus  is  not.  He  says  that  Titus,  on  his  way 
from  Berytus  to  Antioch,  “  saw  a  river  as  he  went  along,  of  such  a 
nature  as  deserves  to  be  recorded  in  history.  It  runs  in  the  middle 
between  Arcea,  belonging  to  Agrippa’s  kingdom,  and  Raphanea. 
It  hath  somewhat  very  peculiar  in  it,  for  when  it  runs  its  current 
is  strong  and  has  plenty  of  water ;  after  which  its  springs  fail  for 
six  days  together  and  leave  its  channel  dry,  as  any  one  may  see ; 
after  which  days  it  runs  on  the  seventh  day,  as  it  did  before,  and 
as  though  it  had  undergone  no  change  at  all ;  it  hath  also  been 
observed  to  keep  this  order  perpetually  and  exactly,  whence  it  is 
that  they  call  it  the  Sabbatic  River,  that  name  being  taken  from 

1  Job  xxxi.  16,  17,  22. 

U 


288 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


the  sacred  seventh  day  among  the  Jews.”1  Pliny  also  refers  to  the 
same  river,  though  he  makes  it  rest  every  seventh  day,  according 
to  the  injunction  in  the  fourth  commandment. 

Josephus  locates  the  Sabbatical  River  between  Arcea  and  Ra- 
phanea.  Area,  the  capital  of  the  Arkites,  is  at  Tell  ’Arka,  north¬ 
east  of  Tripoli,  and  between  it  and  Hamath,  on  the  east  of  Jebel 
’Akkar,  is  the  site  of  Raphanea,  near  the  ruined  castle  of  Barin. 
North  of  Tell  ’Arka,  and  a  short  distance  west  of  Kul’at  el  Husn, 
is  the  convent  of  Mar  Jirjis  el  Humeira,  and  in  the  wady  below  it 
is  a  fountain  called  Fauwar  ed  Deir,  from  which  flows  at  intervals 
a  sufficient  volume  of  water  to  entitle  the  stream  in  this  country  to 
the  name  of  a  river.  The  site  accords  with  the  description  given 
by  J  osephus,  and  there  I  discovered  the  “Sabbatic  River”  in  1840; 
but  the  fountain  is  now  said  to  be  quiescent  two  days,  and  active 
on  a  part  of  the  third  day  only. 

The  account  which  the  monks  gave  me  of  the  actual  phenome¬ 
non  was,  that  every  third  day  St.  George,  their  patron  saint,  de¬ 
scends  into  the  fountain  and  forces  the  water  out  with  a  loud  noise, 
to  irrigate  the  extensive  plantations  of  that  rich  Syrian  convent. 
It  was  a  day  of  rest  for  the  fountain  when  I  examined  it,  but  evi¬ 
dently  a  considerable  quantity  of  water  had  flowed  along  the  chan¬ 
nel  of  the  river  a  few  hours  before.  The  cave  out  of  which  the 
river  issues  is  at  the  base  of  a  hill  of  limestone  involved  in  a  forma¬ 
tion  of  trap-rock,  and  it  is  well  known  that  subterranean  reservoirs 
of  water  are  sometimes  drained  by  intermitting  fountains  acting 
upon  the  principle  of  the  siphon. 

A  very  simple  diagram  will  illustrate  the  phenomenon.  Let  A 
in  the  diagram  represent  such  a  reservoir,  filled  by  the  veins  D  E  F. 
Let  S  be  the  siphon,  which,  of  course,  must  begin  at  the  bottom 
of  the  pool,  rise  over  the  elevation  at  C,  and  end  in  the  wady  at  B 
— lower  than  the  bottom  of  the  pool.  Now,  the  condition  neces¬ 
sary  to  cause  the  stream  to  intermit  is,  that  the  capacity  of  the 
siphon  be  greater  than  the  supply  from  D  E  F.  If  the  supply  were 
greater,  or  exactly  equal  to  that  capacity,  the  pool  would  be  always 
full,  and  there  could  be  no  intermission.  The  periods  of  intermis¬ 
sion  and  the  size  of  the  stream  depend  upon  the  capacity  of  the 

1  B.  J.  vii.  5,  1. 


INTERMITTING  FOUNTAINS. 


289 

pool  A,  the  supply  from  DEF,  and  the  calibre  of  the  siphon  S. 
If  it  required  six  days  for  DEF  to  fill  the  pool,  and  the  siphon 
could  exhaust  it  in  one,  we  have  the  conditions  required  by  the 
statement  of  Josephus — a  river  running  only  on  the  seventh  day. 


INTERMITTING  FOUNTAIN. 


On  the  other  hand,  if  DEF  fill  the  pool  in  one  day,  and  their 
continued  supply  is  so  nearly  equal  to  the  draining  power  of  the 
siphon  that  it  requires  six  days  to  draw  off  all  the  water,  then  it 
will  run  six  days,  according  to  Pliny,  and  rest  on  the  seventh. 
Now  the  supply,  it  is  supposed,  fills  the  reservoir  in  about  two 
days  and  a  half,  and  the  siphon  drains  it  off  in  half  a  day. 

I  suppose  the  Sabbatical  River  always  had  nearly  the  same  vol¬ 
ume  of  water  in  it  as  the  stream  below  the  convent  of  Mar  Jirjis 
has  at  the  present  day,  and  that  its  stated  periods  of  intermission 
were  as  irregular  then  as  they  are  now.  The  love  of  the  ancients 
for  the  marvellous,  and  a  desire  to  conform  that  natural  phenome¬ 
non  to  the  Jewish  division  of  time,  will  sufficiently  account  for  the 
inaccuracies  of  Josephus  and  Pliny. 

Sir,  September  9th. 

Our  guide  has  come,  and,  as  we  are  to  ride  to-day  for  ten 
hours  through  a  wild  and  uninhabited  region,  sometimes  without 
any  visible  road  or  distinct  path,  we  had  better  be  in  the  saddle. 
Our  course  will  be  due  east,  and  for  the  first  hour  the  ascent  is 
gradual,  winding  about  amongst  large  walnut-trees  and  across  ex¬ 
tensive  fields  of  Indian-corn. 


290 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


This  scenery  is  singularly  beautiful,  and  these  bushes  are  full 
of  birds ;  and  gray  squirrels  run  from  tree  to  tree,  and  leap  from 
branch  to  branch,  just  as  they  do  in  other  lands  far  away. 

They  are  enjoying  their  favorite  food,  walnuts  and  green  corn, 
of  both  of  which  there  is  here  an  abundant  supply.  We  are  about 
to  pass  away  from  the  grateful  shade  of  this  leafy  grove,  and  a 
steady  climb  up  the  mountain  for  another  hour  will  bring  us  to 
the  source  of  the  main  branch  of  the  river  Barid.  The  fountain 
bursts  out  at  the  base  of  a  gigantic  cliff,  and  the  stream,  rushing 
through  large  heaps  of  debris  and  between  fragments  of  great 
rocks  that  have  fallen  from  the  overhanging  cliff,  plunges  imme¬ 
diately  into  a  narrow  chasm,  down  which  it  leaps,  in  noisy  cas¬ 
cades,  one  after  another,  falling  at  least  four  thousand  feet  in  a 
very  few  miles,  before  it  reaches  the  plain  far  below. 

The  cliff  is  called  Ijr  el  Kul’ah,  the  foot  of  the  castle,  and  it 
breaks  sheer  down  from  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Lebanon 
range  at  least  five  hundred  feet  in  perpendicular  descent,  thus 
abruptly  cutting  off  Lebanon  from  the  confused  mass  of  mountains 
lower  down  and  farther  north.  The  top  of  the  pass,  above  the 
fountain,  is  about  eight  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  and,  as  we 
rise  higher  and  higher,  the  views  westward  over  Sir,  and  the  plain 
of  ’Akkar,  beyond  and  below  it,  are  continually  changing  in  charac¬ 
ter  and  expanding  into  the  distance,  until  their  variety  seems  end¬ 
less  and  their  extent  almost  limitless.  The  point  beyond  Tripoli  is 
nearly  due  west,  and  an  imaginary  line  drawn  from  there  eastward 
would  pass  near  Hurmul,  the  village  where  we  intend  to  encamp, 
and  which  we  expect  to  reach  to-night. 

A  few  days  before  my  first  ascent  of  this  pass  a  cloud  had  burst 
over  the  cliff  above  the  fountain,  and  the  flood  was  so  great  that 
it  not  only  washed  out  deep  channels  in  the  mountain,  but  it  also 
overwhelmed  many  vineyards  and  corn-fields  in  its  destructive 
course.  Such  cloud -bursts,  called  seil  by  the  Arabs,  are  not  un¬ 
known  in  other  countries,  for  even  Homer  must  have  derived  some 
of  his  vivid  descriptions  of  martial  combat  from  the  suddenness 
and  violence  of  their  devastations.  The  merciless  rage  and  on¬ 
slaught  of  Tydeus  on  the  field  of  battle  is  compared  to  the  over¬ 
powering  floods  of  such  a  seil,  when 


PASS  OVER  LEBANON.— SUMMER  SHEEPFOLDS. 


29I 


“From  high  hills  the  torrents  swift  and  strong 
Deluge  whole  fields  and  sweep  the  trees  along ; 
Through  ruined  moles  the  rushing  wave  resounds, 
O’erwhelms  the  bridge,  and  bursts  the  lofty  bounds. 
The  yellow  harvests  of  the  ripened  year 
And  flattened  vineyards  one  sad  waste  appear.” 


The  last  two  lines  describe  exactly  the  direful  results  of  the  seil 
at  the  north  end  of  Lebanon  as  I  afterwards  saw  them. 

This  pass  over  Lebanon  is  not  across  a  sharp  ridge,  like  most 
of  the  others,  but  along  a  broad  depression,  evidently  caused  by 
volcanic  action.  It  will  take  three  hours  to  ride  through  it,  and 
we  shall  have  lofty  cliffs  on  our  right  and  large  snow-banks  in  the 
sheltered  ravines.  The  volcanic  formation  over  which  our  pathway 
winds  appears  to  have  been  driven  up  from  below  like  a  wedge, 
and  with  such  force  as  to  split  asunder  the  limestone  strata  and 
scatter  the  fragments  northward  for  several  miles,  piling  them  upon 
each  other  in  the  wildest  confusion.  In  that  outburst  the  strata 
have  been  dislocated,  bent,  and  overturned  in  the  most  extraordi¬ 
nary  manner.  In  one  place  they  have  been  jammed  inward 
like  the  dog-eared  leaves  of  an  ill-used  school-book,  and  the 
superincumbent  mass  has  been  tilted  over  southward,  contrary  to 
the  ordinary  dip  of  the  strata  in  this  region,  which  is  generally 
downwards  towards  the  plain  of  el  Buka’a. 

We  have  now  reached  the  highest  part  of  this  long  pass,  nearly 
nine  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  some  places  the 
young  wheat,  sown  by  the  peasants  from  Sir,  is  already  quite  green, 
and  waiting  for  the  coming  snow  to  cover  it  up  and  protect  it  from 
the  cold  in  winter.  This  road  is  then  buried  under  deep  snow¬ 
drifts  and  rendered  impassable  until  the  spring. 

Scattered  over  this  region  are  many  sheepfolds,  made  with  the 
branches  of  trees  that  abound  on  the  mountain  ;  there  the  shep¬ 
herds  abide  with  their  flocks  by  night  while  spending  the  hot 
months  of  summer  in  these  lofty  regions.  And  there  they  breathe 
the  purest  air  and  drink  the  ice-cold  water  which  trickles  down  from 
the  melting  snow-banks.  Now  those  sheep-folds  are  deserted;  but 
no  tent-life  in  this  country  is  so  romantic  as  that  isolated,  open-air 
existence  of  the  shepherd,  roaming  all  day  over  these  mountains 


292 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


with  his  flocks,  and  protecting  them  from  savage  beasts  and  thiev¬ 
ing  men  through  the  long,  starry  nights  of  summer. 

Apparently  this  is  the  highest,  dryest,  and  most  lonely  pass  in 
the  country.  We  have  not  crossed  a  single  stream  nor  passed  a 
solitary  wayfarer  during  this  morning’s  ride  of  nearly  five  hours. 

There  is  a  small  fountain  near  by,  called  ’Ain  el  Beida,  which, 
our  guide  says,  furnishes  the  only  drinkable  water  between  it  and 
Hurmul;  there  we  will  rest  and  lunch. 

Several  paths  cross  each  other  at  ’Ain  el  Beida.  One  descends 
Wady  Siry  and  leads  northward  to  a  ruined  town  near  the  head¬ 
waters  of  Nahr  ’Akkar.  Another  goes  south-east  to  Ba’albek,  and 
a  third — the  continuation  of  the  one  we  have  followed — will  take 
us  eastward  to  Hurmul,  which  is  still  more  than  five  hours  distant. 

That  long  ridge  on  the  left  of  our  path  appears  to  be  covered 
with  a  dense  forest  of  pine-trees. 

Riding  over  this  region  on  another  tour,  I  went  out  of  my  way 
to  reach  it,  in  order  to  examine  the  process  of  making  tar  and  pitch, 
in  which  some  natives  were  then  engaged.  They  build  conical  fur¬ 
naces,  which,  after  being  filled  up  with  resinous  wood,  they  cover 
with  earth.  The  wood  is  then  ignited,  and  the  smouldering  fire 
consumes  it  very  slowly.  The  rosin  trickles  to  the  bottom,  and  is 
drawn  off  into  vessels.  It  is  then  boiled,  to  reduce  it  to  the  con¬ 
sistency  of  tar  and  pitch.  Those  pitch-burners,  with  their  faces, 
hands,  feet,  and  garments  besmeared  with  tar  and  blackened  by 
smoke,  were  a  most  savage-looking  set.  They  glared  upon  me  with 
bloodshot  eyes  through  the  lurid  light  of  their  smouldering  fur¬ 
naces,  and  shouted  after  me  in  a  most  hideous  manner  as  I  rode 
away  from  that  Tartarean  region. 

For  the  next  two  hours  we  must  pass  over  a  sterile  plateau, 
having  nothing  of  any  interest  upon  it.  Far  away  to  the  south 
stretches  a  long,  broad  valley  or  marshy  plain,  called  Merj  ’Ahin, 
the  meadow  of  ’Ahin,  in  which  many  small  pools  are  visible.  It 
resembles  in  general  appearance  the  valley  or  plain  about  Lake 
Yemmuneh,  although  there  are  more  trees  in  that  valley  and  upon 
the  mountain  and  hills  adjacent  to  the  lake.  In  many  parts  of  this 
unproductive  plateau  over  which  we  have  been  plodding  nothing 
seems  to  flourish  except  hundreds  of  small,  round,  spiny  shrubs 


ET  TUBBAN.— THE  WATER-SHED.— WADY  FARAH.  293 

called  tubban.  At  a  distance  they  look  like  hedgehogs  or  porcu¬ 
pines.  They  are  found  elsewhere  on  the  highest  parts  of  Lebanon, 
and  when  the  clumps  are  green  and  the  spines  tipped  with  pale 
pink  flowers,  they  are  quite  pretty. 

We  have  now  passed  the  water-shed  of  this  region  and  entered 
a  wady  which  descends  gradually  eastward  to  the  base  of  the  moun¬ 
tain  near  Hurmul.  It  is  overshadowed  by  large  oak-trees,  but  is  des¬ 
titute  of  fountain  or  stream,  cultivated  land  or  human  habitation. 

To  relieve  the  dreary  monotony  of  this  interminable  wady  I  will 
give  you  an  account  of  a  trip  through  a  parallel  valley,  called  Wady 
Farah,  a  few  miles  south  of  this  one,  with  which  memory  associates 
some  pleasant  experiences.  Our  party  had  spent  a  rather  anxious 
night  below  Mugharat  er  Rahib,  the  monk’s  cavern,  near  the  source 
of  the  Orontes,  and,  after  examining  both  those  remarkable  places 
in  the  morning,  we  followed  the  windings  of  Wady  Lebweh  south¬ 
ward  for  an  hour.  Crossing  to  the  west  side  of  it,  we  entered  Wady 
Farah  and  began  the  ascent  leading  towards  the  pass  over  the 
mountain  above  the  Cedars.  We  soon  found  our  path  overshad¬ 
owed  by  wide -spreading  oaks  and  other  evergreen  trees,  and  the 
ascent  was  very  gradual  and  continuous  until  we  reached  the  sur¬ 
prising  elevation  of  seven  thousand  feet. 

In  all  that  ride  of  six  hours  there  was  not  a  house  or  cultivated 
field  to  be  seen ;  we  met  no  wayfarer,  nor  could  we  obtain  a  drop 
of  water.  But  the  lofty  ridges  on  either  side  of  the  valley  were  cov¬ 
ered  with  a  dense  forest,  “  a  boundless  contiguity  of  shade,”  which 
made  the  ride  very  enjoyable.  Red-legged  partridges  kept  up  a 
continuous  cackling  and  calling  on  all  sides,  and  gray  squirrels  ran 
from  tree  to  tree  and  hid  themselves  amongst  the  thick  branches. 
The  Nimrods  of  the  party  had  many  a  scramble  up  and  down  the 
mountain -sides,  hoping  to  add  variety  to  our  bill  of  fare  in  the 
evening,  but  the  game  was  extremely  wary  and  wild.  Issuing, 
towards  evening,  from  that  long  and  lonely  valley,  we  encamped  in 
a  broad  depression  called  Wady  el  ’Ayun,  on  the  side  of  a  green 
meadow,  and  just  above  a  purling  rill  of  ice-cold  water.  ’Ain  el 
’Ayun,  the  source  of  that  little  stream,  was  a  short  distance  above 
our  tents,  and  it  well  deserves  its  name  —  the  Fountain  of  fount¬ 
ains — for  there  is  none  higher,  or  purer,  or  colder  in  that  region. 


294 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Wady  el  ’Ayun  abounds  in  springs,  the  water  from  which  col¬ 
lects  in  the  lower  valley  into  small  pools  and  miniature  lakes,  like 
those  in  Merj  ’Ahin.  Dahar  el  Kudhib,  one  of  the  highest  peaks  of 
Lebanon,  towers  up  to  the  sky  for  at  least  two  thousand  five  hun¬ 
dred  feet  above  Wady  el  ’Ayun,  and  directly  below  that  lofty  sum¬ 
mit,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  mountain,  are  the  Cedars.  There 
was  something  sublime  in  the  utter  solitude  of  such  an  encamp¬ 
ment,  so  high  and  so  shut  in  by  the  majestic  range  of  Lebanon. 

As  the  shadows  on  the  mountains  lengthened  and  the  darkness 
in  the  valley  deepened  the  air  became  quite  cold.  The  muleteers 
climbed  the  steep  side  of  the  mountain,  and,  with  their  long  ropes, 
dragged  down  whole  trees — roots,  trunk,  and  branches — which  had 
been  blown  over  by  the  storms  of  winter,  and  were  as  dry  as  tin¬ 
der.  These  they  piled  up  in  front  of  the  tents  and  set  them  on 
fire.  The  crackling  and  roaring  of  the  flames ;  the  lurid  blaze  of 
such  a  conflagration  ;  the  lights  and  shadows  on  tents  and  tourists, 
mules  and  muleteers;  the  volumes  of  white  and  black  smoke,  rising 
high  into  the  air — the  scene  and  the  situation  all  combined  to  make 
a  picture  of  one  of  the  most  romantic  night  encampments  I  had 
ever  witnessed  even  in  this  land  of  the  ancient  patriarchs. 

We  were  obliged  to  keep  up  that  camp  fire  all  night;  and  in 
the  morning  we  found  that  the  dew  had  frozen  the  roofs  and  walls 
of  the  tents  as  stiff  as  boards,  and  small  fires  were  kindled  in  them 
before  they  could  be  taken  down.  Frost  sparkled  on  the  grass,  and 
the  little  pools  in  the  valley  gleamed  with  a  thin  coating  of  ice. 
Altogether  the  experience  of  that  night  and  morning  were  de¬ 
cidedly  exceptional  to  the  traveller  in  this  country,  and  the  cold 
continued  all  the  following  day,  and  the  next  night  at  the  Cedars 
was  far  from  being  a  comfortable  one. 

In  another  hour  we  shall  reach  our  tents,  pitched  under  the 
large  walnut-trees  below  and  south  of  the  village  of  Hurmul.  On 
my  former  ride  over  this  road  it  began  to  grow  dark  after  leaving 
this  point  where  we  are  now,  and  the  guide  led  us  down  a  steep 
and  rocky  path  to  the  south-east,  to  avoid  entering  the  village. 
The  tents  had  just  been  pitched,  when  some  Mutawaly  horsemen 
came  galloping  up,  shouting  in  a  most  belligerent  style.  At  first 
they  were  very  insolent,  but  when  told  who  we  were  they  apolo- 


LOCAL  REBELLION.— HURMUL.— WOODLAND  SCENERY.  295 

gized  and  retired,  saying  that  they  had  mistaken  us  for  a  detach¬ 
ment  of  Turkish  cavalry  sent  against  them  from  Hums. 

The  next  morning  we  learned  that  the  inhabitants  of  that  dis¬ 
trict  had  rebelled  against  the  Governor  of  Hums,  and  that  the 
sheikhs  had  gathered  together  at  Hurmul  all  their  roving  and  law¬ 
less  retainers,  expecting  an  attack  from  the  irregular  cavalry  in  the 
employ  of  the  Government.  Their  families  had  been  sent  to  the 
mountains,  and  the  men  were  prepared  either  to  fight  or  run  away, 
as  the  exigencies  of  the  case  might  demand.  Early  in  the  forenoon 
an  agent  arrived  from  the  Governor  with  conditions  of  peace,  and, 
while  the  contracting  parties  were  arranging  the  terms  of  submis¬ 
sion,  we  improved  the  opportunity  to  visit  the  village. 

Hurmul  probably  occupies  an  ancient  site,  and  it  has  been  a 
much  larger  place  in  former  times.  It  is  now  the  last  village  in 
this  direction  belonging  to  the  Government  of  the  Lebanon.  It  is 
prettily  situated  high  up  the  slope  of  this  natural  amphitheatre ; 
and  the  houses  are  divided  into  several  clusters  by  narrow  ravines, 
through  which  little  streams  come  tumbling  down  into  the  valley. 
The  land  around  it  is  very  fertile,  owing  to  the  abundance  of  water; 
and  the  silver-leaved  poplar,  the  walnut,  pomegranate,  and  other 
fruit-trees  growing  in  and  about  the  village,  give  it  a  very  pictu¬ 
resque  appearance.  But  the  lawless  Mutawaly  who  inhabit  it  would 
soon  convert  Paradise  itself  into  a  frightful  wilderness,  and  Hurmul 
is  becoming  more  and  more  dilapidated. 

Hurmul,  September  9th.  Evening. 

Lieutenant  Van  de  Velde  gives  a  graphic  description  of  the 
woodland  scenery  in  this  vicinity,  and  becomes  quite  enthusiastic 
over  its  park-like  nature.  He  thus  writes  to  his  friend  :  “  Much 
already  have  I  said  to  you  about  Lebanon  and  its  glories.  Yet  be¬ 
tween  Hurmul  and  the  Cedars  I  saw  still  more  of  Nature’s  beauties, 
and  these,  too,  of  quite  a  different  kind  from  what  I  had  seen  in  the 
more  southern  mountain-ranges  at  Jeba’a  or  Jezzin.  Lrom  Hurmul 
our  path  began  immediately  to  rise,  and  brought  us  ere  long  into 
a  high-situated  valley,  which  had  been  transformed  into  a  magnifi¬ 
cent  park  by  Nature  alone,  without  any  assistance  from  the  hand 
of  man.  I  was  delighted  with  the  picturesque  groups  of  oaks, 
the  fantastically -shaped  terebinths,  the  oddly- twisted  stems  and 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


296 

branches  of  other  trees,  in  which  were  blended  together  all  sorts 
of  green,  pale,  dark-yellowish,  or  sometimes  inclining  to  brown. 

“  At  other  points,  again,  the  road  led  over  rocky  plateaus,  grown 
over  with  short,  prickly  shrubs.  Alternating  with  these  there  ap¬ 
peared  at  other  places  cypress  groves  [Juniperus  excelsa],  where 
each  several  tree  was  in  itself  a  study  for  the  landscape  painter, 
some  on  account  of  their  enormous  stems  and  branches,  others  on 
account  of  their  trunks  having  been  broken  by  storms  or  being  half 
decayed  with  age ;  and  others,  too,  on  account  of  the  bright  verdure 
of  the  shoots  here  and  there  springing  up  from  a  piece  of  root  ap¬ 
parently  dead  and  partially  torn  out  of  the  ground.  Would  you 
see  trees  in  all  their  splendor  and  beauty,  then  enter  these  wild 
groves,  that  have  never  been  touched  by  the  pruning-knife  of  art, 
where  neither  branches  nor  stems  are  ever  bent  into  rectilinear 
forms,  and  where  the  dead  wood  is  never  removed  from  amidst  the 
living.  Come  up  into  Mount  Lebanon,  and  then  tell  me  if  you 
ever  had  an  idea  of  such  natural  groves  as  are  exhibited  by  the 
elevated  valleys  of  this  mountain-range.”1 

Was  not  “the  entrance  of  Hamath”  in  this  neighborhood? 

That  familiar  Biblical  phrase  indicated  a  well-known  place — a 
pass  or  opening  leading  into  the  territory  of  Hamath.  In  marking 
out  the  boundaries  of  the  Hebrew  “  inheritance  in  the  land  of 
Canaan,”  Moses  says:  “This  shall  be  your  north  border:  from  the 
great  sea  ye  shall  point  out  for  you  mount  Hor:  from  mount  Hor 
ye  shall  point  out  your  border  unto  the  entrance  of  Hamath  ;  and 
the  goings  forth  of  the  border  shall  be  to  Zedad.”2  The  spies  sent 
by  Moses  to  explore  the  land  extended  their  search  “  from  the 
wilderness  of  Zin  [in  the  south]  unto  Rehob,  as  men  come  to  Ha¬ 
math  ;”  and  that  part  of  the  country  in  this  direction  not  subdued 
by  Joshua,  when  he  “was  old  and  stricken  in  years,”  and  which 
never  came  into  the  actual  possession  of  the  Hebrews,  is  thus  de¬ 
scribed  :  “All  Lebanon  toward  the  sunrising,  from  Baal-gad  under 
mount  Hermon  unto  the  entering  into  Hamath.”3 

From  those  and  other  incidental  notices  in  the  Bible  it  is  evi¬ 
dent  that,  if  Mount  Hor  be  identified  with  Lebanon,  or  a  conspicu- 

1  Syria  and  Palestine,  vol.  ii.  p.  474,  475. 

3  Numb.  xiii.  21  ;  Josh.  xiii.  5. 


,J  Numb,  xxxiv.  7,  8. 


THE  ENTRANCE  OF  HAMATH.— A  DREADFUL  MASSACRE.  297 

ous  peak  at  the  northern  extremity  of  that  range,  then  “  the  en¬ 
trance  of  Hamath”  would  have  been  north  or  east  of  it,  and  Zedad 
still  farther  off  in  the  latter  direction.  Between  the  ranges  of  Le¬ 
banon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  as  they  gradually  terminate  in  the  plain 
some  distance  south  of  Hamath,  there  is  a  long,  undulating,  and 
comparatively  narrow  tract  connecting  the  plain  of  Coelesyria  with 
that  which  opens  up  towards  Hamath  ;  and  to  the  south-east  of 
it,  on  the  other  side  of  Anti -Lebanon,  is  Sudud,  the  ancient 
Zedad,  and  far  away  to  the  south-west  is  “  Baal-gad  under  Mount 
Hermon.”  That  undulating  region  has  generally  been  considered 
as  the  Biblical  “  entrance  of  Hamath,”  and  to  the  spies,  coming  up 
the  plain  of  Coelesyria,  from  the  south,  it  would  have  presented 
such  an  appearance.  Dr.  Robinson  supposes  that  “  the  entering 
in  of  Hamath  ”  “  was  at  the  northern  extremity  of  Lebanon,  and 
that  this  became  a  geographical  name  for  the  great  interval  or  de¬ 
pression  between  the  northern  end  of  Lebanon  and  the  Nusairiyeh 
mountains;”  and  he  is  probably  correct.1 

From  the  hill-side  above  Hurmul  the  ample  corn-fields  of  Rib- 
leh  are  seen,  extending  about  ten  miles  to  the  north-east,  and 
beyond  them  spreads  the  vast  plain  towards  Sudud,  and  far  away 
eastward  until  it  is  lost  in  the  sandy  desert  around  Palmyra. 

A  Riblah  is  mentioned  by  Moses  as  being  on  the  north-east 
border  of  the  Promised  Land.8  , 

That  is  the  place ;  and  the  name  has  remained  unchanged  from 
that  day  to  this.  Nothing  more  is  heard  of  Riblah  after  that  for 
almost  eight  hundred  and  fifty  years,  and  then  we  learn  that  “  Pha- 
raoh-nechoh  king  of  Egypt  went  up  against  the  king  of  Assyria  to 
the  river  Euphrates;”  and  on  his  way  he  slew  Josiah  king  of  Judah 
at  Megiddo,  and  put  Jehoahaz  his  son  “  in  bands  at  Riblah.” 3 
There  also  Nebuchadnezzar  established  his  camp  when  he  came  up 
against  Jerusalem.  The  princes  of  the  king  and  the  army  of  the 
Chaldees  went  on,  and  when  they  had  captured  the  king  of  Judah 
“  they  brought  him  up  to  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Riblah  in  the  land 
of  Hamath,  where  he  gave  judgment  upon  him.  Then  the  king 
of  Babylon  slew  the  sons  of  Zedekiah  in  Riblah  before  his  eyes : 

1  Rob.  Res.  vol.  iii.  p.  568,  569. 

3  2  Kings  xxiii.  29-33. 


2  Numb,  xxxiv.  1 1. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


298 

also  the  king  of  Babylon  slew  all  the  nobles  of  Judah.  Moreover 
he  put  out  Zedekiah’s  eyes,  and  bound  him  with  chains,  to  carry 
him  to  Babylon.”  1 

A  dreadful  massacre,  and  a  most  dismal  doom  !  What  was  there 
about  Riblah  that  induced  those  terrible  invaders  to  select  it  for 
the  camping-ground  of  their  vast  and  merciless  armies  ? 

At  modern  Ribleh  there  are  now  only  a  few  wretched  peasants’ 
houses,  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Orontes,  and  no  important 
remains  save  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  square  tower,  called  el  Keniseh, 
the  church.  But  no  better  location  for  a  temporary  camp  could 
have  been  chosen  in  that  region  by  those  fierce  conquerors  of  old 
than  Ribleh.  By  the  side  of  a  never-failing  stream,  with  rich  corn 
lands  around  it,  everywhere  well  watered,  it  can  furnish  ample  means 
of  subsistence  for  the  largest  of  armies ;  and,  from  its  central  posi¬ 
tion,  military  expeditions  could  be  sent  in  all  directions — eastward 
to  “Tadmor  in  the  wilderness;”  southward  to  Damascus,  or  through 
Coelesyria  to  Jerusalem;  westward,  by  the  low  pass  near  Kul’at  el 
Husn,  to  the  sea -coast  of  Phoenicia,  and  thence  to  Egypt,  and 
northward  across  “the  land  of  Hamath”  and  beyond  “the  river 
Euphrates  ”  into  the  kingdom  of  Assyria. 

The  last  time  I  was  here  I  obtained  a  guide  and  guard  from  the 
Governor’s  agent  and  set  off  over  a  beautiful  country,  sinking  gradu¬ 
ally  to  the  plain,  to  visit  the  lake  of  Kedes,  near  which  the  chief 
city  of  the  Hittites  is  supposed  to  have  been  situated. 

That  name  is  eminently  Biblical,  and  even  patriarchal,  and  it 
is  quite  unexpected  to  hear  of  that  ancient  people  as  formerly 
residing  in  this  distant  and  little  known  region. 

Very  little  information  about  the  Hittites  can  be  obtained  from 
the  Bible,  both  before  and  after  the  conquest  of  the  Promised  Land. 
They  were  called  “the  children  of  Heth,”  the  second  son  of  Canaan, 
and  the  great-grandson  of  Noah,  and  in  Abraham’s  day  they  were 
settled  in  the  south  of  Palestine.  It  was  of  “  Ephron  the  Hittite” 
that  Abraham  purchased  “the  cave  of  Machpelah”  at  Hebron, 
when  Sarah  his  wife  died.2  Esau  married  two  of  the  daughters  of 
the  Hittites,  “  which  were  a  grief  of  mind  unto  Isaac  and  to  Re- 
bekah ;”  and,  lest  Jacob  should  follow  the  example  of  his  erratic 

1  Jer.  xxxix.  1-7.  2  Gen.  x.  15  ;  xxiii. 


THE  HITTITES.— KETESH.— THE  KHETA.  299 

brother,  and  “  take  a  wife  of  the  daughters  of  Heth,”  they  “sent 
him  away  to  Padan-aram,  to  take  him  a  wife  from  thence.”  1 

On  the  return  of  the  men  whom  Moses  sent  “  to  spy  out  the 
land  of  Canaan”  they  reported  that  the  Hittites  dwelt  in  the  moun¬ 
tains,  from  which  it  would  appear  that  during  the  captivity  of  the 
Hebrews  in  Egypt  they  had  removed  into  the  central  part  of  the 
country.2  We  hear  of  them  again  as  gathering  together  with  other 
tribes  to  fight  Joshua  “at  the  waters  of  Merom,”  where  they  were 
defeated  with  great  slaughter.3  It  is  possible  that  some  of  them 
escaped  at  that  time  and  established  themselves  permanently  in  the 
valley  of  the  Orontes,  where,  eventually,  they  formed  a  powerful 
confederation  with  other  Canaanitish  tribes. 

Egyptologists  learn  from  the  monuments  that  the  Pharaohs  of 
several  dynasties  waged  war  upon  a  nation  in  this  region  supposed 
to  be  that  of  the  Hittites.  They  had  horses  and  chariots,  and  some 
of  the  Egyptians  appear  to  have  taken  wives  from  among  them. 
Ketesh,  their  principal  city,  was  rendered  tributary  to  Egypt,  and 
it  was  probably  situated  near  the  present  lake  of  Kedes.  The  an¬ 
nals  of  the  Egyptians  confirm  the  accounts  given  of  the  Hittites 
in  the  Bible,  for  in  the  time  of  Solomon  we  are  told  that  all 
the  kings  of  the  Hittites  and  the  kings  of  Syria  had  horses  and 
chariots  brought  forth  out  of  Egypt ;  and  Solomon  himself  had 
Hittite  women  among  his  many  wives.4 

Additional  interest  has  been  imparted  to  the  subject  by  modern 
discoveries  in  Egypt,  which  imply  that  the  Hittites  had  long  been 
settled  in  this  country  and  were  a  numerous  and  powerful  confed¬ 
eration,  apparently  occupying  the  region  around  the  head -waters 
of  the  Orontes.  They  are  called  “the  Kheta”  in  the  Egyptian 
inscriptions,  and,  probably  before  Abraham  came  to  Canaan,  and 
long  before  the  time  of  Moses,  there  were  protracted  conflicts 
between  them  and  the  different  dynasties  of  Egypt.  M.  Ebers 
informs  us  that  “a  stela  was  discovered  in  the  wall  to  the  south 
of  the  great  hypostyle  at  Karnak,  on  which  was  a  copy  of  the 
treaty  which  put  an  end  to  the  war  between  Rameses  II.  and  the 
Kheta,”  and  he  very  justly  adds  that  “this  document  excites  our 


1  Gen.  xxvi.  34,  35  ;  xxvii.  46  ;  xxviii.  1-7. 
3  Josh.  ix.  1,  2  ;  xi.  3,  5,  8. 


‘2  Numb.  xiii.  29. 

4  1  Kings  x.  29  ;  xi.  1  ;  2  Chron.  i.  17. 


300 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


respect  and  admiration  for  the  Asiatic  nation,  which  must  have 
reached  a  high  pitch  of  civilization,  and  it  raises  our  opinion  of 
the  high  political  status  of  both  the  nations  who  were  parties  to 
such  a  treaty.  The  Kheta  king  secured  the  alliance  thus  effected 
with  the  Egyptian  sovereign  by  giving  him  his  daughter  in  mar¬ 
riage,  and  this  greatest  of  all  the  Pharaohs  was  thus  enabled  to 
enjoy  the  results  of  his  successes  in  the  field  and  to  spend  the  last 
decades  of  his  reign — which  lasted  sixty-seven  years — almost  with¬ 
out  interruption  in  the  exercise  of  the  arts  of  peace.”1 

Rameses  II.  was  proud  of  his  own  personal  achievements  in  the 
wars  against  those  Kheta.  “  In  a  furious  battle  near  Kadesh,  the 
capital  of  the  Kheta,  he  was  cut  off  from  his  army,  and,  by  the 
might  of  his  own  ‘right  arm'  he  defended  himself  against  a  consid¬ 
erable  number,  forced  his  way  through  the  enemy  who  surrounded 
him,  and  then,  setting  himself  again  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  he 
defeated  the  Kheta  army,  and  forced  them  backwards  into  the 
river.  Pentaur,  the  chief  poet  of  his  [Rameses  II.]  time,  sang  of 
this  great  deed  of  arms  in  an  epic,  which  was  inscribed  on  temple 
walls  and  in  papyrus  rolls — the  Iliad  of  the  Egyptians.  ‘  I  was 
alone,  and  none  was  with  me,’  is  the  cry  that  the  poet  puts  into  the 
mouth  of  the  king;  but  Amon  stood  by  the  distressed  Pharaoh  and 
fo  ught  for  him,  and  so  the  rescued  king  built  a  magnificent  temple 
in  the  Necropolis  as  a  thank-offering,  and  to  keep  his  own  glorious 
deed  in  remembrance.  On  the  principal  architecture  of  this  votive 
building  the  often-repeated  burden  of  Pentaur’s  epos  may  still  be 
read:  ‘I  was  alone,  and  none  was  with  me.’  His  artists  have  carved 
rich  and  vivid  battle-scenes  on  the  broad  surfaces  of  the  walls  of 
the  pylons,  representing  the  fight  at  Kadesh,  the  camp  of  the 
Egyptians,  the  flight  of  the  Kheta  and  their  allies,  and  the  king 
himself  as  of  colossal  stature,  towering  above  his  foes.  The  turmoil 
of  the  battle,  the  fiery  onset  of  the  horses,  the  heroic  stature  of 
Rameses,  by  whose  side  two  lions  are  raging  and  fighting,  the 
terror  of  the  vanquished,  and  the  hurry  of  the  fugitives,  are  viv¬ 
idly  depicted.”2 

The  conflicts  of  the  Egyptians  with  the  Kheta,  before  and  after 

1  Egypt: :  Descriptive,  Historical,  and  Picturesque,  vol.  ii.  p.  284. 

2  Egypt :  Descriptive,  Historical,  and  Picturesque,  vol.  ii.  p.  280,  281. 


REPORT  OF  THE  SPIES.— THE  SITE  OF  KETESH. 


301 


the  time  of  the  Hebrew  exodus,  seem  to  throw  a  new  light  upon 
the  condition  of  this  country  and  its  inhabitants.  The  people,  at 
least  in  some  parts,  appear  to  have  been  more  warlike  and  powerful 
than  the  reader  of  Genesis  would  naturally  suppose. 

The  report  of  the  spies,  sent  by  Moses  from  the  wilderness  of 
Paran  to  examine  the  condition  of  the  country,  no  longer  seems  to 
be  the  mere  exaggeration  of  terrified  cowards.  “The  people,”  said 
they,  “  is  greater  and  taller  than  we ;  the  cities  are  great  and  walled 
up  to  heaven.  We  be  not  able  to  go  up  against  the  people,  for 
they  are  stronger  than  we.”1  The  Hittites  are  mentioned  by  the 
spies,  and  those  Egyptian  records  supplement  in  many  ways  the 
Biblical  narratives  of  the  condition  of  this  land  in  patriarchal 
times,  for  it  is  now  ascertained  that  there  was  then  frequent  com¬ 
munication  between  Egypt  and  Syria.  That  enables  us  to  under¬ 
stand  how  it  was  possible  for  twelve  Hebrews  “to  spy  out  the 
land,”  without  interruption,  from  the  wilderness  of  Paran  north¬ 
ward  “  unto  Rehob,  as  men  come  to  Hamath.”  As  the  influence 
of  Egypt  in  this  country  must  have  been  very  great  in  those  times, 
the  spies  probably  had  merely  to  assume  the  character  of  Egyp¬ 
tians  to  secure  protection  and  safety ;  and  their  report  seems  to 
imply  that  they  were  not  molested  in  their  dangerous  mission. 

The  supposed  site  of  Ketesh  is  about  fifteen  miles  north-east  of 
this  village  of  Hurmul,  and  a  short  distance  south  of  Tell  Neby 
Mindau,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Orontes.  The  ruins  consist  of 
heaps  of  rubbish,  traces  of  foundations,  hewn  stones,  and  fragments 
of  columns.  I  noticed  some  half-submerged  vaults  in  one  place, 
and  at  another  the  bases  of  twenty  columns  apparently  still  in  their 
original  position.  The  river  finds  its  way  among  the  ruins,  and  the 
low  bridge  built  over  it  was  evidently  constructed  out  of  the  re¬ 
mains  of  the  old  city.  I  found  the  name  Kedes  applied  only  to  the 
mill  at  the  bridge,  which  is  called  Tahunet  Kedes.  Dr.  Robinson 
and  others  who  have  visited  that  region  locate  Laodicea  ad  Liba- 
num  at  Tell  Neby  Mindau,  and  it  may  be  found  that  the  Roman 
city  was  built  upon  the  remains  of  the  ancient  Hittite  capital. 

A  few  miles  north  of  the  bridge  the  river  spreads  out  into  the 
shallow  lake  of  Hums,  called  also  the  lake  of  Kedes,  which  is  wholly 

1  Deut.  i.  28  ;  Numb.  xiii.  31. 


302 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


artificial,  having  been  made  by  a  dam  built  across  the  valley  where 
it  is  not  more  than  half  a  mile  wide.  The  dam  was  built  of  trap 
rock,  and  the  lower  part  was  originally  over  thirty  feet  thick,  nar¬ 
rowing  towards  the  top,  where  it  is  now  about  three  feet  wide. 
The  height  of  the  dam  above  the  bed  of  the  river  is  nearly  twenty 
feet.  The  facing-stone  of  the  dam  is  all  gone,  leaving  only  the 
ancient  rubble-work,  which  has  been  often  broken,  and  subsequently 
roughly  repaired  by  the  natives. 

Abulfeda,  the  celebrated  Arab  geographer,  who  was  the  Emir 
of  Hamah  in  the  fourteenth  century,  relates  that  the  building  of 
the  dam  was  ascribed,  in  his  day,  to  Alexander  the  Great,  and  he 
states  that  there  were  two  towers  upon  it  At  present  there  is  only 
one,  at  the  north-west  extremity  of  the  dam,  called  Burj  Sit  Belkis. 
The  canal  that  carries  the  water  to  Hums  begins  near  the  north¬ 
east  corner  of  the  lake.  In  former  times  there  was  another  conduit 
at  a  higher  level — a  sure  indication  that  the  dam  was  originally 
several  feet  higher  than  it  is  now.  Over  the  door  of  a  mill  below 
the  dam  is  a  Greek  inscription,  the  only  one  that  I  could  find. 

The  length  of  the  lake  is  about  eight  miles,  and  the  breadth 
four  at  the  widest  part.  There  is  a  small  island,  with  a  tell  upon  it, 
at  the  southern  end  of  the  lake.  The  tell  must  have  been  made 
before  the  lake  was  formed  ;  and  around  it  there  are  said  to  be  traces 
of  foundations  and  ruins  of  ancient  buildings. 

Hurmul,  September  ioth. 

The  fountain  of  the  Orontes  is  a  short  hour’s  ride  south  of 
Hurmul,  so  we  will  go  there  first  this  morning.  These  numerous 
little  rills  which  cross  our  path,  and  come  tumbling  and  foaming 
down  the  mountain-side  from  the  secluded  ravines  above  us  on  the 
west,  are  united  into  rivulets  in  the  valley,  and  lead  away  northward 
over  the  rolling  country  between  this  and  Ribleh.  It  is  mainly  to 
the  waters  of  those  purling  brooks  that  the  extensive  corn-fields 
around  that  village  are  indebted  for  their  luxuriant  growth. 

Lieutenant  Van  De  Velde  climbed  up  this  same  road  to  Hurmul 
which  we  are  now  descending  after  his  visit  to  “  the  place  where 
the  Orontes  bursts  forth  from  its  copious  sources.”  He  says  that, 
“much  farther  to  the  south  [of  the  fountain  we  are  about  to  visit], 
the  waters  of  the  Orontes  begin  to  form  a  stream.  This  stream  is 


FOUNTAINS  OF  THE  ORONTES.  303 

not  derived  from  the  main  springs,  but  from  the  gradual  confluence 
of  a  number  of  different  rills  into  a  considerable  brook,  which, 
under  the  name  of  Nahr  Fikeh,  flows  in  a  deep  ravine  past  the 
chief  fountain  of  the  river.  Here  [above  the  fountain]  the  rocky 
sides  of  the  ravine  are  fearfully  steep  ;  some  places  seem  quite  inac¬ 
cessible.  I  had  to  follow  a  dangerous  path,  better  fitted  for  moun¬ 
tain-goats  than  for  men,  in  order  to  get  to  the  foot  of  the  rocks. 

“  On  reaching  the  bottom  you  perceive,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
ravine,  a  hole  overshadowed  by  thick  sycamores ;  high  brushwood 
seems  to  make  it  vain  to  attempt  approaching  the  spot;  but  an 
eye  accustomed  to  such  jungles  soon  detects  a  winding  path,  and 
perceives  also  that  the  dark-green  wild  fig-trees  and  the  festoons  of 
vines  that  wind  between  them  are  the  productions  of  a  Nature  to 
which  the  hand  of  man  has  remained  a  stranger.  In  this  lovely 
spot  there  is  a  deep  basin  of  water,  which  lies  still  and  motionless, 
of  a  clear  dark-blue  color,  and  overflowing  on  all  sides,  owing  to  the 
abundant  ingress  of  the  water  that  rises  from  the  subterranean 
springs.  This  seems  to  me  to  be  the  principal  source  of  the  river. 
But  if  one  passes  to  the  other  side  of  the  Fikeh  brook  by  a  little 
bridge  formed  of  stones  and  branches  put  together,  and  then  cau¬ 
tiously  ascends  the  cliffs,  he  will  perceive  that  from  under  the  rocks 
to  the  north  of  that  principal  source  of  the  river  the  water  bursts 
forth  with  great  force,  and  this  not  at  one  point  only,  but  at  dif¬ 
ferent  places,  all  close  beside  each  other.  Boiling  and  foaming  do 
the  waters  gush  up  and  unite  themselves  with  the  Fikeh  stream. 
No  wonder  that  hardly  half  a  mile  farther  on  we  find  the  Orontes 
already  augmented  into  a  broad  and  swift-rolling  stream  ;  no  won¬ 
der,  too,  that  throughout  its  farther  course  it  maintains  the  charac¬ 
ter  of  a  considerable  river.”  1 

The  fountain  of  Nahr  Fikeh  is  too  far  to  the  south-east  for  us 
to  visit  it,  but  here  we  are  above  “  the  copious  sources  of  the 
Orontes,”  so  graphically  described  by  Lieutenant  Van  de  Velde, 
and  to  descend  to  them  we  must  exercise  both  effort  and  caution. 
The  water,  as  you  see,  flows  out  from  the  very  base  of  Lebanon  in 
this  wild  and  savage  chasm,  and  forms  at  once  a  stream  fifty  feet 
wide  and  over  three  feet  deep.  The  fountains  seem  to  burst  out 

1  Syria  and  Palestine,  vol.  ii.  p.  471,  472. 


304 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


from  the  rocks  under  the  hill  on  the  east  side  of  the  chasm,  as  if 
the  water  came  from  Anti-Lebanon,  but  the  explanation  is  that  the 
strata  of  Lebanon  dip  under  the  general  plain  at  this  end  of  the 
Buka’a,  and  the  water  is  thereby  carried  below  the  surface,  and  is 
then  turned  back  to  its  natural  outflow,  and  hence  it  appears  to 
come  from  the  east  instead  of  the  west. 

This  Neb’a  or  ’Ain  el  ’Asy,  as  the  natives  call  it,  is  not  the  most 
distant  source  of  the  Orontes,  as  we  shall  see  during  our  day’s  ride. 
In  the  winter  the  fountains  at  Lebweh  and  el  ’Ain  contribute 
largely  to  swell  the  volume  of  the  river,  but  at  present  the  streams 
which  come  from  them  are  nearly  exhausted  in  irrigating  the  fields 
of  Indian-corn,  which  is  the  chief  product  of  this  entire  region,  and 
constitutes  the  staff  of  life  for  most  of  the  inhabitants. 

I  have  followed  this  largest  of  Syrian  rivers  from  its  entrance 
into  the  Mediterranean  Sea  near  Seleucia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Casius,  to  its  sources  in  this  and  other  chasms,  and  the  points  of 
special  interest  along  its  tortuous  course  are  quite  familiar  to  me, 
and  the  river  itself  I  greet  as  an  old  acquaintance.  It  flows  on 
to-day  just  as  it  has  flowed  during  unknown  ages  in  the  past,  and 
just  as  it  did  when  I  first  stood  upon  this  spot;  and,  so  long  as 
“goodly”  Lebanon  lifts  his  head  to  the  clouds,  the  river  Orontes 
will  continue  to  pour  forth  its  crystal  waters  to  refresh  and  fer¬ 
tilize  the  plains  of  Northern  Syria. 

We  will  now  descend  along  the  bank  for  a  short  distance  and 
get  a  view  in  passing  of  the  traditional  grotto  of  Mar  Maron,  exca¬ 
vated  in  the  cliff  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  It  is  also  called 
M  ugharat  er  Rahib,  the  cave  of  the  monk. 

One  is  taken  by  surprise  to  hear  that  any  human  being  could 
live  in  such  a  cavern  at  this  place,  so  lonely  and  solitary. 

You  need  not  be  alarmed  to  hear  also  that  the  cell  of  the  monk 
has  since  become  the  robber’s  den.  I  have  been  through  it  seve¬ 
ral  times,  and  Dr.  Robinson  during  his  second  tour  through  this 
country  explored  it  carefully.  He  thus  describes  it : 

“  Where  the  stream,  having  turned  around  the  high  projecting 
point,  flows  eastward  for  a  little  time  on  the  right-hand  side,  high 
up  in  the  precipice  looking  north  is  the  excavated  convent  now 
known  amongst  the  common  people  as  Deir  Mar  Maron.  It  is  only 


THE  CAVE  OF  THE  MONK.— BRIDGE  OVER  THE  ORONTES.  305 

a  few  hundred  yards  distant  from  the  great  fountain,  towards  the 
north-east.  The  precipitous  cliff  is  here  about  three  hundred  feet 
high,  and  the  cavern  is  about  two-thirds  of  the  way  up.  The  hill 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  is  less  precipitous,  and  rises  to 
the  height  of  some  four  hundred  feet. 

“  The  monks  took  advantage  of  a  shelf  of  overhanging  rocks, 
cut  away  more  deeply  underneath  it,  and  then  built  up  in  front 
breastworks  and  outer  walls,  with  loop-holes,  thus  forming  a  covered 
gallery  along  the  face  of  the  precipice.  Behind  this  they  then  exca¬ 
vated  rooms  and  cells,  mainly  in  two  stories,  but  also  some  cells  in 
a  third  story.  These  are  all  small,  and  are  now  dark,  dirty,  and 
desolate.  No  one  dwells  there,  though  it  was  said  that  one  or  two- 
monks  had  remained  there  for  a  time  within  a  few  years.  In  the 
autumn  the  cavern  [is  sometimes]  occupied  as  a  shelter  for  flocks 
of  sheep  and  goats. 

“The  story  [that  the  reputed  founder  of  the  Maronite  sect  once 
dwelt  in  that  cavern]  is  apparently  a  mere  legend ;  as  is  perhaps 
Mar  Maron  himself ;  there  is  nothing  to  connect  [that  saint]  in  any 
way  with  this  spot  or  this  region.  The  great  convent  said  to  have 
been  founded  in  his  honor  after  his  decease,  and  called  Deir  Mar 
Maron,  was,  as  some  say,  at  Hamah  ;  or,  according  to  others,  at 
Apemea,  now  Kul’at  el  Mudik.”1 

We  will  have  some  difficulty  in  climbing  up  the  hill  without  a 
path,  and  getting  into  the  road  that  leads  on  eastward  from  Hur- 
mul  to  the  Kamu’a,  distant  about  an  hour  from  this  cavern. 

Having  reached  the  bridge,  we  will  cross  over  the  Orontes  and 
ascend  the  steep  bluffs  on  the  other  side  up  to  the  level  of  the 
rolling  plateau  between  the  river  and  Kamu’a  el  Hurmul. 

This  whole  region  for  miles  around  is  seared  and  sterile,  consist¬ 
ing  mainly  of  low  hills,  covered  with  fragments  of  basaltic  rock, 
loose  and  crumbling,  and  the  scanty  herbage  has  been  entirely 
burnt  up  by  the  sun.  There  are  no  canals  for  irrigation,  as  the 
Orontes  flows  in  its  deep  chasm  more  than  a  hundred  feet  below 
the  surface  level,  and  the  only  living  thing  we  may  see  during  this 
morning’s  ride  is  a  fox,  or  a  flock  of  partridges,  or,  perchance,  a 
couple  of  fleet  gazelles. 

1  Rob.  Res.  vol.  iii.  p.  539,  540. 


3°6 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Kamu’a  el  Hurmul  looks  from  here  like  a  square  tower  with  a 
pointed  top,  and  it  must  be  visible  from  every  direction. 

We  will  have  to  leave  the  road  and  ride  up  to  it  across  this 
rather  difficult  country.  I  saw  that  curious  monument,  standing  on 
its  elevated  mound,  for  a  day  and  a  half  before  I  got  to  it,  when 
coming  from  Aleppo  in  1846,  and  wondered  all  the  while  what  it 
could  be.  Since  then  it  has  been  visited  by  travellers,  who  make 
the  detour  from  the  regular  route  between  Ba’albek  and  the  Cedars. 

Standing  on  this  tell,  and  looking  off  over  the  plain  as  it  ex¬ 
pands  northward  towards  Hamath,  one  feels  almost  assured  that  the 
narrow  track  of  rolling  country  between  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon 
connecting  the  plain  of  Ccelesyria  with  that  of  Hums  is  the  actual 
“  entrance  of  Hamath and  that  this  singular  monument  may  once 
have  served  as  a  land-mark  upon  the  border  of  the  Hebrew  terri¬ 
tory  in  this  direction. 

No  one  has  discovered  when  or  by  whom  Kamu’a  el  Hurmul 
was  built,  nor  what  special  event  it  was  intended  to  commemorate. 
The  sculptures  on  its  sides  represent  hunting  scenes,  and  it  may 
have  been  erected  over  the  grave  of  some  “mighty  hunter”  who 
was  mortally  wounded  while  pursuing  the  chase  in  this  vicinity ; 
but  no  inscriptions  have  been  found  to  explain  the  figures  or  relate 
the  circumstances,  and  both  history  and  tradition  are  silent  upon 
the  subject.  This  unique  and  solitary  monument  stands,  facing  the 
four  cardinal  points,  upon  a  pedestal  of  basalt  about  five  feet  high, 
and  is  reached  from  either  side  by  a  flight  of  three  steps.  It  is 
built  of  limestone,  and  consists  of  three  stories  :  the  first  has  square 
pilasters  at  the  four  angles,  supporting  a  plain  cornice ;  the  second 
is  a  little  smaller,  and  has  two  pilasters  on  each  side  and  one  at 
each  angle ;  the  third  story  rises  from  a  receding  base  above  the 
cornice,  and  is  a  perfect  pyramid  in  shape.  At  the  base  the  monu¬ 
ment  is  thirty  feet  square,  and  the  first  story  is  about  twenty-five 
feet  high  ;  the  next  is  nearly  twenty,  and  the  pyramid,  surmounting 
the  whole,  about  fifteen,  so  that  the  entire  structure  from  the  base 
to  the  summit  must  be  more  than  sixty-five  feet  high. 

The  common  limestone  of  the  neighborhood  was  used  in  the 
construction  of  this  extraordinary  monument ;  the  stones  are  about 
two  feet  thick,  and  well  squared,  but  they  were  laid  up  without 


KAMU’A  EL  HURMUL. 


307 


cement  or  mortar,  and,  consequently,  it  has  not  been  able  to  with¬ 
stand  the  destructive  power  of  the  earthquake.  It  is  cracked  in 
several  places,  and  the  south-west  corner  has  fallen,  carrying  with  it 
a  portion  of  the  pyramid.  We  are  thus  enabled  to  see  that  the 
interior  was  built  up  solid,  though  of  smaller  stone. 


KAMU’A  EL  HURMUL — MONUMENT  COMMEMORATIVE  OF  THE  CHASE. 


But  the  distinctive  and  peculiar  features  of  Kamu’a  el  Hurmul 
are  those  hunting  scenes  so  boldly  and  graphically  delineated  in  re¬ 
lief  upon  its  sides.  The  sculptures  of  animals  and  implements  of 
the  chase  on  that  broad  surface  of  smoothly-cut  stones,  near  the  top 
of  the  first  story,  are  almost  of  natural  size. 


3°8 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Those  on  the  east  side  are  the  most  distinct ;  they  represent 
dogs  attacking  a  wild -boar  from  before  and  behind.  Spears  are 


hurled,  of  which  three  stick  in  his  side,  and  there  are  bows,  quivers, 
a  coil  of  rope,  perhaps,  and  other  hunting  implements.  On  the 
north  side  there  are  two  stags — one  standing,  the  other  lying  down ; 


Figures  on  the  north  side. 

and  there  are  spears  crossed,  quivers,  and  two  coils  of  rope.  In  the 
middle  of  the  west  side  is  a  large  animal,  probably  a  bear,  with  two 
cubs — one  standing  up  in  front,  the  other  following  behind.  There 


are  also  spears  crossed,  a  coil  of  rope,  bows,  quivers,  and  spears, 
apparently  hurled.  So  much  of  the  south  side  has  fallen  away  that 
the  animals  represented  there  are  somewhat  indistinct,  but  a  dog 


OUTLOOK  OVER  THE  PLAIN  FROM  THE  KAMU’A. 


309 


appears  to  be  seizing  an  animal  from  behind,  probably  a  stag  or  a 
gazelle.  The  body  of  the  dog  and  a  part  of  the  head  of  the  stag 
are  gone,  but  bows,  quivers,  a  spear  hurled,  and  other  implements 
of  the  chase  are  plainly  visible. 


Few  sites  suggest  scenes  of  such  varied  interest  in  the  history  of 
this  country.  Kamu’a  el  Hurmul  stands  on  this  dreary  and  deso¬ 
late  hill,  high  above  the  surrounding  region,  and  in  the  narrowest 
part  of  this  rolling  plateau.  Below  it,  on  the  north,  flows  the  clas¬ 
sic  Orontes  diagonally  across  the  plain,  past  the  Biblical  Riblah  and 
the  supposed  site  of  Ketesh,  and  through  the  lake  of  Kedes,  and 
thence  by  Hums  and  Hamah  and  Apamea  to  Antioch  and  the  sea 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Casius.  Eastward  the  plain  rolls  back  to  the 
horizon  and  onwards  to  the  Euphrates ;  and  westward  the  tower¬ 
ing  heights  of  Lebanon  shut  out  “  the  great  sea,”  and  the  plain 
of  Coelesyria  stretches  away  southward  far  as  the  eye  can  follow 
to  where  the  snow-capped  range  of  Hermon  is  faintly  outlined 
against  the  pale  blue  sky.  Mighty  armies — Assyrian,  Egyptian, 
Babylonian,  Persian,  Jewish,  Greek,  Roman,  Christian,  and  Saracen 
— have  marched  past  during  the  long  ages  of  human  history,  but 
now  that  nameless  monument  is  deserted  in  this  solitude,  and  left 
to  tell  its  story  to  the  stars.  Bears  and  boars,  gazelles  and  jackals 
may  still  roam  around  it,  but  men  and  armies  will  rarely,  if  ever, 
come  within  sight  of  its  sculptured  walls. 

Instead  of  descending  again  into  the  valley  of  the  Orontes  we 
will  make  our  way  through  the  open,  roadless  country — a  rocky 
and  desert  plain — to  the  fountain  near  Lebweh,  about  three  hours’ 
ride  to  the  south.  We  shall,  ere  long,  reach  a  broad  canal  which 


3io 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


conveys  the  water  of  that  fountain  northwards  to  Ka’a,  a  distance 
of  about  fifteen  miles,  to  irrigate  the  extensive  corn-fields  which  lie 
too  high  to  be  flooded  by  canals  from  the  Orontes  itself.  For 
several  miles  above  the  fountain  of  el  ’Asy,  near  Mugharat  er  Ra- 
hib,  the  bed  of  that  river  is  more  than  fifty  feet  below  the  sur¬ 
rounding  country,  and  the  rocky  banks  on  either  side  are  nearly 
perpendicular,  so  that  one  has  no  suspicion  of  their  existence  until 
he  finds  himself  suddenly  standing  on  the  brink  of  the  chasm. 

This  must  be  the  canal  you  mentioned,  and  there  is  water 
enough  in  it  and  to  spare  for  irrigating  purposes. 

And  yet  so  utterly  sterile  is  the  soil  in  this  vicinity  that  nothing 
grows  along  the  course  of  the  canal  itself. 

That  village  on  our  left  is  called  Ras  Ba’albek.  It  is  distant 
three  hours  and  a  half,  to  the  north-east,  from  Lebweh,  and  the 
intervening  country  is  hilly  and  broken,  descending  rapidly  to  the 
south-west.  Part  of  the  present  village  lies  in  ruins,  but  there  are 
indications  that  it  was  formerly  a  Christian  town  of  some  impor¬ 
tance.  A  fine  fountain  bursts  out  in  the  village,  and  contributes 
largely  to  the  productiveness  of  the  gardens  and  fruit  orchards  and 
to  the  fertility  of  the  plain  below  er  Ras  and  to  the  west  of  it. 

There  are  in  and  about  the  place  the  ruins  of  ancient  buildings, 
the  remains  of  an  aqueduct,  and  the  foundations  of  two  churches, 
which  were  solidly  built  of  large  beveled  stones,  and  must  have 
been  of  considerable  size.  A  short  distance  east  of  the  village 
there  is  a  dilapidated  convent,  facing  the  deep  gorge  between  the 
lower  ridges  of  Anti-Lebanon.  Its  only  occupant  is  a  monk  from 
’Abeih,  with  whom  I  am  well  acquainted.  His  pastoral  charge 
consists  of  a  flock  of  goats,  over  which  he  watches  with  zealous 
care,  as  Ras  Ba’albek  is  a  notorious  place  for  sudden  raids  by 
prowling  Arabs  from  the  eastern  desert. 

Dr.  Robinson  identifies  er  Ras  with  the  ancient  Conna,  between 
Em  esa,  Hums,  and  Heliopolis,  Ba’albek,  and  the  seat  of  a  bishop 
in  the  province  of  Phenicia  in  Lebanon.  As  there  is  very  little 
resemblance  in  the  names,  he  asks,  “  Is  perhaps  the  present  name 
er  Ras  merely  a  translation  of  the  Greek  [words],  the  head?”1  The 
answer  to  which  may  possibly  be  found  in  the  correctness  of  a  simi- 

3  Rob.  Res.  vol.  iii.  note  5,  pp.  536,  537. 


WADY  FIKEH. — EL  ’AIN.— THE  WATER-SHED. 


3” 


lar  identification  of  another  Beit  er  Ras,  south-east  of  Gadara,  “  in 
Decapolis,”  with  the  Roman  city  of  Capitolias. 

From  the  top  of  that  hill  ahead  of  us  we  will  bid  farewell  to 
Kamu  a  el  Hurmul  and  the  lake  of  Hums,  and  then  descend  into 
the  deep  chasm  of  Wady  Fikeh.  The  village  of  Fikeh  is  not  visi¬ 
ble  from  here.  It  is  in  the  bottom  of  the  gorge,  and  considerably 
higher  up  the  stream.  The  valley,  though  narrow  and  precipitous, 
is  well  cultivated ;  but  in  winter  the  water  of  this  little  brook  is,  of 
course,  not  needed  for  irrigation,  and  it  is  then  allowed  to  descend 
westward  and  join  the  river  that  comes  down  from  Wady  Lebweh. 
This  winding  road  up  the  chasm,  on  the  south  side  of  Wady  Fikeh, 
is  much  steeper  than  the  one  by  which  we  descended  into  the 
valley,  and  we  still  have  a  ride  of  about  an  hour  along  a  compara¬ 
tively  level  road  before  reaching  the  fountain  at  Lebweh. 

That  small  village  on  the  left,  up  amongst  the  foot-hills  of 
Anti -Lebanon,  is  called  el  ’Ain,  the  fountain.  It  is  abundantly 
supplied  with  water  from  three  small  fountains,  and  surrounded  by 
verdure  and  vineyards.  If  it  was  not  so  far  south  it  might  be 
identified  with  the  Ain  mentioned  in  Numbers  in  connection  with 
Riblah,  on  the  east  border  of  the  Promised  Land.1  The  reference 
there  is  probably  to  the  fountain  of  the  Orontes  near  Mugharat 
er  Rahib.  There  are  some  rock  tombs  west  of  el  ’Ain,  but  no 
ancient  remains  of  importance,  in  the  village.  This  stream  that 
comes  down  from  el  ’Ain  is  sufficiently  powerful  to  drive  some 
flour-mills  below  the  village. 

On  one  occasion  I  rode  for  several  hours  southwards  through 
the  corn-fields  in  this  vicinity,  in  order  to  find  the  water-shed  be¬ 
tween  the  Buka’a  and  the  valley  of  the  Orontes,  and,  just  before 
sunset,  I  noticed  that  the  water  from  the  irrigating  canals  began  to 
run  towards  the  south  instead  of  the  north.  There,  of  course,  was 
the  water-shed  of  that  region,  and  it  was  nearly  due  west  of  the 
fountain  of  Lebweh,  to  which  we  are  now  going.  The  corn-fields 
ran  out  into  a  rolling  wilderness  of  barren  hills ;  the  sun  went 
down,  and  a  dense  fog  enveloped  us  in  almost  total  darkness.  I 
had  with  me  only  one  native,  and,  after  wandering  about  in  hope¬ 
less  bewilderment  until  nearly  eleven  o’clock  at  night,  we  were 

1  Numb,  xxxiv.  ti. 


312 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


rejoiced  to  hear  the  barking  of  dogs,  and  soon  found  ourselves  in 
the  midst  of  an  encampment  of  Bedawin  Arabs. 

We  had  no  little  difficulty  in  establishing  peaceable  relations 
with  the  fierce  shepherd  dogs,  and  on  arriving  at  the  tent  of  the 
sheikh  we  found  only  his  wife  and  daughter  in  it,  he  himself  having 
been  summoned  to  Ba’albek  by  the  Pasha.  The  sheikh’s  wife, 
however,  was  quite  equal  to  the  occasion.  She  rekindled  the  ex¬ 
piring  fire,  roasted  and  made  some  hot  coffee  for  us,  and  gave  us 
bread,  and  brought  leben  “in  a  lordly  dish”  for  our  supper. 

That  modern  Jael  was  of  an  inquiring  turn  of  mind,  and,  as  she 
had  never  before  entertained  a  European  guest,  she  had  many  curi¬ 
ous  questions  to  ask.  Finally  she  retired  to  another  part  of  the 
tent,  leaving  us  to  doze  by  the  fire  until  daylight.  She  then 
ordered  one  of  the  Arabs  in  the  camp  to  guide  us  to  the  regular 
road  along  the  Buka’a,  and  we  pursued  our  way  until  noon  before 
overtaking  our  servants  and  the  baggage.  They  also  had  got  lost 
in  the  fog,  and,  finding  a  spring  of  water,  encamped  near  it,  greatly 
perplexed  and  anxious  about  us,  for  they  knew  that  we  had  no 
provisions,  and  no  beds  nor  any  bedding. 

I  suppose  we  need  only  to  follow  the  canal,  along  which  we 
have  been  riding,  to  reach  the  fountain  at  Lebweh  ? 

Nor  is  it  far  off.  I  begin  to  see  the  ruins  of  the  village,  which 
lie  a  short  distance  to  the  north-west  of  it,  on  a  low  tell  nearly  sur¬ 
rounded  by  the  streams  from  the  fountain.  I  have,  generally,  found 
this  village  almost  deserted,  as  it  is  now,  but  sometimes  it  is  inhab¬ 
ited  by  the  peasants  who  cultivate  the  corn-fields  which  spread  out 
into  the  plain  below.  Lebweh  occupies  an  old  site,  and  it  is  be¬ 
lieved  to  correspond  to  the  Lybo  of  the  ancient  Itinerarium  Anto- 
nini,  a  place  on  the  road  between  Emesa  and  Heliopolis.  On  the 
north  side  of  the  tell  are  the  foundations  of  an  old  structure,  prob¬ 
ably  those  of  a  temple,  and  the  rest  of  the  mound  i$  covered  with 
heaps  of  rubbish,  with  here  and  there  a  piece  of  a  broken  column 
or  the  fragments  of  a  capital.  Arabian  writers  mention  Lebweh  as 
a  fortified  place  ;  and  here  it  is  said  that,  in  the  twelfth  century, 
a  company  of  two  hundred  Saracen  horsemen  fell  in  with  a  troop 
of  Frank  cavalry,  put  them  to  flight,  and  killed  their  leader,  a  chief 
of  the  Knights  Hospitalers. 


BIRKET  EL  YEMMUNEH— LAKE  ON  LEBANON.  313 

The  quantity  of  water  at  this  fountain  of  Lebweh,  one  of  the 
most  distant  sources  of  the  Orontes  in  this  direction,  is  very  great. 
It  issues  from  a  mass  of  pebbles  and  gravel,  at  the  base  of  a  ledge 
of  limestone  rock,  in  four  large  streams  and  many  smaller  ones,  and 
is  used  to  irrigate  the  fields  both  to  the  south  and  west ;  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  water  is  taken  northwards  by  that  canal  close 
to  which  we  have  been  riding  for  so  long  to-day.  The  rest  of  the 
water  flows  off  towards  the  north-west,  in  a  deep  and  narrow  chan¬ 
nel,  along  the  eastern  side  of  Lebanon,  and  through  a  rocky  and 
barren  region.  The  stream  from  Neb’a  Lebweh  is  joined  by  that 
coming  down  Wady  Fikeh,  and  the  two,  under  the  name  of  Nahr 
el  ’Asy,  unite  with  the  water  of  the  great  fountain  near  Mugharat 
er  Rahib  and  form  the  river  Orontes. 

There  is  nothing  here  to  detain  us  but  the  grateful  sight  of  this 
verdure,  spreading  all  around  like  an  oasis  in  the  desert,  so  we  will 
continue  our  ride  to  Ba’albek,  which  is  five  hours  and  a  half  distant. 
Some  travellers  on  the  regular  road  from  Ba’albek  to  the  Cedars 
spend  the  night  at  Lake  Yemmuneh;  others,  however,  prefer  to 
camp  at  ’Ainata,  a  village  to  the  north-east  of  the  lake. 

I  thought  there  was  no  large  lake  on  Lebanon. 

A  number  of  small  streams  rise  along  the  western  side  of  the 
lake  from  the  very  roots  of  Lebanon,  and,  uniting  around  the  base 
of  an  ancient  temple,  form  a  considerable  river,  which  crosses  the 
plain  eastwards  for  nearly  a  mile,  when  it  disappears  in  a  sink-hole 
under  the  surface  of  the  lake  or  pool.  When  the  supply  from  that 
river  is  greater  than  the  capacity  of  the  sink-hole,  the  water  spreads 
out  far  and  wide  into  the  lake,  which  is  increased  or  decreased  in 
size  according  to  the  volume  of  water  and  the  season  of  the  year. 
That  disappearance  of  the  water  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
phenomena  of  the  kind  in  this  country;  and  the  question  is,  where 
does  it  reappear?  The  natives  think  that  Birket  el  Yemmuneh  is 
the  source  of  Nahr  Ibrahim,  which,  as  you  will  remember,  issues 
from  the  cave  of  Adonis  at  ’Afka,  below  the  Natural  Bridge,  and  on 
the  other  side  of  Lebanon.  The  more  probable  theory  is  that  it 
forms  part  of  the  fountain  of  the  Orontes  near  Mugharat  er  Rahib. 

During  the  heavy  rains  of  winter  Birket  el  Yemmuneh  actually 
deserves  the  name  of  a  lake,  for  then  the  narrow  plain  south  of  it, 


3H 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


BIRKET  EL  YEMMUNEH — LAKE  ON  LEBANON. 


which  stretches  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  lofty  range  of  Leba¬ 
non,  is  flooded  for  a  considerable  distance.  Even  in  summer  there 
is  a  sheet  of  water  more  than  a  mile  in  length  ;  but  the  lake  is 
greatly  reduced  in  the  autumn,  as  the  principal  fountain  near  the 
temple  almost  entirely  dries  up  at  that  season. 

The  ruins  of  the  temple  are  near  the  base  of  the  mountain, 
which  sweeps  upwards  to  the  clouds  in  one  magnificent  rise  of  more 
than  three  thousand  feet.  It  stands  on  a  low  rocky  platform,  facing 
the  main  fountain,  and  the  water  that  flows  out  around  it  is  of  the 
softest  and  coldest  in  the  land.  The  platform  was  two  hundred  and 
sixty  feet  long  by  two  hundred  feet  wide,  and  the  temple  is  about 


BA’ALBEK. — ’AMUD  YA’AT. 


315 


fifty-six  feet  long  by  thirty-six  feet  wide.  Some  of  the  stones  are 
very  large,  but  the  edifice  appears  to  have  been  destitute  of  archi¬ 
tectural  ornamentation.  In  winter  the  numerous  springs  which  sur¬ 
round  the  site  transform  it  into  a  low  island,  and  then  the  ruined 
temple  presents  a  very  striking  appearance. 

We  have  had  in  view  for  some  time  the  ruins  of  Ba’albek,  domi¬ 
nating  the  glorious  plain  of  the  Buka’a,  which  stretches  away  off  to 
the  south-west  far  as  the  eye  can  follow. 

It  looks  like  some  formidable  castle  of  mediaeval  times,  but  I 
am  surprised  that  there  are  no  villages  in  sight  upon  the  plain. 

The  land,  however,  is  highly  cultivated,  but,  as  in  the  case  of 
other  plains  in  this  country,  the  peasants  have  their  homes  on  the 
neighboring  hill-sides.  In  the  central  parts  there  is  no  water.  The 
heat  in  summer  is  oppressive,  and  the  climate  unhealthy.  On  the 
hills  the  air  is  cooler  and  pure,  and  there  are  all  the  fountains. 

Instead  of  going  direct  to  Ba’albek  we  will  turn  to  the  right  and 
visit  a  curious  monument  which  stands  alone  in  the  open  plain 
of  the  Buka’a,  and  apparently  had  no  connection  with  any  other 
structure  ancient  or  modern. 

The  only  living  objects  near  it  this  evening  are  those  noisy 
hawks,  who  greet  us  with  shrill  screams  of  alarm  as  they  hover 
about  their  nest  in  the  crevices  at  the  top  of  the  column.  It  is 
much  weather-worn,  and  looks  as  though  the  first  shock  of  an 
earthquake  would  bring  it  to  the  ground. 

And  yet  it  was  exactly  in  its  present  condition  forty-five  years 
ago,  when  I  first  saw  it ;  and,  having  survived  so  many  of  those  de¬ 
structive  phenomena  in  the  long  ages  of  the  past,  no  one  can  pre¬ 
dict  the  time  of  its  final  overthrow. 

For  what  purpose  do  you  suppose  it  was  erected? 

Like  the  lone  monument  of  Kamu’a  el  Hurmul,  this  ’Amud 
Ya’at,  or  el  Maghzel,  the  spindle,  as  it  is  called,  may  have  had 
some  reference  to  boundaries;  but  more  probably  it  was  raised  in 
commemoration  of  some  important  victory,  or  special  event  now 
unknown.  The  column,  standing  upon  a  pedestal  six  and  a  half 
feet  high,  is  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  is  reached  by  five  steps. 
The  shaft  is  composed  of  fifteen  blocks,  five  feet  in  diameter  and 
three  feet  thick,  but  the  capital  is  weather-worn  and  disintegrated, 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


3 1 6 

and  the  inscription  on  the  north  side  is  so  defaced  as  to  be  en¬ 
tirely  illegible.  Including  the  base  and  capital,  this  singular  mon¬ 
ument  must  have  been  more  than  fifty-five  feet  high,  and  it  may 
have  had  a  statue  on  the  top  of  it. 

We  are  now  on  the  regular  road  from  the  Cedars  to  Ba’albek. 
Wearied  with  this  long  day’s  ride,  we  will  not  stop  at  Nahleh  to 
examine  the  foundations  of  a  ruined  temple,  resembling  those  we 
saw  on  Hermon,  nor  visit  the  rock-cut  tombs  east  of  that  village. 
An  easy  ride  of  an  hour  and  a  half  will  bring  us,  in  the  cool  twilight, 
to  our  tents,  pitched  in  the  court  of  the  great  Temple  of  the  Sun, 
from  where  we  can  gaze  at  our  leisure  upon  the  ruins  of  Ba’albek, 
those  marvels  of  architecture  in  this  or  in  any  other  land. 


BA’ALBEK. — EL  BUKA’A.— EZ  ZEBEDANY. 


317 


IX. 

BA’ALBEK  TO  DAMASCUS. 

Ba’albek  and  el  Buka’a. — Approach  to  Ba’albek  from  the  Cedars,  and  from  Zahleh. — 
Personal  Experience. — The  Cardinal  Points. — Position  of  Ba’albek. — The  Ancient 
City. — The  Old  Wall. — Doric  Column. — Remains  of  the  Old  Town. — Statues. — The 
Modern  Town. — The  Acropolis. — Artificial  Platform  of  the  Great  Temple. — Stairway 
Leading  to  the  Platform. — The  Portico. — Latin  Inscription. — Antoninus  Pius  and  Julia 
Domna. — Massive  Square  Towers. — Large  Stones. — Vaults. — Main  Entrance. — The 
Hexagonal  Court. — The  Triple  Gate. —  The  Great  Court. —  Niches,  Recesses,  and 
Chambers. — The  Eastern,  Northern,  and  Western  Sides  of  the  Court. — Raised  Plat¬ 
form. — The  Temple  of  the  Sun. — The  Peristyle. — The  Six  Columns. — The  Walls  of 
the  Temple  Platform. — Cyclopean  Stones  and  Walls. — Trilithon. — The  Three  Great 
Stones. — Seven  Stones  in  the  West  Wall. — Nine  Stones  Parallel  to  the  North  Wall. — 
Vaults  and  Galleries  under  the  Platform. — Temple  of  Jupiter. — The  Pantheon  at 
Athens. — Platform  of  the  Temple. — The  Portico. — The  Peristyle. — The  Vestibule. — 
The  Portal. — Mr.  David  Roberts. — The  Hanging  Keystone. — The  Assyrian  Eagle. — • 
Stairway  to  the  Top  of  the  Temple. — The  Nave  of  the  Temple. — Fluted  Columns  and 
Sculptured  Niches.  —  The  Sanctum. —  Sacrificial  Procession. — Vaulted  Chambers. — 
Moslem  Iconoclasts. — Nine  Columns  on  the  North  Side  of  the  Peristyle. — Entablature 
and  Roof  of  the  Peristyle. — Lieutenant  Conder. — Three  Columns  on  the  West  Side 
of  the  Temple. — The  Leaning  Column  on  the  South  Wall  of  the  Temple. — Four 
Standing  Columns. — Fluted  Columns  of  the  Portico. — Saracenic  Tower. — The  Octag¬ 
onal  Temple.  —  Columns,  Niches,  and  Festoons.  —  Ionic  and  Corinthian  Columns 
around  the  Interior  Walls.  —  A  Christian  Church.  —  Ras  el  ’Ain.  —  Coelesyria.  —  El 
Buka’a. — The  Orontes  and  the  Leontes. — El  Berduny  and  Nahr  ’Anjar. — The  Grave 
of  Noah  and  the  Tomb  of  Seth. — Toi  and  David. — The  Hittites  and  the  Egyptians. 
— The  History  of  Ba’albek. — Baal-gad. — The  Plain  of  Aven. — Heliopolis. — Julia, 
Augusta  Felix. — The  Emperor  Trajan. — John  of  Antioch. — Antoninus  Pius  and 
Septimus  Severus. — Julia  Domna  and  Heliogabalus. — Venus  Worshipped  at  Ba’al¬ 
bek. —  The  Emperor  Constantine.  —  Muhammedan  Vandalism. —  Kul’at  Ba’albek. — 
The  Quarries. — The  Great  Stone  in  the  Quarry. — Kubbet  Duris. — The  Road  to 
Damascus.  —  Emirs  of  Beit  Harfush.  —  Bereitan.  —  Khuraibeh. — A  Donkey  Fallen 
under  its  Load. — The  Humane  Laws  of  Moses. — Nahr  Yahfufeh. — A  Roman  Bridge. 
— Surghaya. — Volcanic  Plain. —  The  Water- shed. —  ’Ain  Hawar. —  Ez  Zebedany.— 
The  Plain,  the  Gardens,  and  the  Vineyards.  —  The  Source  of  the  Barada.  —  The 


3*8 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Lofty  Range  of  Anti-Lebanon. — Bludan. — Wild  and  Romantic  Scenery  in  Suk  Wady 
Barada. — The  Pass. — The  Bridge. — Ancient  Roadway  Cut  in  the  Rock. — Latin  In¬ 
scriptions. — “  Abila  of  Lysanias.” — Rock-hewn  Aqueduct  and  Rock-cut  Tombs. — 
Ancient  Quarries. — The  Tomb  of  Abel. — Ruins  of  a  Small  Temple. — Plain  and  Vil¬ 
lage  of  Suk  Wady  Barada. — A  Devout  Hermit. — Gibbon. — Kefr  el  ’Awamid. — An¬ 
cient  Temple. — Ride  along  the  Canal. — A  Succession  of  Surprises. — ’Ain  el  Fijeh. 
— The  most  Copious  Source  of  the  Barada. — Massive  Remains  of  Platforms  and  Tem¬ 
ples. — Fever  and  Ague. — ’Ain  el  Ivhudra. — Grand  Scenery  and  Execrable  Road. — 
Tunnel  through  the  Cliff. —  Zenobia  and  Palmyra. —  Bessima. —  Es  Sahra.  —  French 
Carriage-road. — Dummar. — Ivubbet  en  Nusr. — First  and  Finest  View  of  Damascus. — 
Description  of  the  Scene  by  Lieutenant  Van  de  Velde  and  Mr.  Addison. — The  Barada 
Described  by  Dean  Stanley. — The  Canals  and  Streams  from  the  Barada. — The  Main 
Stream. — The  Paradise  of  the  Prophet. — The  Mountains  and  the  Plain. — Hermon. 
— Nahr  el  A’waj,  the  Pharpar. — Jebel  Kasyun. — Adam  and  Abraham. — Cain  and 
Abel. — Es  Salahiyeh. — Broad  Paved  Road. — The  Tent  and  the  Hotel. 

September  nth. 

I  HAVE  devoted  the  early  hours  of  the  morning  to  these  cele¬ 
brated  ruins,  and  have  examined  them  again  and  again,  and  always 
with  a  feeling  of  ever  increasing  admiration  and  astonishment. 

The  disappointment  experienced  by  some  visitors  on  first  ap¬ 
proaching  Ba’albek  is  partly  owing  to  the  vast  proportions  of  the 
surrounding  region.  The  valley  of  Ccelesyria,  now  called  el  Buka’a, 
extends  to  a  great  distance  northward  and  southward,  and  is  shut 
in  by  the  long  and  lofty  range  of  Lebanon  on  the  north-west,  and 
that  of  Anti-Lebanon  on  the  south-east.  During  the  many  hours 
of  approach  along  its  undulating  surface  towards  Ba’albek  the  eye 
grows  familiar  with  such  magnitudes  as  the  extreme  length  of  the 
plain,  the  great  height  of  the  mountains,  and  the  profound  depths 
of  the  valleys,  and  in  comparison  with  them  any  structure  of  man’s 
designing,  no  matter  how  imposing,  is  as  nothing. 

Coming  to  Ba’albek  from  the  Cedars,  the  distant  view  of  these 
ruined  temples  is  not  very  impressive,  and  to  approach  them  from 
Zahleh  is  still  more  disappointing,  as  I  experienced  on  my  first  visit 
in  1835.  Hour  after  hour  we  rode  along  over  the  plain  in  weary 
monotony.  Several  times  I  spurred  my  horse  to  a  gallop,  expect¬ 
ing  to  reach  those  columns  in  a  few  minutes,  but  had  to  draw  rein 
again  and  breathe  my  jaded  steed,  that  had  not  a  particle  of  my 
enthusiasm.  When,  at  last,  the  hoofs  of  our  horses  clattered  upon 
the  pavement  at  the  entrance  I  exclaimed,  almost  in  disgust,  to  my 


PERSONAL  EXPERIENCE.— POSITION  OF  BA’ALBEK. 


319 


companion,  “  Is  this  Ba’albek?”  “  It  is,”  was  his  reply;  “  and  now 
prepare  yourself  for  hours,  if  not  days,  of  exploration  and  wonder ; 
you  will  need  all  that  time,  and,  having  done  that  once,  you  will  do 
it  again  whenever  you  have  an  opportunity.” 

Dismounting,  I  came  to  a  prostrate  column,  and  was  surprised 
to  find  that,  on  tip-toe,  and  with  my  arm  outstretched,  I  could  not 
measure  its  diameter.  I  climbed  up  between  two  of  those  six  stand¬ 
ing  columns,  and  felt  dwarfed  to  utter  insignificance  beside  them ; 
and  I  looked  up  to  the  entablature  with  awe,  and  wondered  how 
high  it  could  be.  A  fallen  fragment  lay  close  by,  and  I  jumped 
down  to  measure  it,  and  to  my  astonishment  found  that  it  was 
more  than  fourteen  feet  thick !  Such  columns  and  such  fragments 
lay  all  around,  in  bewildering  confusion;  but  by  degrees  I  learned 
to  comprehend  the  grand  design  of  the  whole,  and  from  the  plat¬ 
form  in  the  middle  of  the  great  court  I  tried  to  reconstruct,  in 
imagination,  their  magnificent  sanctuaries. 

I  cannot  feel  at  home  in  any  place  until  the  points  of  the  com¬ 
pass  are  correctly  understood.  Here  the  east  persistently  seems  to 
be  north,  and  the  west  south.  Let  us,  therefore,  commence  our 
survey  of  these  celebrated  ruins  at  Ba’albek  by  settling  the  actual 
position  of  the  four  cardinal  points. 

That  can  easily  be  accomplished  if  you  will  bear  in  mind  that 
on  a  low  ridge  or  spur  of  the  sloping  tract  which  extends  westward 
from  Anti-Lebanon  into  the  Buka’a,  and  upon  an  artificial  platform, 
raised  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet  above  the  immediate  environs,  these 
ruined  temples  stand,  facing  the  rising  sun.  They  are  surrounded 
by  mulberry-gardens  and  groves  of  walnut  and  poplar  trees,  through 
which  small  streams  from  Ras  el  ’Ain  find  their  way  to  the  plain 
below.  This  particular  site  was  selected,  I  suppose,  because  it  was 
the  first  beyond  the  fountain  which  extended  farther  west  than  the 
city,  so  that  the  temples  would  stand  out  alone  and  conspicuous, 
and  command  an  unobstructed  view  over  the  Buka’a  to  the  north 
and  south — of  Lebanon  across  the  plain  westward,  and  Anti-Leba¬ 
non  eastward.  The  ground  rises  gently  to  the  south-east,  affording 
an  admirable  position  for  the  town,  whose  Syrian  name,  Ba’albek, 
was  translated  by  the  Greeks  into  Heliopolis,  the  City  of  the  Sun. 

The  old  city  was  irregular  in  form,  and  was  surrounded  by  a 
Y 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


320 

wall,  which  can  be  traced  along  almost  its  entire  circuit  of  nearly 
two  miles.  The  existing  fragments  of  the  wall  reveal  the  fact  that 
it  was  not  the  most  ancient,  since  it  was  constructed  out  of  older 
material ;  and  the  part  still  standing,  on  the  south-west,  with  its 
battlements  and  square  towers,  though  both  are  badly  cracked  and 
broken,  has  quite  a  modern  appearance.  When  I  first  visited  Ba’al- 
bek  I  saw  the  fragments  of  a  Doric  column,  which  stood  on  the 
hill-side,  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  wall,  and  over  a  cave  in  which 
are  several  sarcophagi.  The  height  of  that  column,  from  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  the  base  to  the  top  of  the  capital,  was  about  forty  feet.  A 
hole  appears  to  have  been  made  in  the  capital  to  correspond  to 
a  groove  in  the  side  of  the  shaft,  but  for  what  special  purpose  it 
is  now  impossible  to  determine.  Built  into  the  wall  in  that  south¬ 
western  part  of  the  city  are  fragments  of  ornamented  friezes  and 
cornices.  Some  of  the  sculptured  stones  are  upside  down,  and 
others  have  portions  of  Greek  inscriptions  upon  them. 

The  remains  of  the  old  town  are  of  no  special  importance. 
They  consist  of  detached  masses  of  building-stone,  fragments  of 
columns,  friezes,  and  cornices,  plain  and  ornate,  thrown  together  in 
heaps  or  scattered  here  and  there  in  hopeless  confusion.  Statues 
and  other  antiquities  have  been  dug  up  from  the  ruins,  and  some 
stones  were  found  with  Greek  inscriptions  upon  them.  Careful 
excavations  would  probably  reveal  more  of  the  same  kind.  The 
modern  town  lies  to  the  east  of  the  temples,  and  is  built  among  the 
ruins,  and  out  of  the  old  material,  of  the  ancient  town.  It  occupies 
but  a  small  portion  of  the  original  site,  and  consists  of  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty  houses,  most  of  which  are  inhabited  by  Greek 
Catholics,  and  the  rest  by  Moslems  and  Metawileh. 

The  modern  traveller,  however,  does  not  linger  amongst  the 
remains  of  the  old  city,  nor  loiter  about  the  narrow  streets  and 
crooked  lanes  of  the  present  town.  The  main  attractions  of  Ba’al- 
bek  are  the  wonderful  ruins  of  these  temples,  which  surpass  even 
those  of  Greece  and  Rome  in  the  vastness  and  boldness  of  their 
design,  their  symmetrical  proportions,  and  the  delicate  execution 
of  their  elaborate  decorations.  It  has  been  well  said  of  them  that 
“  these  temples  have  been  the  wonder  of  past  centuries,  and  they 
will  continue  to  be  the  wonder  of  future  generations.”  Let  us  now 


BA’ALBEK  AND 


THE  ACROPOLIS.— ARTIFICIAL  PLATFORM.— THE  STAIRWAY.  32 1 

proceed,  in  imagination,  to  the  Acropolis,  in  the  north-western  part 
of  the  city,  where  the  temples  stood,  and  which  constituted  its  de¬ 
fence  in  that  quarter  for  centuries  after  their  destruction. 

The  Acropolis  extended  westward  from  the  town,  rising  gradu¬ 
ally  in  that  direction,  and  the  artificial  platform  occupied  by  the 
great  temple  was  irregular  in  form  and  nearly  one  thousand  feet  in 
length  from  east  to  west,  and  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  wide  from 
north  to  south.  A  broad  flight  of  steps,  probably  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  in  length  and  fifty  feet  wide,  led  up  from  the  city  to  the 
portico  at  the  eastern  end.  The  steps  are  now  all  gone.  The  floor 
of  the  portico  was  elevated  about  twenty  feet  above  the  ground. 
The  portico  was  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet  long  from  north  to 
south,  thirty-seven  feet  wide,  and  probably  over  forty  feet  high.  It 
had  twelve  columns  in  front,  four  feet  in  diameter,  and  with  an 
interval  of  ten  feet  between  them. 

Standing  on  that  elevated  platform,  supporting  a  portico  one 
hundred  and  eighty  feet  in  length,  those  columns,  with  their  Corin¬ 
thian  capitals  and  ornamented  entablature,  must  have  presented  a 
magnificent  appearance.  Only  the  bases  of  the  columns  remain, 
upon  two  of  which  are  Latin  inscriptions  to  the  effect  that  Anto¬ 
ninus  Pius  and  Julia  Domna,  grateful  for  their  safety,  caused  the 
capitals  of  the  columns  to  be  covered  with  gold.  Flanking  the 
portico  on  the  north-east  and  south-east  are  square  towers,  with 
rooms  in  them.  Those  towers  would  attract  attention  anywhere, 
for  they  were  constructed  of  very  large  stones  —  one  of  them  is 
twenty-five  feet  long — and  the  spacious  room  in  each  is  more  than 
thirty-five  feet  square,  and  ornamented  with  pilasters,  niches,  and 
cornices.  Steps  led  down  from  the  rooms  into  vaults  beneath  the 
platform.  The  upper  parts  of  the  towers  have  been  fortified  with 
battlements  and  pierced  with  loopholes  by  the  Saracens. 

The  wall  at  the  back  of  the  portico  is  nineteen  feet  thick,  and 

most  of  the  stones  of  which  it  was  constructed  are  of  cyclopean 

size,  some  measuring  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  in  length.  That 

massive  wall  is  also  ornamented  with  pilasters,  niches,  and  cornices, 

and  through  it  was  the  main  entrance  leading  into  the  hexagonal 

court  beyond  ;  but  the  interior  of  the  portico  is  now  filled  with 

heaps  of  ruins  and  great  masses  of  fallen  walls,  and  the  gateway  is 
Y* 


322 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


almost  entirely  blocked  up 
the  central  and  largest  of 
which  was  twenty -three 
feet  wide,  and  the  smaller 
ones,  on  each  side  of  it, 
were  ten  feet  in  width. 


The  gate  consisted  of  three  portals, 


WEST. 

The  three  great  stones. 


H 

£ 

"d 

r 

w 

o 

ti 

a 

►d 

H 

M 


The  side  en¬ 
trance  on  the 
left  is  the  only 
one  now  open 
— a  low  passage 
roofed  over  with 
very  large  stones. 

Entering  the 
hexagonal  court, 
it  is  found  to 
be  two  hundred  feet  in 
length  from  east  to  west, 
and  two  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  wide  from  angle  to 


SCALE  IN  FEET. 


o 


50 


IOO 


200 


EAST. 


PLAN  OF  THE  COURTS  AND  TEMPLES  AT  BAALBEK. 


NORTH. 


THE  GREAT  COURT  IN  FRONT  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  THE  SUN.  323 

angle.  On  all  sides — east,  north,  and  south,  except  the  west — it  had 
rectangular  recesses,  with  four  columns  in  front  of  each  ;  and  at  the 
angles  there  were  irregularly  shaped  rooms  of  different  sizes.  The 
eastern  recess  was  the  vestibule  before  the  entrance  from  the  por¬ 
tico,  and  directly  opposite  to  it,  on  the  western  side  of  the  hexago¬ 
nal  court,  was  the  triple  gate  leading  to  the  great  court  in  front  of 
the  Temple  of  the  Sun.  The  central  portal  of  that  gateway  was 
fifty  feet  wide,  and  the  side  portals  were  each  ten  feet  in  width,  and 
the  ornamentation  upon  them  all  was  extremely  rich  and  elaborate. 
Only  one  of  those  portals  remains — that  on  the  right. 

The  great  court-  is  a  quadrangle  four  hundred  and  forty  feet 
long  and  three  hundred  and  seventy  feet  wide.  On  all  sides  except 
the  western  this  great  court  had  niches,  rectangular,  square,  and 
circular  recesses  or  chambers,  differing  in  size,  and  having  two  or 
more  columns  in  front  of  each.  The  recesses  are  separated  from 
each  other  by  square  pilasters  with  Corinthian  capitals,  and  between 
them  are  twro  rows  of  niches:  the  lower  is  shell-shaped,  or  scolloped, 
the  upper  is  plain,  with  a  projecting  cornice  or  pediment ;  and  that 
design,  of  niches  between  square  pilasters,  has  been  generally  fol¬ 
lowed  along  the  walls  of  the  recesses  themselves.  Above  the  niches 
ran  an  uninterrupted  entablature,  with  a  frieze  composed  of  garlands 
of  fruit  and  flowers,  and  all  the  recesses  are  supposed  to  have  once 
been  covered  over.  All  of  them  are  now  in  ruins,  and  there  is  not 
a  column  left  standing.  As  the  recesses  on  the  three  sides  corre¬ 
spond  in  every  respect  with  each  other,  a  description  of  those  on 
the  right  of  the  small  portal,  along  the  east  side  of  the  court,  and 
the  ones  along  the  north  side  of  it,  will  give  an  adequate  idea  of 
them  all,  and  of  the  general  appearance  of  the  great  court  itself. 

Proceeding  northward,  therefore,  there  is,  next  to  the  triple  gate, 
on  the  right,  a  large  niche  eighteen  feet  in  width,  which  was  proba¬ 
bly  intended  for  a  colossal  statue ;  then  a  rectangular  recess  about 
twenty-five  feet  deep  and  forty-five  feet  in  length,  with  four  columns 
two  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter  in  front,  of  Syenite  granite  from 
Egypt.  Next  to  that  there  is  a  room  thirty  feet  in  length,  with  a 
door  in  front  instead  of  columns,  and  a  side  door  communicating 
with  a  chamber,  about  twenty  feet  square,  in  the  north-east  corner 
of  the  wall  of  the  great  court. 


324  THE  land  and  the  book. 

Turning  west  and  proceeding  along  the  north  wall  of  the  court, 
there  is  a  room  similar  to  that  on  the  east  of  the  square  chamber 
in  the  corner,  with  which  it  also  communicates  by  a  door.  The 
square  chamber  is  thus  rendered  inaccessible  except  from  these  side 
rooms.  Next  to  that  room  is  a  rectangular  recess,  with  four  col¬ 
umns  in  front,  then  a  semicircular  one  nearly  thirty  feet  long,  with 
two  columns  in  front ;  and  next  to  it,  occupying  the  middle  of  the 


wall  on  this  side,  is  a  rectangular  recess  over  sixty  feet  in  length, 
with  six  columns  in  front.  Then  follow,  in  the  same  order  as  be¬ 
fore,  a  semicircular  recess  with  two  columns  in  front,  a  rectangular 
one  with  four  columns,  and  a  room  with  a  door  next  to  the  corner. 
Adjoining  this  is  a  shell-shaped  niche;  but  there  were  no  recesses 
or  columns  along  the  west  side  of  the  court  between  it  and  the 
peristyle  of  the  temple,  a  distance  of  about  one  hundred  feet. 


SHELL-SHAPED  AND  RECTANGULAR  NICHES  AND  SEMICIRCULAR  RECESS  AROUND 

THE  GREAT  COURT. 


TEMPLE  OF  THE  SUN.— THE  SIX  COLUMNS.  325 

In  the  middle  of  this  western  part  of  the  court,  and  fronting  the 
temple,  are  the  remains  of  a  raised  quadrangular  platform,  upon 
which,  it  is  said,  there  were  two  rows  of  pedestals,  three  in  a  row, 
probably  intended  for  statues.  We  have  now,  in  imagination,  be¬ 
fore  us — standing  upon  a  stylobate  three  hundred  feet  long  and 
two  hundred  and  forty  feet  wide,  and  considerably  higher  than  the 
great  court  which  we  have  just  traversed — the  Temple  of  Baal,  or 
of  the  Sun.  Broad  steps  led  up  to  it,  and  it  was  surrounded  by  a 
peristyle  two  hundred  and  ninety  feet  in  length  by  one  hundred 
and  sixty  feet  in  breadth,  consisting  of  fifty-four  columns  seven  and 
a  half  feet  thick,  sixty-two  feet  high,  and  supporting  an  entablature 
the  top  of  which  must  have  been  eighty  feet  above  the  ground,  and 
one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain. 

All  that  remains  of  that  magnificent  peristyle  are  six  columns, 
with  their  entablature,  standing  among  the  most  wonderful  masses 
of  ruins  that  man  has  ever  seen,  and  the  like  of  which  he  will  never 
behold.  The  base  of  each  column  consisted  of  a  single  block  of 
limestone,  the  shaft  of  three  unequal  in  length,  the  capital  of  one, 
and  the  entablature,  reaching  from  column  to  column — a  distance  of 
about  fifteen  feet — was  also  composed  of  but  a  single  block,  nearly 
square.  The  sections  of  the  shafts  were  fastened  together  by  round 
or  square  iron  cramps,  and  the  distance  between  the  columns  was 
eight  feet.  The  style  of  architecture  is  Corinthian  ;  the  capitals  of 
the  columns  are  richly  sculptured,  and  the  entablature  is  profusely 
ornamented  with  fretted  mouldings,  garlands,  and  busts,  designed 
with  great  taste,  and  carefully  executed.  From  the  splendid  effect 
produced  by  the  six  columns  now  standing  the  magnificence  of  the 
entire  peristyle  can  be  imagined,  and  some  idea  formed  of  the  grand 
appearance  of  the  temple  itself.  Not  a  trace  remains  of  its  walls, 
however,  and  the  probabilities  are  that  it  was  never  built,  and  that 
“  the  peristyle  alone  served  the  purpose  of  a  vast  hypaethral  tem¬ 
ple  ”  under  a  clear  sky,  and  dedicated  to  the  Lord  of  Light  at 
Ba’albek,  “the  city  of  the  sun.”1 

If  those  columns,  whose  shafts  lie  in  great  fragments  all  around, 
ever  enclosed  a  temple,  it  must  have  been  of  the  usual  quadrangu¬ 
lar  form,  and  it  stood  facing  the  east  on  this  elevated  platform  high 

1  Rob.  Res.,  vol.  iii.  p.  512. 


326 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


mfMwsm 

M  mm 

■ 

JBUi 

1 

Mm 

msfBm 

ymuwiwwr./i 

' 1  '1  iilKllnlDlnliVW 

Jli  1TO  P'i 

■amn"] 

’ill  h  1 !  "  'll  n  i  l  i  m"  i 

THE  SIX  COLUMNS  ON  THE  SOUTH  SIDE  OF  THE  PERISTYLE. 


above  the  plain.  Only  the  north  wall  that  sustained  the  line  of 
columns  on  that  side  is  exposed  to  view.  It  consists  of  thirty-nine 
courses  of  large  bevelled  stones,  each  course  being  nearly  four  feet 
high,  and  of  about  the  same  thickness.  The  eastern  wall  adjoins 
the  western  side  of  the  great  quadrangular  court  in  front  of  the 


THE  THREE  GREAT  STONES  IN  THE  WEST  WALL.  327 

peristyle.  The  southern  wall  is  almost  entirely  buried  up  with  rub¬ 
bish  and  ruins,  and  the  western  wall  is  partly  broken  down,  afford¬ 
ing  a  view  through  the  gap  of  the  mulberry-gardens  below  and  the 
plain  beyond.  The  walls  upon  which  the  columns  were  erected 
were  of  the  same  height,  but  whether  the  platform  enclosed  by 
them  was  built  up  solid,  or  whether  the  temple  stood  on  massive 
vaults,  can  only  be  determined  by  careful  excavation. 


THE  THREE  GREAT  STONES  IN  THE  WEST  WALL. 


But  neither  the  courts,  nor  this  platform,  nor  these  columns,  nor 
yet  the  temple  itself  constituted  the  greatest  of  Ba’albek’s  archi¬ 
tectural  marvels.  Those  were  the  cyclopean  stones  and  walls  which 
surrounded  the  Acropolis  itself,  and  they  still  confound  even  the 
imagination  of  the  beholder.  To  see  them  we  must  descend  from 
this  platform,  near  the  north-western  corner,  to  the  gardens  at  its 
base,  on  the  outside  of  these  walls.  Those  “  external  substruc¬ 
tions,”  as  they  are  called,  were  nearly  thirty  feet  distant  from  the 
walls  sustaining  the  columns,  and  on  the  north  side  the  intervening 
space  appears  never  to  have  been  filled  in.  The  most  imposing  of 


328 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


them  are  the  celebrated  “  three  stones”  in  the  western  wall,  that 
gave  the  name  of  Trilithon  to  the  temple  in  ancient  times. 

There  they  are ;  look  at  them  ! — the  most  enormous  stones  that 
man  ever  quarried  out  of  the  solid  rock  or  built  into  the  walls  of 
any  edifice.  They  are  twenty  feet  above  the  ground,  and  rest  upon 
seven  stones  each  one  of  which  is  almost  thirty  feet  long  and  thir¬ 
teen  feet  high,  and  those  are  laid  on  others  much  smaller — a  curious 
fact,  but  not  uncommon  in  the  construction  of  ancient  massive  sub¬ 
structions.  The  great  marvel  is,  how  they  were  placed  on  the  top 
of  those  other  stones,  which  are  themselves  of  a  wonderful  size  even 
in  Ba’albek.  The  largest  of  the  three  stones  is  sixty-four  feet  in 
length,  the  second  sixty-three  feet  eight  inches,  and  the  third  sixty- 
three  feet,  and  together  they  are  one  hundred  and  ninety  feet  eight 
inches  long,  thirteen  feet  in  height,  and  about  the  same  in  thickness. 
They  contain  more  than  thirty-two  thousand  cubic  feet,  and  must 
weigh  nearly  one  thousand  tons  each — the  greatest  masses  of  stone 
ever  handled  by  man.  They  were  cut  and  polished  with  such  ex¬ 
actness  and  care  that  when  brought  together  the  blade  of  a  pen¬ 
knife  could  not  have  been  inserted  between  them,  and  even  now 
at  first  sight  they  seem  to  be  one  prodigious  stone  in  the  wall, 
nearly  two  hundred  feet  long. 

Passing  around  this  north-west  angle  of  the  platform,  and  pro¬ 
ceeding  along  the  north  side,  we  come  to  nine  large  stones  corre¬ 
sponding  to  the  seven  in  the  west  wall  upon  which  “  the  three 
stones”  are  placed.  These  stones  are  also  cyclopean  in  size  and  ap¬ 
pearance,  measuring  about  thirty-one  feet  in  length,  thirteen  feet  in 
height,  and  ten  feet  in  breadth,  and  they  were  laid  here  just  as  they 
came  from  the  quarry.  They  stand  in  line,  parallel  to  the  north 
wall  of  the  platform,  and  distant  from  it  about  twenty  feet — the 
most  ancient,  the  roughest,  and  most  picturesque  objects  in  all 
Ba’albek.  It  may  have  been  the  intention  to  place  the  great  stone 
still  remaining  in  the  quarry  upon  this  wall,  and  thus  to  complete 
the  line  of  substructions  to  the  north-west  corner ;  but  that  entire 
work  seems  to  have  been  abandoned,  the  most  ancient  platform 
was  evidently  left  unfinished,  and  the  temple  which  was  to  have 
been  erected  upon  it  may  never  have  been  begun. 

The  platform  upon  which  the  courts  and  peristyle  of  the  Temple 


w 

f 

TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER— THE  GRAND  PORTAL.  329 

of  the  Sun  stood,  and  which  is  now  covered  with  ruins,  is  sustained 
by  vaulted  galleries,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles.  Those 
vaults  were  constructed  of  very  large  stones,  and  the  foundations 
are  of  the  same  age  as  the  external  substructions,  but  the  arches 
are  Roman,  and,  from  the  inscriptions  upon  the  walls  and  key¬ 
stones,  it  appears  that  they  were  used  for  stables  and  warehouses 
by  the  Roman  soldiers.  We  will  now  return  to  the  top  of  that 
platform  by  the  same  way  that  we  came  down  here,  and,  passing 
by  the  *six  columns,  visit  the  lesser  temple,  which  stood  a  few 
rods  to  the  south-east  of  them. 

It  is  probable  that  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  was  consecrated  to 
all  the  gods  of  Heliopolis,  and  that  this  temple  was  dedicated  by 
the  Romans  to  Jupiter.  It  is  small  when  compared  with  the  great 
temple  near  it,  but  it  is  actually  the  largest,  most  perfect,  and  most 
magnificent  temple  in  Syria,  and  is  only  surpassed,  in  the  beauty 
of  its  architecture,  though  not  in  size,  by  the  Pantheon,  at  Athens. 
The  platform  upon  which  it  stands  is  considerably  lower  than  that 
of  the  great  temple,  and  probably  there  was  no  connection  between 
them.  There  were  no  courts  in  front  of  the  temple,  but  a  flight  of 
thirty  steps  led  up  to  the  portico  from  the  east.  The  steps  were 
still  in  existence  in  1688,  but  they  have  been  destroyed  since  then, 
and  their  place  is  now  occupied  by  a  Turkish  fort.  The  temple, 
including  the  colonnades,  was  about  two  hundred  and  twenty-five 
feet  long,  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  wide,  and  it  was  sur¬ 
rounded  by  forty-two  columns,  fifteen  on  each  side,  eight  at  the 
end,  and  the  same  number  in  front,  counting  the  corner  columns 
twice.  An  interior  row  of  six  fluted  columns  formed  the  portico, 
and  the  vestibule  was  included  between  the  projecting  walls  of  the 
cella.  Similar  columns  stood  one  on  each  side  of  the  portal. 

Nothing  now  remains  of  the  portico  but  a  few  fragments  of 
shafts  and  bases  of  columns,  and  its  place  is  partially  occupied  by 
the  wall  of  the  modern  Turkish  fort.  Crossing  the  vestibule,  which 
was  sixty  feet  wide  and  twenty -five  feet  deep,  we  come  to  the 
portal  of  the  temple,  forty-two  feet  high  and  twenty-one  feet  wide ; 
but  nearly  half  of  it  is  concealed  by  ruins  and  rubbish.  Just  as 
“the  three  stones”  exceed  all  others  in  size,  and  “the  six  col¬ 
umns”  surpass  in  grandeur  anything  still  standing  amidst  the  ruins 


. 


330 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


of  the  great  temple,  so  this  portal  excels  all  else  in  the  profusion 
and  variety  of  its  ornamentation,  and  the  admirable  skill  with  which 
those  intricate  designs  have  been  executed. 

The  sides  or  door-posts  of  this  magnificent  entrance  are  huge 
pilasters,  in  three  courses,  and  the  top,  or  architrave,  is  composed 
of  three  great  blocks,  elegantly  sculptured  on  three  sides.  Around 
the  door,  on  the  outside,  is  a  belt  of  rich  ornamentation,  in  reced¬ 
ing  panels,  of  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruits,  vines  and  grapes  inter¬ 
twined,  and  most  delicately  carved  in  relief.  Above  this  the  archi¬ 
trave  is  elaborately  adorned  with  vines  and  grapes,  figures  and 
animals,  and  the  frieze  and  cornice  are  finished  with  rich  mould¬ 
ings,  acanthus -leaves,  corbels,  and  scrolls.  In  the  words  of  Mr. 
David  Roberts,  the  well-known  Scotch  artist,  “  this  is  perhaps  the 
most  elaborate  work  as  well  as  the  most  exquisite  in  its  detail  of 
anything  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  The  pencil  can  convey  but  a 
faint  idea  of  its  beauty.  One  scroll  alone  of  acanthus-leaves,  with 
groups  of  children  and  panthers  intertwined,  might  form  a  work  of 
itself.  Even  independent  of  the  beauty  of  the  sculpture,  and  its 
excellent  preservation,  we  are  lost  in  wonder  at  the  size  of  the 
stones,  and  at  the  nature  of  the  machinery  by  which  such  masses 
were  raised  and  placed  in  position.”  1 

But  Time  has  dealt  ruthlessly  with  this  noble  structure.  In 
1751  it  was  still  perfect;  but  the  earthquake  of  1759,  besides  over¬ 
throwing  three  columns  of  the  peristyle  of  the  great  temple,  and 
nine  in  that  of  this  temple,  cracked  and  broke  these  massive  mono¬ 
liths,  or  door-posts,  and  so  rudely  shook  that  lofty  architrave  that 
the  ponderous  key-stone  slipped  from  its  central  position  and  sank 
down  about  three  feet.  There  it  remained  suspended  in  the  mid¬ 
dle,  between  those  great  blocks  of  the  lintel  on  either  side,  for 
more  than  a  hundred  years,  threatening  the  astonished  beholder 
with  instant  annihilation  if  it  suddenly  dropped  down  upon  him. 
This  key-stone  is  nearly  eleven  feet  high,  twelve  feet  thick,  and 
six  feet  broad,  and  will  weigh  about  sixty  tons.  Quite  recently, 
through  the  lauda'ble  efforts  of  Mr.  Burton,  the  English  consul  at 
Damascus,  it  has  been  propped  up  by  a  square  pier  built  of  ordi¬ 
nary  masonry.  But  the  celebrated  eagle  sculptured  upon  it  has 

1  Roberts’s  Holy  Land. 


TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER 


] 


. 

■ 


. 


ASSYRIAN  EAGLE— EMBLEM  OF  THE  SUN 


331 


PORTAL  AND  KEY-STONE  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER. 


thus  been  completely  concealed  from  view.  That  eagle  was  repre¬ 
sented  with  a  tuft  or  crest  of  feathers,  and  with  outstretched  wings, 
holding  in  its  claws  a  staff  or  caduceus,  and  in  its  beak  twisted  gar¬ 
lands,  the  long  strings  of  which  extend  on  either  side,  and  are  held 
up  by  flying  genii.  The  crest  is  supposed  to  be  emblematic  of  the 
sun,  the  god  to  whom  the  eagles  and  the  temples  were  consecrated. 
Similar  eagles  have  been  found  upon  the  ruins  of  some  of  the  most 
ancient  temples  in  this  country,  as  at  Rukhleh,  and  especially  the 
;  •  Z 

... 

_ 


332 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


one  on  the  portal  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Palmyra.  They 
are  all  supposed  to  be  of  Assyrian  origin. 

Winding  stairways  within  the  jambs  of  this  portal  lead  up  to 
the  top  of  the  temple.  The  entrance  to  one  of  them  is  built  up, 
but  we  can  get  through  the  low  opening  near  the  base  of  this  one, 
on  the  right,  and  ascend  to  the  top  of  the  wall,  from  where  we 
will  obtain  a  good  view  of  this  assemblage  of  ancient  architectural 
marvels  and  of  the  plain  and  the  surrounding  mountains. 


INTERIOR  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER. 


Descending  into  the  interior  of  the  temple,  we  see  that  it  had 
no  windows,  and  probably  it  was  only  partially  roofed.  The  nave 
measures  about  ninety  feet  in  length  by  seventy-four  feet  in  width. 
On  the  sides  up  to  the  sanctum  it  had  eight  fluted  half  columns, 
with  Corinthian  capitals,  and  having  two  niches  between  them,  one 
above  the  other.  The  lower  niches  were  arched  and  elaborately 
sculptured;  the  upper  had  highly  ornamented  triangular  pediments, 


INTERIOR  AND  EXTERIOR  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER.  333 

supported  by  slender  columns,  and  they  appear  to  have  had  central 
pedestals  for  statues.  The  semi-columns  in  the  corners  on  either 
side  of  the  portal  were  double,  and  the  sanctum  at  the  west  end 
had  square  pilasters  on  the  sides,  with  Corinthian  capitals. 

The  sanctum,  or  place  of  the  altar,  extended  quite  across  the 
cella,  and  was  about  thirty  feet  broad.  It  was  elevated  nearly  six 
feet  above  the  floor  of  the  nave,  and  several  steps  led  up  to  it.  On 
each  side  of  the  steps  are  great  slabs,  with  groups  of  figures  carved 
in  relief  upon  them,  representing  a  sacrificial  procession,  and  doors 
lead  down  to  vaulted  chambers  beneath  the  sanctum.  These 
groups  are  much  defaced,  probably  by  the  fury  of  Christian  or 
Moslem  iconoclasts,  or  by  both.  They  have  been  but  recently  ex¬ 
cavated,  and  if  not  again  covered  up  the  figures  will  ere  long  be 
entirely  destroyed.  The  nave  or  cella  of  this  temple  is  buried 
many  feet  deep  with  great  masses  of  sculptured  friezes,  fragments 
of  columns,  capitals,  and  heaps  of  rubbish  ;  but  it  ought  not  to  be 
uncovered  until  there  is  a  government  in  this  country  that  can 
and  will  protect  from  ruthless  vandalism  the  exquisite  remains  of 
ancient  art  which  such  excavations  would  surely  bring  to  light. 
Leaving  the  interior  of  this  temple  of  Jupiter,  let  us  now  walk 
around  the  peristyle  on  the  outside  of  it. 

Here  on  the  north  side  there  are  nine  columns  still  remaining. 
They  stand  nearly  nine  feet  apart,  and  there  is  about  the  same  dis¬ 
tance  between  them  and  the  temple  wall.  The  diameter  of  the 
columns  is  over  five  feet ;  the  base  is  three  and  a  half  feet  high  ; 
the  shaft,  composed  of  three  stones,  is  forty-eight  and  a  half  feet 
in  height,  and  the  capital  is  six  feet  high,  making  the  total  height 
of  each  column  about  fifty-eight  feet.  The  entablature  resting 
upon  these  columns  is  about  ten  feet  high,  and  has  a  double  frieze, 
richly  ornamented.  It  is  connected  with  the  wall  of  the  temple  by 
great  slabs  of  stone,  slightly  concave,  which  form  the  roof  of  the 
peristyle.  They  are  divided  into  panels  of  various  shapes — hexa¬ 
gons,  rhomboids,  and  triangles,  containing  busts  in  high  relief  of 
gods  and  probably  emperors,  but  most  of  them  have  been  pur¬ 
posely  defaced.  The  mouldings,  scroll-work,  tracery,  and  foliage, 
filling  up  the  intervening  spaces,  are  all  exquisitely  sculptured,  and 
when  perfect  this  ceiling  of  the  entire  colonnade  must  have  pre- 


334 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


sented  a  beautiful  appearance.  Lieutenant  Conder,  of  the  Palestine 
Exploration  I7und,  supposes,  from  actual  calculation,  that  these  col¬ 
umns  supporting  that  entablature  and  the  roofing  were  subjected  to 
“a  crushing  weight  on  each  pillar  of  one  hundred  and  five  and  a 
half  tons,  or  four  tons  to  the  square  foot.” 

Of  the  eight  columns  on  this  western  side  three  remain  standing, 
with  their  entablature  connecting  them  together;  the  fragments  of 

four  are  still  in  po¬ 
sition,  and  one  has 
been  entirely  over¬ 
thrown.  Passing 
round  to  the  south 


section  of  the  shaft 
remain  fastened  to¬ 
gether  and  lean  un¬ 
broken  upon  the 
wall  of  the  cella, 
apparently  a  solid 
column  thirty-sev¬ 
en  feet  high,  and 
fifteen  feet  in  cir- 
the  leaning  column  on  south  wall  of  the  temple.  cumference,  and 

there  it  has  been 

for  more  than  a  hundred  years.  Farther  on  are  four  standing  col¬ 
umns  supporting  a  connecting  entablature  and  roofing;  and,  on 
turning  the  south-east  corner,  we  see  behind  the  first  two  a  couple 
of  the  fluted  columns  which  extended  along  the  eastern  side  and 
formed  the  portico  in  front  of  the  temple.  Upon  the  top  of  those 


side,  the  bases  only 
of  four  columns  are 
left  in  situ.  One 
column  has  fallen 
against  the  temple, 
but  so  firmly  was 
it  held  with  iron 
cramps  that  the 
first  and  second 


RUINS  OF  THE  PORTICO.— THE  OCTAGONAL  TEMPLE.  335 


four  columns,  at  the  south-east  angle  of  the  temple,  and  at  a  height 
of  nearly  fifty  feet  from  the  ground,  the  Saracens  built  that  square 
tower  which  is  now  in  ruins.  Its  superincumbent  weight  and  pre¬ 
carious  condition  seriously  threaten  the  stability  of  the  supporting 
columns  and  of  that  part  of  the  temple  itself. 

Having  now  examined  the  ruins  of  these  marvellous  temples, 
with  all  their  plat¬ 
forms,  courts,  por¬ 
ticos,  gates,  col¬ 
umns,  thick  walls, 
and  great  stones  in 
the  substructions, 
we  will  leave  the 
Acropolis  and  pass 
through  the  fields 
and  along  the  vil¬ 
lage  lane  to  visit 
the  small  circular 
or  octagonal  tem¬ 
ple.  It  stands  a 
short  distance  to 
the  south-east  of 
the  temple  of  Jupi¬ 
ter,  surrounded  by 
high  garden  walls, 
and  almost  con¬ 
cealed  by  mulber¬ 
ry-trees  and  tall  sil¬ 
ver-leafed  poplars. 

In  order  to  get 
a  good  view  of  its 

beautiful  proportions  we  will  have  to  climb  over  this  garden  wall 
on  the  west  side  of  the  road.  It  is  evidently  of  the  same  age  and 
style  of  architecture  as  the  great  temples,  but  is  not  supposed  to 
have  had  any  connection  with  either  of  them. 

This  templet  was  semicircular  in  form,  about  forty  feet  in  di¬ 
ameter,  and  was  approached  by  a  broad  flight  of  steps.  It  is  sur- 


RUINS  OF  THE  PORTICO  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER. 


336 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


rounded  by  a  peristyle  of  six  Corinthian  columns,  whose  architraves 
and  entablatures  are  also  semicircular,  projecting  outward  from  the 
temple  walls  to  the  columns,  a  distance  of  about  nine  feet,  and  it 
is  that  feature  which  gives  to  the  temple  its  octagonal  appearance. 
Similar  columns  stand  close  to  the  entrance,  one  on  each  side,  and 
the  door-posts  consist  of  large  monoliths.  The  entire  structure 
seems  to  have  been  covered  with  a  domed  roof.  The  entablature  is 
elaborately  ornamented,  and  along  the  walls  of  the  temple,  between 
Corinthian  pilasters,  are  shell-shaped  niches  with  round  architraves, 
supported  by  small  square  pillars.  Above  the  niches  hang  festoons 
of  foliage  and  flowers,  with  bosses  over  them  and  figures  at  each 
end,  and  “  wherever  a  bust  or  a  statue  could  be  introduced  it  has 
been  placed  there.” 

The  exterior  of  this  temple  is  the  most  attractive;  within  it  is 
encumbered  with  ruins  and  rubbish.  Around  the  interior  walls 
there  are  two  tiers  of  small  columns,  one  above  the  other.  The 
lower  tier  is  Ionic,  supporting  a  plain  cornice,  and  the  upper  is  Co¬ 
rinthian,  with  triangular  projecting  pediments.  Two  hundred  years 
ago  this  little  temple  was  used  as  a  church  by  the  Greek  Christians, 
but  now  its  condition  is  very  precarious,  and  the  slightest  shock  of 
an  earthquake  will  prostrate  this  elegant  gem  into  a  shapeless  mass 
of  unsightly  rubbish. 

A  walk  of  nearly  twenty  minutes  along  the  green  banks  of  this 
little  stream  will  bring  us  to  Ras  el  ’Ain,  or  the  fountain-head,  as 
it  is  now  called.  Heliopolis  must  have  depended  upon  that  copious 
fountain  for  its  supply  of  water,  and  there  is  evidence  in  many  parts 
of  the  temples  that  they  were  also  abundantly  provided  for  from 
the  same  source.  This  purling  stream  rises  about  a  mile  to  the 
south-east  of  the  temples  and  near  the  head  of  its  own  little  valley, 
between  the  hills. at  the  base  of  Anti-Lebanon.  Left  to  itself  its 
natural  course  would  be  southward  along  the  plain  until  it  joined 
the  Litany,  and  Ras  el  ’Ain  is  now  regarded  as  the  fountain-head 
of  that  river,  yet  not  a  drop  of  its  waters  reach  the  Litany  except 
in  winter.  So  full  and  strong  is  this  stream,  however,  that  even  in 
summer,  after  supplying  the  modern  town,  driving  the  mills  and 
watering  the  gardens,  it  is  only  exhausted  in  irrigating  the  corn¬ 
fields  which  extend  for  some  distance  into  the  plain. 


RAS  EL  ’AIN.— EL  BUKA’ A. — CCELESYRIA.  33J 

Here  is  the  fountain,  and,  as  you  perceive,  it  boils  up  from  the 
ground  in  several  places,  and  is  enclosed  by  a  low  semicircular 
wall,  forming  at  once  a  pretty  little  pond  overflowing  witli  clear,, 


THE  OCTAGONAL  TEMPLE. 

\ 

cold  water.  The  trees,  the  greensward,  and  the  murmuring  streams 
make  this  a  delightful  place  of  resort  for  the  natives,  and  Ras  ei 
’Ain  is  famed  for  the  salubrity  of  its  air  as  well  as  its  refreshing 
fountains.  Those  ruins  close  by  are  the  remains  of  two  mosks, 
built,  according  to  the  inscriptions,  about  six  hundred  years  ago 
by  the  Muhammedan  rulers  of  Ba’albek,  Melek  ed  Dhahir  and  his. 
son,  Melek  el  As’ad. 

September  nth.  Evening. 

The  view  from  the  top  of  the  hill  above  Ras  el  ’Ain  of  the  ruins 
of  Ba’albek,  the  mountains  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  and  the 
Buka’a  between  them,  was  magnificent.  We  could  see  far  down 
that  beautiful  plain,  and  it  seemed  to  fall  away  westward  and  south¬ 
ward  with  a  very  manifest  descent.  I  would  like  to  explore  it,  for 
it  is  associated  in  my  mind  with  Coelesyria  of  historic  celebrity. 

According  to  the  early  classic  geographers,  Coelesyria  included 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


333 

only  this  long,  broad  valley  or  plain  which  separates  the  parallel 
ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  and  which  is  mentioned  in 
the  Old  Testament  in  connection  with  Baal-gad  as  “the  valley  of 
Lebanon.”  1  Dr.  Robinson  supposes  that  Amos  alludes  to  it  when 
he  speaks  of  the  “plain  of  Aven.”2  The  name  Coelesyria  does  not 
occur  in  the  Bible,  but  was  given  to  it  by  the  Greeks,  after  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  it  exactly  describes  this  remarkable 
valley  or  “hollow”  between  the  two  mountain  ranges  of  Syria.  Its 
modern  Arabic  name,  el  Buka’a,  the  cleft,  is  equally  significant,  and 
it  is  frequently  spoken  of  as  Sahl  el  Buka’a,  the  plain  of  the  cleft. 
It  extends  from  Kamu’a  el  Hurmul,  on  the  north,  opposite  the 
highest  peaks  of  Lebanon,  to  Jubb  Jenin,  under  Hermon,  on  the 
south,  a  distance  of  about  seventy  miles,  having  an  average  width 
of  from  seven  to  nine  miles.  The  highest  part  of  the  Buka’a  is  in 
the  neighborhood  of  these  temples,  which  are  nearly  four  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea ;  but  west  of  Lebweh  the  plain  descends  gradu¬ 
ally  northward  and  southward  until  near  Hurmul,  and  below  Jubb 
Jenin  it  is  not  much  more  than  two  thousand  feet  above  sea-level. 

The  Orontes,  called  el  ’Asy,  the  rebellious,  because  its  course  is 
northwards,  contrary  to  that  of  the  other  rivers  in  Syria,  drains  the 
northern  part  of  the  Buka’a.  The  central  and  southern  portions 
are  comparatively  level,  and  their  fertility  and  beauty  are  entirely 
due  to  the  abundance  of  water.  The  Litany,  the  ancient  Leontes, 
one  of  the  longest  and  largest  rivers  of  Syria,  rises  near  Ba’albek, 
and  is  joined,  as  it  flows  southward  through  the  plain,  by  many 
tributaries.  Amongst  them  is  el  Berduny,  which  descends  from 
snow-capped  Lebanon,  above  Zahleh,  and  the  large  stream  from 
Nahr  ’Anjar,  that  flows  out  from  the  very  roots  of  Anti-Lebanon 
near  the  site  of  ancient  Chalcis.  Perennial  streams  descend  from 
the  mountains  on  either  side,  and  copious  fountains  rise  in  the  plain 
itself  in  such  positions  that  the  water  can  be  conducted  to  all  parts 
of  its  surface.  Looking  down  upon  the  Buka’a  from  any  one  of 
the  hundred  stand-points  on  Lebanon  and  Hermon,  the  beholder 
is  charmed  with  the  checkered  and  endlessly- varied  expanse  of 
blending  wheat-fields,  green  or  golden,  recently-ploughed  land,  black 
or  reddish-brown,  and  broad  belts  of  dun-colored  fallow  ground, 
1  Josh.  xi.  17  ;  xii.  7.  2  Amos,  i.  5  ;  Rob.  Res.,  vol.  iii.  p.  519,  520. 


BIBLICAL  HISTORY  OF  BA’ALBEK.  339 

reaching  to  the  foot-hills,  and  losing  themselves  amongst  the  vine¬ 
yards  that  cling  to  the  mountain-sides. 

The  Buka’a  has  a  legendary  history  of  its  own,  attested  by  cu¬ 
rious  monuments.  At  Kerak  Nuh  the  grave  of  Noah  is  shown,  and 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  plain  is  the  tomb  of  the  prophet  Seth, 
while  the  ruins  of  these  temples  at  Ba’albek  have  astonished  the 
world  for  many  centuries.  The  massive  foundations  surrounding 
them,  and  upon  which  they  were  built,  must  have  been  placed  here 
at  a  time  too  remote  for  even  tradition  to  reach  ;  and  long  before 
“Toi,  king  of  Hamath,”  sent  presents  to  David,  the  Hittites  of 
that  region  were  sufficiently  powerful  to  contend  with  the  Pharaohs 
of  Egypt  for  supremacy  in  this  valley  of  Ccelesyria.1 

Has  Ba’albek  no  Biblical  history  ? 

We  read  that,  after  his  victory  at  “the  waters  of  Merom,” 
“Joshua  took  all  that  land,  from  mount  Halak  even  unto  Baal-gad 
in  the  valley  [or  buka’a]  of  Lebanon  under  Mount  Hermon  and, 
again,  that  when  “Joshua  was  old  there  remained  much  land  to  be 
possessed,”  amongst  which  was  “all  Lebanon  towards  the  sunrising, 
from  Baal-gad  under  Mount  Hermon  unto  the  entering  into  Ha¬ 
math.” 2  Baal-gad,  in  the  Buka’a  —  for  the  Hebrew  and  Arabic 
words  are  identical — must  then  have  been  a  noted  place  on  the 
northern  border  of  the  Promised  Land,  and  was  evidently  conse¬ 
crated  to  the  worship  of  Baal  from  remote  antiquity.  These 
notices  of  Baal-gad  in  the  Bible  agree  very  well  with  the  location 
of  Ba’albek.  It  is  “  in  the  valley  of  Lebanon  under  Hermon,”  and 
midway  between  that  mountain  and  “  the  entrance  into  Hamath.” 
The  gigantic  proportions  of  the  oldest  remains  now  seen  at  Ba’al¬ 
bek  carry  back  to  remote  antiquity  the  existence  of  this  site,  and 
it  may  have  been  one  of  the  holy  places  of  the  Canaanites  or 
Phoenicians  in  the  time  of  Joshua.  If  the  “plain  of  Aven,”  men¬ 
tioned  by  Amos,  was  the  plain  of  On  or  Heliopolis,  and  identical 
with  this  plain  of  Ba’albek,  then,  nearly  seven  hundred  years  after 
Joshua,  Ba’albek  was  celebrated  for  the  worship  of  the  sun,  intro¬ 
duced  into  it  from  Egypt.  That  is  all  its  Biblical  history ;  but  it 
is  still  uncertain  whether  this  ancient  and  remarkable  site  is  any¬ 
where  referred  to  in  the  Bible. 


1  2  Sam.  viii.  9-1 1. 


8  Josh.  xi.  17;  xii,  7;  xiii.  1,  5. 


340 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


As  Heliopolis,  Ba’albek  is  mentioned  by  several  writers  during 
the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era;  but  the  principal  notices 
of  it  are  derived  from  the  coins  of  the  second  and  third  centuries, 
which  represent  it  as  a  Roman  colony,  styled  Julia  Augusta  Felix. 
The  coins  of  Septimus  Severus  show  two  temples,  one  a  larger  and 
another  a  smaller,  and  a  coin  of  Valerian  has  two  temples  upon  it. 
The  oracle  at  Ba’albek,  or  Heliopolis,  was  consulted  by  the  Em¬ 
peror  Trajan,  in  the  second  century,  before  he  undertook  his  sec¬ 
ond  expedition  against  the  Parthians ;  but  the  earliest  authentic 
record  of  these  temples  is  found  in  the  writings  of  John  of  Antioch, 
surnamed  Malala,  about  the  seventh  century.  He  mentions  that 
“Hilius  Antoninus  Pius  erected  at  Heliopolis,  in  Phoenicia  of  Leba¬ 
non,  a  great  temple  to  Jupiter,  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.” 

It  is  possible  that  the  original  design  here  at  Ba’albek  was  to 
construct  a  platform  surrounded  by  cyclopean  stones,  and  to  erect 
upon  it  an  altar  consecrated  to  the  worship  of  Baal.  That  design 
appears  never  to  have  been  fully  accomplished,  and  the  Phoenicians 
probably  adapted  this  site  for  one  of  their  temples.  The  Greeks 
and  the  Romans,  in  their  turn,  may  have  adopted  both  the  site 
and  the  ruins  of  the  Phoenician  temple  for  their  own  purposes ; 
and  Antoninus  Pius  perhaps  began  to  build  his  temple  out  of  the 
remains  of  one  more  ancient,  and  it  was  probably  finished  by  Sep¬ 
timus  Severus  fifty  years  later.  That  may  have  been  the  smaller 
temple,  and  it  was  probably  consecrated  to  Jupiter;  the  great  tem¬ 
ple  of  Baal  or  the  sun  was  apparently  never  finished.  Julia  Domna, 
mentioned  in  the  votive  inscriptions,  was  the  wife  of  the  Emperor 
Severus  and  the  daughter  of  the  priest  of  the  sun  at  Emesa,  Hums.1 
Her  relative,  Heliogabalus,  also  a  priest  of  the  sun,  assumed  that 
title  when  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  in  Emesa,  and  afterwards 
built  a  temple  dedicated  to  the  Syrian  god  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  at 
Rome.  It  is  not  improbable  that  both  of  these  temples  were  built 
by  the  munificence  of  the  Roman  emperors  during  the  early  cen¬ 
turies  of  the  Christian  era,  and  that  here  are  the  ruins  of  their 
greatest  architectural  achievements. 

Venus  was  also  worshipped  at  Ba’albek,  under  the  name  of 
Hedone,  pleasure,  and  the  beautiful  octagonal  temple  in  the  fields 

1  See  page  321. 


HEATHEN  DEITIES.— CHRISTIAN  MARTYRS.— THE  QUARRIES.  341 

may  have  been  dedicated  to  that  voluptuous  goddess.  But  the 
worship  of  heathen  deities  and  the  celebration  of  their  rites  and 
ceremonies  was  suppressed  by  the  Emperor  Constantine.  He  built 
a  large  basilica  here,  whose  ruins  are  probably  those  still  seen  in 
the  middle  of  the  great  court  in  front  of  the  temple  of  Baal. 
During  the  last  thirteen  centuries  the  Muhammedans — fanatical 
haters  of  all  temples,  idols,  and  even  innocent  statues — have  done 
what  they  could  to  deface  and  destroy  the  architectural  and  artis¬ 
tic  beauties  of  Ba’albek,  and  they  have  recorded  their  zeal  and 
success  in  pompous  inscriptions ;  none  of  them,  however,  of  much 
historic  value.  By  those  vandals  the  entire  platform,  vaults,  tem¬ 
ples,  and  all,  were  converted  into  a  strong  fortress,  still  known 
amongst  the  natives  as  Kul’at  Ba’albek — the  castle  of  Ba’albek. 
Deluded  victims  of  Baal’s  abominations  have  been  here ;  and  to 
these  temples  came  the  worshippers  of  Jupiter  and  the  votaries  of 
Venus;  and  here  Christian  martyrs  have  been  put  to  death  by 
heathen  idolaters  and  zealous  followers  of  the  false  prophet.  The 
Canaanite  and  the  Hebrew,  the  Assyrian  and  Egyptian,  the  Greek 
and  the  Roman,  Saracen  and  Christian,  Tartar  and  Turk — all  have 
been  here  ;  and  for  centuries  to  come  travellers  from  every  nation 
will  visit  these  ruins  with  wonder  and  admiration. 

September  12  th. 

We  will  pass  by  the  great  stone  in  the  quarry,  this  morning,  as 
it  is  on  our  way  to  Damascus,  and  from  the  top  of  the  hill  above 
it  you  will  get  the  best  general  view  of  Ba’albek  and  its  ruined 
temples.  The  quarries  are  less  than  a  mile  distant,  to  the  south 
of  the  town,  and  are  an  interesting  study  to  the  architect  and  the 
antiquary.  They  show  the  great  thickness  of  the  rock  formation, 
which  enabled  the  builders  of  the  temple  to  cut  out  immense  blocks 
and  large  stones  of  any  desired  length  and  breadth.  Such  forma¬ 
tions  are  rare  in  this  region,  and  that  may  have  led  to  the  selection 
of  the  site  of  the  temples  at  Ba’albek. 

These  ancient  quarries  extend  along  the  base  of  the  mountain 
towards  the  south-west  for  a  considerable  distance,  and  some  of 
them  appear  to  have  been  wrought  to  a  great  depth.  Stones  for 
the  modern  buildings  in  the  town  are  now  quarried  from  a  place 
farther  south,  where  the  rock  is  white,  soft,  and  easily  wrought. 


three  others  in  the  west  wall,  and  the  intention  was,  perhaps,  to 
place  it  upon  the  row  of  nine  large  stones  in  front  of  the  north 
wall  of  the  temple  platform.  From  here  it  looks  as  if  a  man  could 
reach  the  top  of  it,  but  ride  up  to  it  and  you  will  be  astonished  to 
find  that  even  on  horseback,  with  a  cane  in  your  hand,  you  cannot 
measure  its  height.  It  is  nearly  seventy  feet  long,  fourteen  feet 
wide,  and  fourteen  feet  high  ;  contains  about  thirteen  thousand 
five  hundred  cubic  feet,  and  would  probably  weigh  fifteen  hundred 
tons  !  How  those  enormous  masses  of  stone,  in  such  great  blocks, 
were  transported  and  placed  in  position  on  the  wall,  twenty  feet 


342  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

Now  you  can  see  how  those  enormous  stones  in  “the  substruc¬ 
tions”  of  the  great  temple  were  quarried.  A  space  of  about  six 
inches  was  cut  into  the  solid  rock  around  and  below  them,  and 
when  thus  detached  they  were  conveyed  rough-hewn  to  the  places 
they  were  to  occupy  in  those  cyclopean  walls.  This  great  stone 
was  not  entirely  separated  from  the  rock  beneath,  but  for  what 
reason  the  work  of  cutting  it  away  was  suspended  we  shall  prob¬ 
ably  never  know.  It  is  larger  in  every  respect  than  either  of  the 


THE  GREAT  STONE  IN  THE  QUARRY. 


KUBBET  DURIS.— ROAD  TO  DAMASCUS.— FEUDAL  LORDS.  343 

above  the  ground,  is  another  of  the  unexplained  wonders  connected 
with  the  famous  ruins  at  Ba’albek. 

Near  that  village  of  Duris,  on  the  road  to  Zahleh,  and  about 
half  an  hour  from  Ba’albek,  is  a  rude  Moslem  sanctuary,  probably 
once  the  tomb  of  some  great  saint  or  sinner.  It  is  octagonal  in 
shape,  and  was  constructed  of  fragments  of  pillars  and  square 
stones  taken  from  the  temples  at  Ba’albek.  One  of  the  granite 
pillars  is  upside  down  ;  and  an  old.  sarcophagus,  set  up  on  end, 
served  as  a  prayer  niche.  It  is  called  Kubbet  Duris,  and  is  of  no 
special  interest,  except  that  the  eight  pillars  of  which  it  is  made 
are  of  Syenite  gra¬ 
nite  from  Egypt. 

The  road  to 
Damascus  turns  to 
the  left  here,  and 
ascends  diagonally 
the  declivities  of 
the  eastern  moun¬ 
tains,  which  are 
rough  and  rocky, 
and  frequently  in¬ 
tersected  by  ra¬ 
vines,  which  drain 
the  waters  of  this 
part  of  Anti-Leba¬ 
non  into  the  Buka’a.  A  path  leads  southwards  to  Neby  Shit,  a 
large  Mutawaly  village,  where  there  is  a  conspicuous  wely,  the  re¬ 
puted  tomb  of  the  prophet  Seth  ;  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
Buka’a,  at  Kerak  Nuh,  is  the  tomb  of  the  patriarch  Noah,  both  of 
which  we  have  already  noticed.  Those  villages  are  near  the  bor¬ 
der,  between  the  district  of  el  Buka’a  and  that  of  Ba'albek. 

The  feudal  lords  of  Beit  Harfush,  a  family  of  Metawileh  Emirs, 
governed  this  district,  from  Zahleh  northward,  including  Ba’albek, 
the  surrounding  mountains,  and  the  adjacent  plain.  They  were  a 
turbulent  set,  occupying  these  rugged  mountains  of  Anti-Lebanon, 
and  almost  as  independent  as  the  Emirs  of  Lebanon.  Between 
them  there  was  eternal  enmity,  and  many  a  bloody  battle.  The 


344 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Emirs  of  Beit  Harfush  were  always  in  a  state  of  chronic  rebellion 
against  the  Turkish  government,  and  they  kept  this  district  of  Ba’al- 
bek  in  constant  turmoil  by  their  tyrannical  abuses  and  daring  rob¬ 
beries.  A  few  years  ago  the  government  made  a  clean  sweep  of 
the  entire  family,  and  those  of  the  Emirs  not  killed  were  banished 
to  distant  parts  of  the  empire.  Though  severe,  the  treatment  was 
needed,  and  the  beneficial  effect  upon  the  country  is  seen  and  felt 
even  by  the  wayfarer  and  the  stranger.  We  ourselves  can  now 
pitch  our  unprotected  camp  where  it  suits  our  purpose,  without 
fear  of  disturbance  or  danger  of  robbery. 

Our  road  over  the  low  foot-hills  of  Anti-Lebanon  since  leaving 
the  quarries  has  been  singularly  devoid  of  interest. 

From  ’Ain  el  Barideh,  with  its  small  fountain,  to  Bereitan,  it 
runs  parallel  with  the  Buka’a,  and  would  have  been  exceedingly 
monotonous  were  it  not  for  the  fine  views  it  affords  in  many  places 
of  the  beautiful  plain  and  the  grand  range  of  Lebanon  west  of  it. 
At  Bereitan  there  are  many  rock-cut  tombs,  some  of  which  have 
Greek  inscriptions  upon  them  ;  and  though  the  village  is  prettily 
situated  between  white  hills  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Buka’a,  it 
probably  has  neither  a  Biblical  nor  historical  interest  attaching  to 
it.  The  road  now  begins  to  ascend  the  mountain,  and  in  about 
one  hour  and  a  half  it  will  lead  us  to  Khuraibeh. 

The  village  is  a  most  unsightly  cluster  of  dilapidated  hovels, 
and  its  name  is  an  appropriate  one,  since  it  means  a  ruin  ;  other¬ 
wise  it  has  little  to  distinguish  it  from  many  similar  places  on  these 
mountains,  except  a  wide,  deep  well  which  supplies  the  inhabitants 
with  water,  there  being  no  fountain  in  this  place. 

After  passing  through  Khuraibeh  our  ride  has  been  along  the 
dreary  slope  of  this  mountain,  and  in  many  places  it  is  very 
narrow,  and  even  dangerous. 

A  misstep  would  roll  horse  and  rider  down  the  mountain-side 
for  several  hundred  feet  into  the  valley  below.  Our  course  is  east¬ 
wards,  and  in  a  little  over  an  hour  we  will  reach  the  top  of  this 
gradual  ascent,  and  then  descend  steeply  to  the  bridge  over  Nahr 
Yahfufeh  by  a  zigzag  path,  paved  here  and  there  with  limestone 
bowlders,  lying  at  all  angles  of  inclination,  and  worn  smooth  by 
constant  travel  and  hopeless  neglect. 


“LYING  UNDER  HIS  BURDEN.”— HUMANE  LAWS  OF  MOSES.  345 

Thus  far,  however,  we  have  not  had  any  accident — not  even  the 
usual  falling  of  a  mule  under  the  load  or  the  tumbling  off  of  the 
cook  with  the  provisions  for  our  lunch. 

Yet  this  very  path,  so  rocky  and  slippery,  has  just  furnished  us 
with  a  commentary  on  one  of  those  humane  precepts  which  distin¬ 
guish  the  Mosaic  laws.  See  those  men  ahead  of  us  lifting  a  poor 
donkey  that  has  fallen  under  its  load.  Moses  says,  “  If  thou  see 
the  ass  of  him  that  hateth  thee  lying  under  his  burden,  and  wouldst 
forbear  to  help  him,  thou  shalt  surely  help  with  him.”1  Now  the 
people  lifting  the  donkey  are  bitter  enemies — Maronites  and  Druses 
— quite  recently  engaged  in  a  bloody  civil  war,  and  ready  to  begin 
again  on  the  very  first  opportunity,  and  yet  they  help  to  lift  the  ass 
that  is  lying  under  his  burden  as  though  they  were  the  best  friends 
in  the  world.  We  have  in  this  simple  incident  the  identical  occa¬ 
sion  for  the  precept,  and  its  most  literal  fulfilment.  Nor  is  that 
all.  It  is  fair  to  infer,  from  the  peculiar  specification  made  by 
Moses,  that  the  people  in  his  day  were  divided  into  inimical  parties 
and  clans,  just  as  they  now  are  in  these  mountains.  Moses  would 
not  have  mentioned  the  ass  of  an  enemy  if  enemies  were  not  so 
common  that  the  case  specified  was  likely  to  occur. 

So,  also,  we  may  conclude,  I  suppose,  that  the  donkeys  were 
half-starved,  and  then  overloaded  by  their  cruel  masters. 

Such  are  now  the  conditions  in  which  those  poor  slaves  of  all 
work  ordinarily  fall  under  their  burdens,  and  then,  as  now,  it  re¬ 
quired  the  united  strength  of  at  least  two  persons  lifting,  one  on 
either  side,  to  enable  the  ass  to  rise  out  of  his  painful  and  often 
dangerous  predicament.  The  plan  is  to  lift  the  beast  to  its  feet 
without  taking  off  the  load,  which  is  a  tedious  business.  And  we 
may  also  infer  that  the  roads  were  then  as  rough  and  slippery  as 
this  which  has  upset  that  unfortunate  donkey. 

All  those  deductions  I  believe  to  be  very  near  the  truth.  Man¬ 
ners  and  customs,  men  and  things,  roads  and  loads  are  apparently 
very  much  what  they  were  three  thousand  years  ago. 

We  are  now  on  the  road  to  Damascus  that  passes  up  from  the 
Buka’a  along  this  pretty  little  valley  with  running  water  in  it,  the 
first  we  have  come  to  since  leaving  Ba’albek.  The  stream  is  here 

1  Ex.  xxiii.  5. 


346 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


called  Nahr  Yahfufeh,  and  it  descends  through  this  wild  and  wind¬ 
ing  gorge,  with  rugged  precipices  on  either  side,  to  the  Buka’a,  and 
thence  across  the  plain  to  join  the  Litany.  It  is  here  spanned  by 
a  low  stone  bridge,  evidently  ancient,  and  probably  Roman  —  a 
relic  of  the  old  road  between  Ba’albek  and  Damascus,  traces  of 
which  are  still  visible  in  several  places.  Turning  southward,  we  will 
ascend  this  fertile  valley,  through  fields  of  Indian-corn,  and  along 
the  eastern  bank  of  this  purling  brook  which  is  half  concealed  by 
thickets  of  wild  roses  and  overshadowed  by  willows  and  poplars, 
with  here  and  there  a  grove  of  walnut-trees.  In  half  an  hour  we 
will  come  to  the  fine  fountain  of  Surghaya,  below  that  village. 

Surghaya  is  surrounded  by  fields  of  corn,  vegetable  gardens,  and 
fruit  orchards,  while  the  banks  of  the  sparkling  stream  below  it  are 
lined  with  walnut-trees  and  groves  of  silver  poplars ;  but  the  inhabi¬ 
tants  are  rude  and  fanatical  Moslems.  I  once  spent  a  night  there, 
encamped  below  the  village,  near  a  grove  of  poplar-trees ;  and  the 
next  morning  we  were  greatly  annoyed  by  some  of  the  people,  who 
tried  to  extort  a  heavy  fine  from  our  muleteers  for  alleged  injury 
done  to  a  few  trees  by  their  mules. 

This  plain,  through  which  we  have  been  riding  south  of  Sur¬ 
ghaya,  appears  to  be  of  volcanic  origin. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  about  that.  It  is,  in  fact,  an  elevated 
plateau,  nearly  level,  over  a  mile  in  width,  and  extending  for  more 
than  three  miles  between  two  parallel  ranges  of  mountains.  Its  sur¬ 
face  is  covered  with  lava  bowlders  and  stones,  and  is  but  partially 
cultivated,  having  some  vineyards,  wheat-fields,  and  gardens.  It  is 
the  water-shed  between  the  east  and  the  west,  and  that  is  the  most 
interesting  feature  about  it.  All  the  waters  and  streams  that  de¬ 
scend  from  the  southern  part  of  this  little  plain  fall  into  the  Ba- 
rada,  and,  passing  Damascus,  are  lost  in  the  marshes  of  the  lakes 
on  the  borders  of  the  eastern  desert,  while  all  from  the  northern 
part  run  down  to  the  plain  of  Ccelesyria  and  join  the  Litany,  and 
thus  enter  the  Mediterranean  near  Tyre. 

We  have  already  passed  the  water-shed,  about  four  thousand 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  our  road  follows  the  course  of 
this  stream  from  ’Ain  Hawar,  that  hamlet  on  the  left.  It  is  a  win¬ 
ter  tributary  of  the  Barada,  the  far-famed  “ river  of  Damascus;”  but 


PLAIN  AND  GARDENS  OF  ZEBEDANY.— THE  BARADA.  347 

in  summer  its  waters  are  exhausted  by  the  town  of  Zebedany  and 
its  gardens.  The  distance  between  Ba’albek  and  Zebedany  is  about 
seven  hours,  and  the  road  we  have  travelled  over  to-day  is  the 
shortest,  though  not  the  most  interesting  one.  In  another  hour 
we  will  reach  our  tents,  pitched  near  that  flourishing  town. 

September  13  th. 

This  beautiful  expanse  of  green  meadows,  gardens,  and  trees  is 
an  exceedingly  refreshing  sight,  and  the  murmur  of  running  water 
and  the  songs  of  many  birds  is  delightful  to  the  ear. 

The  position  of  Zebedany,  in  the  midst  of  its  gardens,  here  at 
the  northern  end  of  this  plain,  which  stretches  away  southward  for 
more  than  seven  miles,  is  exceedingly  picturesque.  The  plain  is 
well  cultivated  and  abundantly  irrigated.  It  was  once,  probably, 
the  bed  of  a  natural  lake  more  than  three  thousand  five  hundred 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  on  its  sloping  sides  are  ter¬ 
raced  vineyards,  and  some  of  the  gardens  are  surrounded,  like  those 
at  Damascus,  by  impenetrable  hedges,  and  abound  in  fruit-trees  of 
all  kinds.  The  grapes,  apples,  and  apricots  of  Zebedany  are  cele¬ 
brated  throughout  the  country,  and  the  markets  of  Beirut  and 
other  towns  are  supplied  from  these  gardens. 

The  streams  of  several  copious  fountains  enter  this  verdant 
plain  from  the  hills  around  the  northern  end,  and  by  them  most  of 
the  gardens  and  fields  in  the  central  parts  are  well  watered,  while 
those  along  the  east  side  are  irrigated  by  abundant  streamlets  that 
descend  from  the  lofty  mountain-range  of  Bludan.  The  river  Ba- 
rada  rises  in  a  small,  oblong  lake  or  pond  among  the  low  hills  on 
the  west  side  of  the  plain,  about  four  miles  south  of  Zebedany,  from 
whence  it  meanders,  as  we  shall  see,  along  the  western  and  south¬ 
ern  borders  of  the  plain,  but  contributes  little  or  nothing  to  its  fer¬ 
tility.  The  lake  is  marshy,  and  covered  with  reeds  and  bushes,  but 
it  is  nowhere  very  deep,  and  the  amount  of  water  issuing  from  that 
source  of  the  upper  Barada  is  not  half  as  large  as  that  from  the 
great  fountain  at  ’Ain  el  Fijeh. 

It  is  about  nine  hours  to  Damascus  by  the  route  we  propose  to 
follow,  and  it  is  quite  time  we  were  in  the  saddle.  Instead  of  pass¬ 
ing  down  the  middle  of  the  plain  we  will  ride  around  to  the  east 
A  2 

j 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


348 

side  of  it,  and  through  the  luxuriant  gardens  of  Zebedany  which 
extend  for  some  distance  southward. 

We  are  already  amongst  the  numerous  streamlets  that  come 
tumbling  down  the  declivities  of  these  mountains  which  rise  so 
abruptly  on  the  left  to  a  great  height. 

They  form  part  of  the  loftiest  range  of  Anti-Lebanon  ;  those  on 
the  western  side  of  the  plain  are  nearly  six  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea,  but  these  are  higher  still.  The  town  of  Zebedany  has  an  eleva¬ 
tion  of  nearly  three  thousand  six  hundred  feet,  and  Bludan,  on  the 
mountain  above  it,  to  the  east,  is  a  thousand  feet  higher,  while 
the  lofty  peak  of  Anti  -  Lebanon,  behind  that  village,  rises  to  a 
hei  crht  of  more  than  seven  thousand  five  hundred  feet  above  the 

o 

level  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Bludan  is  best  known  as  the  village  where  the  British  Consul 
of  Damascus,  the  Irish  and  American  missionaries,  and  a  few  mer¬ 
chants  of  that  city  spend  the  summer.  It  is  beautifully  situated 
on  the  mountain-side,  facing  the  west,  and  surrounded  by  vineyards 
and  gardens  of  fruit-trees,  vegetables,  and  flowers.  It  is  abundantly 
supplied  with  running  streams  and  purling  brooks,  and,  from  its 
great  elevation,  commands  a  magnificent  view  of  the  plain  beneath 
and  the  mountains  beyond  as  far  southward  as  Mount  Hermon. 

Having  passed  away  from  the  borders  of  those  fruitful  gar¬ 
dens  of  Zebedany,  which  have  the  neatest  and  best  kept  hedges  in 
Syria,  not  excepting  those  of  Damascus,  we  will  now  turn  westward 
across  the  plain  to  the  Barada,  and  follow  the  left  bank  of  that 
river  to  wdiere  it  descends,  through  the  eastern  mountains,  into  the 
deep  and  narrow  chasm  of  Suk  Wady  Barada. 

The  river  here  appears  to  be  deep,  and  its  course  swift  and 
noiseless,  as  it  goes  on  its  winding  way  through  the  fields  and 
meadows  of  this  ever  narrowing  plain. 

Farther  on,  near  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  bridge,  it  falls  over  a 
ledge  of  rocks  in  a  series  of  beautiful  cascades ;  and  thence  on¬ 
wards  to  the  pass  west  of  the  village  of  Suk  Wady  Barada  it  is  a 
tumultuous  and  roaring  torrent.  There  we  may  rest  awhile  in  the 
wild  and  romantic  gorge  and  admire  the  grand  and  magnificent 
scenery  almost  unequalled  even  in  this  country. 

Th  ese  cliffs  are  in  some  places  quite  perpendicular,  especially 


PASS,  BRIDGE,  AND  ROMAN  ROAD  NEAR  SUK  WADY  BARADA.  349 


FALLS  OF  THE  BARADA — THE  RIVER  ABANA. 


on  the  southern  side  of  the  gorge,  and  the  mountains  towering 
above  them  on  our  right  are  at  least  a  thousand  feet  high. 

In  the  narrowest  part  of  this  chasm  is  the  famous  pass  of  Suk 
Wady  Barada,  where  the  lofty  and  perpendicular  cliffs  are  not 
much  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  apart.  And  here,  just 
at  the  outgo  of  the  river,  between  the  high  and  rocky  walls  of  the 
pass,  the  Barada  is  spanned  by  a  modern  bridge  of  a  single  arch. 

On  the  northern  or  left  bank  of  the  river,  and  about  one  hun¬ 
dred  feet  above  the  bridge,  is  an  ancient  road,  cut  along  the  face 
of  the  cliff  and  through  the  solid  rock  for  a  distance  of  over  six 
hundred  feet.  In  some  places  the  rock  was  cut  down  nearly  fifteen 
feet,  and  the  roadway  hewn  out  to  a  width  of  over  twelve  feet. 
The  road  terminates  abruptly  at  the  north-east  end  in  a  precipice, 
and  if  it  was  carried  any  farther  it  must  have  been  over  a  viaduct 
or  upon  an  embankment.  Two  Latin  inscriptions  on  the  rock 
above  the  road,  and  near  its  eastern  terminus,  ascribe  the  work 
to  the  emperors  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  and  Lucius  Aurelius 
Verus,  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century. 


350 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


The  most  interesting  portions  of  those  inscriptions  apparently 
reveal  the  fact  that  the  expense  of  constructing  the  road  and  cut¬ 
ting  through  the  rock  was  borne  by  the  inhabitants  of  Abilene. 
The  mention  of  that  place,  in  this  vicinity,  is  regarded  as  confirming 
the  identification  of  Abilene  with  the  city  of  Abila,  and  both  with 
the  tetrarchate  of  Abilene  governed  by  Lysanias  when  John  began 
to  preach  the  baptism  of  repentance  in  the  wilderness  of  Judea.1 
This  identification  is  now  generally  accepted,  and  the  ancient  re¬ 
mains  near  the  village  of  Suk  Wady  Barada  are  supposed  to  mark 
the  site  of  the  “Abila- of  Lysanias.” 

I  notice  several  rock-cut  tombs  above  the  Roman  roadway,  in 
the  cliffs  on  the  north-western  side  of  the  river  bank. 

I  have  climbed  to  an  ancient  aqueduct,  below  the  road,  and 
then  up  to  the  tombs.  The  aqueduct  appears  to  have  been  con¬ 
structed  about  the  same  time  as  the  road.  It  is  also  hewn  out  of 
the  rock  in  some  places,  and  tunnelled  through  in  others.  The 
tombs  are  of  the  ordinary  kind,  of  which  we  have  seen  so  many 
in  this  country — square  chambers  with  loculi  for  sarcophagi  on  the 
sides  and  in  the  floors.  The  tombs  are  without  inscriptions,  and 
the  sepulchres  empty.  Some  of  them  appear  to  have  had  stone 
doors,  which  may,  probably,  still  be  found  in  the  debris  below  the 
tombs.  On  the  top  of  the  mountain  above  those  rock-cut  tombs 
are  extensive  ancient  quarries. 

High  up  on  the  southern  cliff,  nearly  opposite  the  village  of 
Suk  Wady  Barada,  and  surrounded  by  venerable  oak-trees,  is  Wely 
Neby  Habil,  the  reputed  tomb  of  Abel,  where,  it  is  said,  he  was 
buried  by  Cain  his  brother.  Like  the  traditionary  tomb  of  Noah 
and  that  of  the  prophet  Seth,  the  tomb  of  Abel  is  a  place  of  Mu- 
hammedan  pilgrimage.  It  is  part  of  the  foundations  of  an  old  wall, 
about  thirty  feet  long,  and  can  be  traced  much  farther  than  the 
domed  structure  that  rises  above  it.  It  is  quite  possible  that  Neby 
Habil  may  have  derived  the  name  from  Abila,  that  of  the  ancient 
city  whose  site  is  supposed  to  have  been  near  this  pass  of  Suk 
Wady  Barada.  South  of  the  tomb  are  the  prostrate  ruins  of  a 
small  temple,  about  fifty  feet  in  length  and  thirty  feet  wide. 

We  have  been  resting  here  nearly  an  hour  admiring  this  wild 

1  Luke  iii.  1-3. 


ANCIENT  ABILA.— ROMANTIC  SPOT.— MASSACRE  AND  PLUNDER.  35  I 

and  impressive  scenery.  Let  us  cross  the  bridge  and  proceed  on 
our  way  towards  ’Ain  el  Fijeli.  You  will  observe  that  the  lofty 
cliffs  of  the  defile  soon  separate  below  the  bridge,  mainly  by  the 
receding  of  those  on  the  left,  thereby  affording  space  for  the  little 
plain  and  the  village  of  Suk  Wady  Barada.  The  river  winds 
through  the  plain ;  and  amongst  the  trees,  which  thickly  cover  the 
entire  surface,  are  seen  many  fragments  of  the  houses  of  ancient 
Abila ;  but  there  are  no  remains  of  any  temple,  public  edifice,  or 
even  large  building.  The  road  beyond  the  bridge  passes,  for  some 
distance,  below  the  overhanging  cliff  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  but  soon  the  mountain  falls  back  and  the  declivities  become 
less  precipitous,  and  open  out  towards  the  south-east  so  as  to  allow 
an  easy  ascent  out  of  the  valley  for  the  regular  road  to  Damascus. 

The  situation  of  this  village,  in  the  bend  of  the  river,  surrounded 
by  trees,  gardens,  and  vineyards,  is  quite  picturesque,  and  the  sce¬ 
nery  around  it  is  wild  and  imposing. 

This  romantic  spot,  shut  out  from  the  rest  of  the  world  by  these 
lofty  mountains  and  perpendicular  cliffs,  was  the  chosen  retreat  of 
a  devout  hermit,  whose  cell  was  visited  by  many  pilgrims  during 
the  fair  that  was  annually  held  in  this  vicinity,  and  from  which  this 
village  derived  its  name  of  es  Suk,  the  fair.  And  here  was  enacted 
one  of  those  diabolical  scenes  of  surprisal,  massacre,  and  plunder 
for  which  the  Moslems  have  always  been  pre-eminently  celebrated. 
Gibbon  has  given  an  exceedingly  graphic  account  of  that  catas¬ 
trophe,  and  of  the  slaughter  of  the  pilgrims  and  merchants  gath¬ 
ered  here,  and  he  closes  the  description  in  his  usual  vein  of  ridi¬ 
cule  and  sarcasm.  “  The  holy  robbers,”  he  says,  “  returned  in 
triumph  to  Damascus.  The  hermit,  after  a  short  and  angry  con¬ 
troversy  with  Caled,  declined  the  crown  of  martyrdom,  and  was 
left  alive  in  the  solitary  scene  of  blood  and  devastation.”  1 

On  that  high  hill  above  the  road  is  Kefr  el  ’Awamid,  the  village 
of  the  columns,  so  called  from  the  prostrate  columns  of  an  ancient 
temple  which  once  stood  upon  the  brow  of  the  hill.  The  portico 
of  the  temple  faced  the  Barada,  and  must  have  commanded  a  good 
view  of  the  river  and  the  valley  below.  We  shall  not  turn  aside  to 
visit  it,  nor  shall  we  follow  the  course  of  the  river,  which  here  flows 

1  Dec.  and  Fall  of  the  Rom.  Emp.,  chap.  li. 


352 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


southwards  for  a  short  distance  to  the  right  side  of- the  valley,  but, 
fording  the  stream  below  the  mills  on  the  opposite  bank,  we  will 
continue  our  ride  nearly  due  east,  along  this  canal  that  irrigates  the 
luxuriant  gardens  below  us.  The  road — a  mere  path — follows  the 
sinuosities  of  the  canal,  having  the  verdant  expanse  of  gardens  and 
vineyards  on  our  right,  and  the  white  limestone  cliffs  of  the  moun¬ 
tain  towering  a  thousand  feet  high  on  the  left.  Passing  this  way 
on  a  dark  night,  our  animals  were  at  times  unable  to  keep  to  the 
path,  and  repeatedly  stumbled  into  the  canal,  to  the  great  disgust 
of  the  muleteers  and  our  annoyance. 

There  is  no  danger  of  that  kind  to-day,  for  we  have  already  fol¬ 
lowed  the  canal  for  half  an  hour,  and  I  am  quite  delighted  with  the 
luxuriance  of  the  vegetation  and  the  grandeur  of  the  mountains 
and  cliffs  on  either  side  of  the  valley. 

As  there  is  nothing  of  special  interest  in  any  of  the  villages 
along  this  route,  we  will  pass  on  for  half  an  hour  and  stop  to  lunch 
at  ’Ain  el  Fijeh,  the  most  famous  fountain  in  all  this  region. 

Your  assurance,  this  morning,  that  our  ride  to-day  would  pre¬ 
sent  a  succession  of  surprises  has  been  fully  confirmed. 

The  charm  of  them  all  is  due  entirely  to  the  Barada.  That 
river,  flowing  through  the  verdant  plain  of  Zebedany,  rushing  down 
the  defile  of  Suk  Wady  Barada,  and  meandering  along  the  valley 
towards  ’Ain  el  Fijeh,  gives  to  this  Damascus  road  its  ever-changing 
character  and  remarkable  contrasts.  Without  the  river  the  plain 
would  become  a  dreary  desert,  the  defile  a  desolate  pass,  the  valley 
the  dry  bed  of  a  torrent,  and  these  high  mountains  and  picturesque 
villages  would  be  bleak  and  unattractive. 

Here  at  ’Ain  el  Fijeh  one  is  at  a  loss  which  most  to  admire — 
the  great  quantity  of  water  that  bursts  from  beneath  this  ruined 
platform,  cold  and  beautifully  clear,  or  the  rushing,  roaring  cataract, 
foaming  and  tumbling  over  the  rocks  as  it  plunges  down  its  narrow 
channel ;  or  the  thick  forest  of  tall  trees,  willows  and  walnuts,  syca¬ 
mores,  plane  and  poplars,  that  overshadow  the  banks,  or  the  mag¬ 
nificent  cliffs  that  rise  a  thousand  feet  or  more  and  shut  in  this 
happy  vale  on  every  side.  Each  in  turn  delight  the  eye  of  the 
beholder  and  captivate  the  imagination. 

’Ain  el  Fijeh,  though  not  the  most  distant,  is  by  far  the  most 


THE  BARADA  AND  THE  FIJEH— MEETING  OF  THE  WATERS.  353 

copious  source  of  the  Barada.  Arab  geographers,  however,  re¬ 
garded  it  as  the  fountain-head  of  the  river  of  Damascus.  That  is 
hardly  correct,  for  the  upper  Barada  drains  the  entire  mountains 
and  valleys  of  this  part  of  Anti-Lebanon  for  more  than  twenty 
miles,  and  during  the  rainy  season  it  is  a  formidable  river,  alto¬ 
gether  independent  of  its  auxiliary  from  ’Ain  el  Fijeh.  This  foun¬ 
tain  bursts  out  from  a  cavern  under  the  mountain  that  has  two 
openings,  one  of  which  is  partly  arched  over,  and  in  winter  the 
volume  of  water  is  twice  the  size  of  that  in  the  upper  Barada. 


THE  BARADA  AND  THE  FIJEH — THE  MEETING  OF  THE  WATERS. 


Escaping  from  the  cavern,  it  rushes  down  over  and  amongst  the 
rocks,  and  through  a  perfect  forest  of  walnut,  poplar,  and  other 
trees,  with  the  impetuosity  of  a  roaring  torrent,  and  then  expands 
into  a  broad  stream,  clear  as  crystal.  A  hundred  paces  farther  on 
it  joins  the  Barada,  and  the  two  streams  run  side  by  side  for  some 
distance,  until  the  limpid  waters  of  ’Ain  el  Fijeh  are  finally  merged 
into  the  turbid  stream  of  the  Barada. 


354 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Above  the  cavern  is  an  ancient  platform,  built  of  large  and 
massive  stones,  and  upon  it  are  the  remains  of  a  small  temple, 
about  thirty  feet  square ;  but  it  now  has  neither  portico  nor  col¬ 
umns.  Below  the  platform,  and  to  the  right  of  the  cavern,  there 
appears  to  have  been  another  temple  constructed  over  a  heavy 
vault,  through  which  the  stream  from  the  fountain  may  have  been 
conducted.  The  side-walls  or  piers  supporting  the  vault  are  nearly 
forty  feet  long  and  six  feet  thick.  The  rear  wall  rested  against  the 
bank,  and  was  about  thirty  feet  long  and  four  feet  thick.  It  had 
an  opening  as  if  to  receive  the  water  from  the  fountain,  and  there 
is  a  similar  opening  towards  the  front,  apparently  for  the  stream 
to  flow  out.  These  ancient  structures  were  perhaps  dedicated  to 
the  god  of  fountains  and  streams  and  overshadowing  groves. 

More  than  half  of  our  day’s  ride  still  remains  to  be  accom¬ 
plished,  and  it  is  time  for  us  to  proceed  on  our  way. 

I  should  like  to  spend  days  here  instead  of  hours. 

No  doubt;  and  yet,  like  the  first  Paradise,  this  one  has  its  ser¬ 
pent.  Fever  and  ague  lurk  about  it  and  infest  its  groves.  Owing 
to  the  superabundance  of  water,  and  the  dense  foliage  and  the 
rank  vegetation,  ’Ain  el  Fijeh  is  decidedly  unhealthy  in  summer 
and  autumn.  I  have  been  struck,  while  passing  up  the  valley  in 
October,  with  the  sallow  countenances  of  the  natives.  It  is  then 
not  safe  to  sleep  a  single  night  at  that  glorious  fountain. 

A  canal  runs  along  from  the  fountain  to  irrigate  the  fields  below 
us;  are  we  to  follow  it,  as  we  did  the  one  from  Suk  Wady  Barada? 

The  road  descends  through  the  river  gorge,  and  in  half,  an  hour 
it  will  bring  us  to  the  beautiful  little  meadow  of  Bessima. 

This  small  fountain  of  pure  water,  surrounded  by  greensward, 
rises  close  to  the  river  and  runs  directly  into  it. 

It  is  called  ’Ain  el  Khudra,  the  fountain  of  verdure,  and  from 
here  on  the  valley  narrows,  and  the  precipitous  sides  of  the  chasm 
leave  hardly  room  for  the  road. 

The  scenery  in  this  gorge  is  magnificent  and  truly  sublime,  but 
the  road  is  execrable  and  dangerous,  especially  where  it  winds 
round  the  face  of  the  cliff  which  overhangs  the  river. 

Below  this,  and  beyond  the  village  of  Bessima,  the  gorge,  whose 
general  direction  has  been  eastward,  makes  an  abrupt  turn  south- 


TUNNEL  THROUGH  THE  CLIFF.— ES  SAHRA.- CARRIAGE-ROAD.  355 

wards,  and  becomes  so  narrow  that  there  is  not  space  enough  for 
even  a  foot-path  along  its  precipitous  sides.  A  tunnel  has  been 
excavated  there  through  the  cliff  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  I 
have  attempted  to  penetrate  the  palpable  darkness  at  its  mouth, 
but  without  a  light  it  is  impossible  to  venture  very  far  into  that 
unique  tunnel.  It  varies  in  height  and  width,  and  has  occasional 
openings  in  the  roof.  The  tradition  among  the  natives  is  that  the 
tunnel  was  made  by  Zenobia  to  convey  the  water  of  ’Ain  el  Fijeh 
to  Palmyra,  which  is,  of  course,  absurd ;  but  its  real  purpose  has 
not  yet  been  discovered.  It  was  probably  an  aqueduct  intended 
to  conduct  the  water  to  the  Sahra  below  el  Ashrafiyeh,  though 
it  ends  abruptly  near  that  village,  and  cannot  be  traced  any  far¬ 
ther.  It  is  occasionally  used  at  present  as  a  passage-way  between 
Bessima  and  el  Ashrafiyeh. 

As  there  is  no  available  path  down  the  valley  for  several  miles, 
our  road  here  below  Bessima  turns  to  the  left  and  leaves  the  river, 
with  its  refreshing  verdure,  for  a  climb  up  this  steep  and  narrow 
mountain-gorge.  It  will  lead  us  to  a  rocky  and  sterile  plateau 
called  es  Sahra,  the  desert,  whose  undulating  surface,  destitute  of 
trees,  is  everywhere  strewn  with  loose  stones  and  flints,  which 
render  it  disagreeable  both  to  the  horse  and  his  rider. 

The  Sahra  appears  to  be  quite  extensive,  spreading  far  away 
to  the  north,  east,  and  south,  and  evidently  was  never  cultivated, 
nor  had  it  any  settled  inhabitants. 

That  is  because  there  is  no  water.  That  necessary  element  of 
life,  which  is  so  abundant  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Barada  below, 
cannot  be  found  on  this  desert  plain. 

We  have  had  to-day  all  kinds  of  scenery,  and  every  variety  of 
soil  and  production,  from  the  most  luxuriant  vegetation  to  this 
bleak  and  blasted  Sahra.  It  is,  indeed,  a  region  of  surprises  and 
marked  contrasts  in  close  proximity. 

Nor  is  this  the  last  of  them.  We  will  soon  begin  the  descent 
from  this  desolate  plain  towards  the  river,  and  there  the  road  winds 
through  cretaceous  hills  of  dazzling  whiteness,  not  a  little  painful  to 
weak  eyes.  It  will  bring  us  in  half  an  hour  to  the  carriage-road, 
constructed  by  the  French  company,  from  Beirut  to  Damascus,  and 
to  the  substantial  bridge  over  the  Barada  at  the  village  of  Dummar. 


356 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


How  invigorating  and  refreshing  is  the  sight  of  this  river  of 
Damascus,  with  its  green  valley  everywhere  so  full  of  trees ! 

Here  at  Dummar  is  the  first  station  from  Damascus  on  the  Com¬ 
pany’s  road,  and  the  necessary  buildings  that  have  been  put  up  con¬ 
trast  very  strangely  with  the  miserable  houses  of  the  natives,  and 
the  so-called  villas  of  wealthy  Damascenes.  A  path  from  this  place 
leads  up  the  rocky  ridge  on  the  left,  and  many  travellers  ascend 
that  steep  and  winding  way,  in  order  to  obtain  their  first  view  of  the 
city  and  its  surroundings  from  Kubbet  en  Nusr,  on  the  summit  of 
Jebel  Kasyun.  It  commands  the  best  view  of  Damascus;  and  ever 
since  the  Muhammedan  era  that  shrine  has  been  associated  with 
the  traditional  visit  of  the  false  prophet  to  that  terrestrial  paradise. 

It  has  taken  us  half  an  hour  to  climb  up  to  this  place  from  the 
bridge  at  Dummar,  and  there  to  the  right,  on  the  brow  of  the  east¬ 
ern  ridge,  is  the  white-domed  Wely  of  en  Nusr.  Let  us  ascend  to 
it  and  survey  the  enchanted  scene  far,  far  below.  Remember  that 
here  you  are  nearly  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  and  about  five 
hundred  feet  over  the  plain  and  the  city,  which  is  at  least  a  mile 
and  a  half  distant  in  a  straight  line — 

This  is  the  place.  Stand  still,  my  steed  ; 

Let  me  review  the  scene.1 

We  have  passed  through  the  land  from  Beersheba  to  Dan,  and 
around  the  majestic  heights  of  Hermon,  and  over  goodly  Lebanon 
from  the  Baruk  cedars  to  the  lofty  peaks  above  Tripoli ;  but  no¬ 
where  has  such  a  glorious  vision  of  verdure  burst  so  suddenly  upon 
us,  nor  have  we  ever  looked  down  upon  a  sight  like  this.2 

Let  us  seek  protection  from  the  dazzling  glare  of  these  lime¬ 
stone  hills  in  the  grateful  shade  of  this  Moslem  shrine,  and  from 
beneath  its  venerable  arches  we  can  gaze  with  unwearied  eyes 
upon  that  unequalled  prospect — of  river  and  plain  and  city — which 
spreads  out  below  us  for  many  miles  in  all  directions.  “A  greater 
contrast,”  says  Lieutenant  Van  de  Velde,  “  than  that  of  the  blinding 
white  chalky  hills  of  Anti-Lebanon,  and  the  green  oasis  of  Damas¬ 
cus,  of  the  lone  dry  rocks,  and  the  finest  and  most  populous  city  of 
the  East,  it  is  impossible  to  imagine.  A  single  look  from  this  point 

1  Longfellow’s  “Gleam  of  Sunshine.”  2  See  Frontispiece  to  this  volume. 


FIRST  AND  FINEST  VIEW  OF  DAMASCUS. 


357 


appears  at  once  to  explain  the  tradition  of  the  Moslems,  that  Para¬ 
dise  must  have  been  here,”  and  one  feels  inclined  “  to  sit  down  and 
abandon  all  idea  of  proceeding  farther  rather  than  lose  the  enjoy¬ 
ment  of  this  ravishing  sight.  No  wonder  that  the  Syrians,  with 
such  a  city,  were  a  more  haughty  people  than  all  the  nations  that 
surrounded  Israel.”1 

“  Like  the  first  view  of  Constantinople,”  said  Mr.  Charles  G. 
Addison,  forty-five  years  ago,  this  of  Damascus  and  its  surroundings 
“is  unique,  and  will  bear  comparison  with  no  other  that  I  have 
seen.  Conceive  our  sensations,  after  journeying  through  thirsty, 
dusty  plains,  and  across  white,  sterile  mountains,  to  find  ourselves 
standing  on  a  lofty  ledge  of  rocks,  near  the  tomb  of  a  sheikh,  when 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  prospects  in  the  world  suddenly  burst 
upon  our  sight.  We  looked  down  from  an  elevation  of  more  than 
five  hundred  feet  upon  a  vast  plain,  bordered  in  the  distance  by 
blue  mountains,  and  occupied  by  a  rich,  luxuriant  forest  of  the  wal¬ 
nut,  the  fig,  the  pomegranate,  the  plum,  the  apricot,  the  citron,  the 
pear,  the  apple,  and  the  poplar,  forming  a  waving  grove  more  than 
thirty  miles  in  circuit ;  not  such  a  wood  as  one  sees  in  England, 
France,  or  Germany,  but  possessing  a  vast  variety  of  tint,  a  pecu¬ 
liar  density  and  luxuriance  of  foliage,  and  a  wildly  picturesque 
form,  from  the  branches  of  the  loftier  trees  throwing  themselves  up 
above  a  rich  underwood  of  pomegranates,  citrons,  and  oranges,  with 
their  yellow,  green,  and  brown  leaves ;  and  then  conceive  our  sensa¬ 
tions  to  see,  grandly  rising  in  the  distance  above  this  vast  super¬ 
ficies  of  rich,  luxuriant  foliage,  the  swelling  leaden  domes,  the  gilded 
crescents,  and  the  marble  minarets  of  [“the  one  hundred  and  one” 
mosks  in]  Damascus,  while  in  the  centre  of  all,  winding  towards  the 
city,  ran  the  main  stream  of  the  river  Barada.”2 

Though  written  nearly  half  a  century  ago,  that  graphic  descrip¬ 
tion  of  Mr.  Addison’s  is  a  perfect  pen-and-ink  sketch  of  this  beauti¬ 
ful  scene  upon  which  we  are  now  gazing  from  the  same  stand-point. 

But  we  must  not  forget  the  Barada,  that  “  river  of  Damascus,” 
which  is  the  perennial  source  of  all  this  luxuriant  verdure.  After 
referring  to  its  winding  way  amongst  the  sterile  hills  and  through 
the  deep  gorge,  before  it  reaches  the  plain,  “  visible  everywhere  by 
1  Syria  and  Palestine,  vol.  ii.  p.  453.  2  Damascus  and  Palmyra,  vol.  ii.  p.  59,  60. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


353 

its  mass  of  vegetation — willows,  poplars,  hawthorn,  walnut,  hanging 
over  a  rushing  volume  of  crystal  water — the  more  striking  from  the 
contrast  of  the  naked  desert  in  which  it  is  found,”  Dean  Stanley, 
looking  down  upon  the  Barada  from  this  same  spot,  adds :  “  The 
river  with  its  green  banks  is  visible  at  the  bottom,  rushing  through 
the  cleft ;  it  bursts  forth,  and,  as  if  in  a  moment,  scatters  over  the 
plain,  through  a  circle  of  thirty  miles,  the  same  verdure  which  had 
hitherto  been  confined  in  its  single  channel.  It  is  like  the  bursting 
of  a  shell — the  eruption  of  a  volcano — but  an  eruption  not  of  death 
but  of  life.”  1 

Before  and  after  it  issues  from  the  gorge  upon  the  plain  the 
Barada  is  divided  into  several  canals  and  strong  streams,  which  are 
conducted  along  the  borders  of  the  gardens  to  the  right  and  left ; 
and  those  again  are  subdivided  into  smaller  streams,  which  convey 
the  water  to  all  parts  of  the  plain,  so  that  there  is  not  a  garden  but 
has  a  purling  rill  of  pure  water  running  through  it.  But  the  river 
does  not  appear  to  be  greatly  reduced  in  volume,  and  flows  on 
through  the  plain,  passing  the  wall  of  the  city,  where  it  supplies 
the  fountains  in  the  streets  and  in  the  courts  of  private  houses,  the 
cisterns,  baths,  khans,  mosks,  and  public  buildings.  Thus  dimin¬ 
ished,  the  Barada  meanders  through  the  plain  east  of  Damascus 
for  fifteen  miles,  and  is  finally  merged  in  the  marshes  and  the 
lakes  on  the  verge  of  the  eastern  desert. 

Tradition  affirms  that  here,  at  this  Kubbet  en  Nusr,  the  dome 
of  victory,  after  gazing  upon  this  beautiful  scene,  the  Prophet,  then 
a  mere  lad  and  camel-driver  from  Mecca,  exclaimed,  “There  is  but 
one  paradise  for  man  !”  and,  turning  away,  he  refused  to  enter  Da¬ 
mascus.  The  “true  believers”  did  not  follow  the  self-sacrificing 
example  of  the  Prophet,  and  Damascus  to-day  is  pre-eminently  a 
Muhammedan  city,  the  capital  of  a  Turkish  province,  and  the  offi¬ 
cial  residence  of  the  Governor-general  of  Syria  and  Palestine. 

Let  us  return  to  the  road  and  descend  to  the  plain  by  the 
ancient  highway,  a  narrow  and  crooked  path,  cut  in  the  rock,  and 
winding  down  the  steep  hill-side.  This  mountain-range,  on  which 
we  have  been  standing  looking  down  upon  the  city  and  over 
the  plain,  extends  for  more  than  fifty  miles  in  a  north-easterly 

1  Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  405,  406. 


THE  MOUNTAINS  AND  THE  PLAIN  AROUND  DAMASCUS.  359 

direction,  and  then  sinks  down  into  the  sandy  desert  of  Palmyra. 
On  the  right,  and  across  the  deep  gorge  of  the  Barada,  it  rises 
gradually  westward,  until  it  is  merged  into  the  grand  range  of  Her- 
mon,  thirty  miles  away.  That  majestic  mountain  dominates  this 
whole  region,  and,  from  its  exalted  heights,  looks  calmly  down  upon 
the  boundless  plain  that  sweeps  round  its  base  and  spreads  far  away 
to  “  the  hills  of  Bashan,”  fifty  miles  off. 

Southward  are  the  parallel  ridges  of  Jebel  el  Aswad  and  Jebel 
el  Mani’a,  and  between  them  runs  Nahr  el  A’waj,  the  ancient 
Pharpar.  It  crosses  the  plain  to  the  south-east,  and  is  lost  in  the 
lake  on  the  borders  of  the  desert.  Eastward  the  line  of  vision  is 
bounded  by  the  distant  Tellul  es  Sufa,  a  long  range  of  extinct 
craters,  but  the  plain  in  other  directions  seems  interminable,  and 
extends  farther  than  the  eye  can  follow.  Seen  from  this  eleva¬ 
tion,  and  over  so  great  a  distance  in  all  directions,  the  plain  ap¬ 
pears  to  be  almost  level,  but  there  are  great  inequalities  in  it, 
and  in  many  parts  the  undulating  surface  swells  up  to  high  hills 
and  higher  mountains,  some  of  which  are  of  volcanic  origin.  The 
craters,  however,  are  now  extinct  from  whence  issued  the  amazing 
streams  of  lava  that  covered  the  vast  regions  of  the  Hauran. 

Jebel  Kasyun,  as  this  part  of  the  mountain-range  is  called,  is 
bare,  steep,  and  rugged.  It  rises  about  one  thousand  five  hundred 
feet  above  the  city,  and  forms,  in  connection  with  the  ridges  north 
and  south  of  it,  the  western  and  northern  boundary  of  the  plain. 
Upon  its  summit  is  a  Wely,  or  saint’s  tomb,  which  commands  a 
more  extensive  view  than  Kubbet  en  Nusr.  Moslem  tradition 
asserts  that  on  this  mountain  Adam  lived ;  that  in  one  of  its  cav¬ 
erns  Cain  hid  the  body  of  Abel,  and  that  the  very  rocks,  which 
in  some  places  are  of  a  reddish  color,  were  thus  stained  by  the 
blood  of  his  murdered  brother.  Here,  according  to  the  same 
authority,  Abraham,  the  Father  of  the  Faithful,  lived,  in  a  cave, 
until  he  was  fifty  years  old;  and  here  he  forsook  his  idols  for  the 
worship  of  the  one  and  only  true  God. 

We  have  now  reached  the  village  of  es  Salihiyeh,  at  the  base  of 
Jebel  Kasyun.  It  is  the  largest  suburb  of  Damascus,  and  here  are 
to  be  seen  the  summer  residences  of  many  wealthy  Damascenes. 

This  broad  and  well -paved  road,  bordered  with  large  walnut 


360 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


and  other  trees,  and  having  a  foot-path  on  either  side,  is  the  only 
one  of  the  kind  we  have  seen  in  Syria. 

It  will  lead  us,  in  less  than  half  an  hour,  to  one  of  the  city  gates, 
and  from  there  we  will  go  direct  to  the  hotel,  leaving  for  another 
occasion  the  many  objects  of  interest  which  attract  and  distract  our 
attention  as  we  ride  along  the  garden-walls  under  the  grateful  shade 
of  these  large  walnut-trees.  It  is  not  always  safe  to  encamp  out  in 
the  suburbs  of  this  city,  and  it  will  be  pleasant  to  exchange,  for  a 
while,  the  inconveniences  of  tent  life  for  the  comforts  of  a  well- 
conducted  hotel. 


» 


ESH  SHAM.— DAMASCUS. 


361 


X. 

DAMASCUS. 

Damascus  and  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  East. — One  of  the  Oldest  Cities  in  the 
World. — Thebes  and  Memphis,  Babylon  and  Nineveh. —  Damascus  the  Capital  of 
Syria. — Biblical  History  of  Damascus. — Abraham  and  Chedorlaomer. — Hobah. — Dam- 
mesek,  Dimeshk. — Esh  Sham. — Damascus  Founded  by  the  Great  Grandson  of  Noah. 
— Josephus  and  Nicolaus. — Abraham  Reigned  at  Damascus. — Eliezer  of  Damascus. — 
Abraham’s  Place  of  Adoration. — Bui'zeh. — The  Site  of  Hobah. — David. — The  Tribes 
of  Naphtali  and  Manasseh. — “David  put  Garrisons  in  Damascus.” — Hadad. — Solo¬ 
mon. — Rezon. — Abijam  King  of  Judah;  Tabrimon  of  Syria  ;  and  Baasha  of  Israel. — 
Asa  Sends  Presents  of  Silver  and  Gold. — Invasions  of  Ben-hadad  I.,  King  of  Damas¬ 
cus. — “Streets  in  Samaria.” — Ben-hadad  II. — Ahab. — Invasions  of  Ben-hadad  II. — 
Aphek. —  Flight  of  Ben-hadad  II.  —  “Streets  in  Damascus.” — Death  of  Ahab. — 
Jehoram. — Naaman  the  Syrian  Leper. — “A  Little  Captive  Maid.” — Jehoram  Rends 
his  Clothes. — Elisha,  “a  Prophet  in  Israel.” — The  Jordan  and  the  “  Rivers  of  Damas¬ 
cus.” — The  “Blessing”  of  Naaman. — Two  Mules’  Burden  of  Earth. — An  Altar  to 
Jehovah  in  Damascus. — Ben-hadad’s  Attempt  to  Capture  Elisha. — Siege  of  Samaria. 
— “A  Great  Famine.” — Flight  of  the  Syrian  Army. — The  Hittite  Confederacy. — 
Elijah  and  Elisha. — Visit  of  Elisha  to  Damascus. — Death  of  Ben-hadad. — Hazael 
King  over  Syria. — “Joash  Beat  Ben-hadad  [HI.]  three  times.” — Jeroboam  II.  Re¬ 
covers  Damascus. — Pekah. — Tiglath-pileser  Captures  Damascus. — Pattern  of  an  Altar 
sent  to  Urijah  by  Ahaz. — Sennacherib,  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  Darius. —  Amos  and 
Isaiah. — Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel. — Zechariah. — Macedonian,  Greek,  and  Roman  Con¬ 
quests. — Parmenio. — Alexander  the  Great. — Pompey  Receives  the  Ambassadors  from 
Syria,  Judaea,  and  Egypt  in  Damascus. — Sextus  Caesar. — Herod  the  Great. — Saul, 
called  Paul. — Spread  of  Christianity  in  Damascus. — John  the  Baptist. — Muhammedan 
Conquest  of  Syria. — Siege  of  Damascus. — Gibbon. — Massacre  of  Christians  by  the 
“Sword  of  God.” — Damascus  the  Capital  of  the  Muhammedan  Empire. — Baneful 
Influence  of  Islam. — Decline  of  Damascus. — Descendants  of  Ishmael. — A  Hebrew  of 
the  Hebrews. —  Garments  Ancient  and  Modern. — Hotel  at  Damascus. —  Citron  and 
Lemon,  Roses  and  Jessamine. — Court  of  the  Khalifs  of  Islam. — The  King  and  Queen 
of  the  “Arabian  Nights.” — The  Streets  and  Bazaars  of  Damascus. — The  Horse-market. 
— The  Hangman’s  Tree. — Saddlers  Street. — Street  of  the  Coppersmiths. — Castle  of 
Damascus. — Ancient  Bows  and  Arrows. — The  Fosse. — Street  of  the  Auctioneers. — 
Suk  el  Arwam. —  Oriental  Bargains. —  Given  Away  for  Nothing. — Intricacy  of  the 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Streets  in  Eastern  Cities. — Donkeys  and  Camels. —  Khan  As’ad  Pasha. —  Caravans 
from  Bagdad  and  Elsewhere. — Importunate  Christians. —  Intense  Fanaticism. — A  Mos¬ 
lem  Shopkeeper. —  Fate,  or  God’s  Decree.  —  The  Wiles  of  Satan.  —  Sanctimonious 
Moslems. — Bazaar  of  the  Goldsmiths. — Manufacture  of  Gold  and  Silver  Filigree. — 
South  Side  of  the  Great  Mosk. — Ancient  Remains. — Triple  Gate. — Greek  Inscription, 
—  “Thy  Kingdom,  O  Christ.” — Book  Bazaar. — Copies  of  the  Koran. — Manuscript 
Books. — Arch  and  Pediment  of  an  Ancient  Gateway. —  Bab  el  Band. —  Slippers. — 
“The  House  of  Rimmon.” — Greek  and  Roman  Temple. — Church  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist. — A  Basilica. — Dimensions  of  the  Great  Mosk. — Rows  of  Columns. — Triple 
Roof. — Central  Dome. — Stained-glass  Windows. — Texts  from  the  Koran. — Praying 
Rugs. — Lamps  and  Chandeliers. — Praying  Niches. — The  Head  of  John  the  Baptist. — 
Court  of  the  Great  Mosk. — Colonnades. — Ornamented  Piers  and  Arches. — Corinthian 
Columns. — Saracenic  Fountain  and  Pavilion. — Domes  of  the  Hour,  and  of  the  Treas¬ 
ure. — Visit  to  the  Great  Mosk  by  a  Party  of  Ladies  and  Gentlemen. — Photographs. — 
Minarets  of  the  Great  Mosk. — View  from  the  Gallery  of  Madinet  el  ’Arus. — Rim¬ 
mon. — Baal. — Tombs  of  Saladin  and  the  Mameluke  Sultan  of  Egypt. — Public  Baths. 
— Baths  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible. — “  Pools." — Hot  and  Cold  Water  Baths  Intro¬ 
duced  by  Herod  the  Great. — Baths  the  Resort  of  Evil  Spirits. — Street  Calls  and  Cries. 
— “Drink,  O  Thirsty!” — The  Colporteur  in  Damascus. — “The  Bread  and  Water  of 
Everlasting  Life.” — Private  Houses  in  Damascus. — The  Entrance. — The  Court. — The 
Marble  Fountain. — El  Lewan. — Reception-rooms. — Panels  in  the  Roofs  and  Window- 
shutters  Inlaid  with  Mother-of-pearl. — The  Harem. — Coffee-shops  along  the  Banks 
of  the  Barada. — Oriental  Music  and  Singing. — The  Orchestra. — Musical  Instruments. 
— Greek  and  Albanian  Music. — Biblical  Music. — Music  in  the  Time  of  the  Prophets. 
— Samuel  and  Saul. — Saul  among  the  Prophets. — Elisha  and  the  Minstrel. — David 
and  Saul. — The  Harp  and  Viol,  the  Tabret  and  Pipe. — Ride  through  the  Suburbs  of 
Damascus. — The  Gardens. — Canon  Tristram. — Flowing  Streams  and  Golden  Fruit. — 
Camping  in  a  Garden. — Canal  of  et  Taurah. — Es  Salihiyeh. — Villa  of  the  British 
Consul. — Exuberant  Vegetation. — The  Myrtle. — Fountains  and  Streams  in  the  Gar¬ 
dens,  and  in  the  Courts  of  Public  and  Private  Buildings. — Making  lvaif  under  the 
Trees. — Nahr  el  Yezid. — Jebel  Ivasyun. — The  Barada,  the  Abana. — The  A’waj,  the 
Pharpar. —  Bardines. — The  Golden  -  flowing  River. —  Chasm  of  the  Barada. —  Dams 
and  Canals. — Net-work  of  Watercourses. — The  Main  Stream  of  the  Barada. — Lake 
’Ataibeh. — Cufic  Inscription. — Carriage -road. — Mud  Walls. — Sun-dried  Bricks. — El 
Merj,  the  Meadow. — Speeding  the  Departing,  and  Welcoming  the  Coming. — Cara¬ 
vans  and  Pilgrims. — The  Haj. — Et  Tekiyeh. — Hospital  for  Poor  Pilgrims. — Mosk  of 
Sultan  Selim. — Muhammedan  Burying -ground. —  Graves  of  Muhammed’s  Wives. — 
Fatimeh. — The  Myrtle  and  the  Palm. — Funeral  Mourning. — Mary  at  the  Grave. — 
Hired  Mourners. — Biblical  References  to  Mourning. — Esau  and  Job. — David  and 
Jeremiah. — Floods  of  Tears. — “Jesus  Wept.” — Tear  Bottles. — Smiting  the  Thigh. — 
El  Meidan. — Labyrinth  of  Crooked  Lanes. — Bab  es  Saghir. — Moslem  Funeral  Pro¬ 
cession. —  “That  Eternal  Truth  and  Necessary  Fiction.”  —  Ancient  Stones  in  the 
City  Wall.  —  Bab  Kisan. — Traditional  Place  of  Paul’s  Escape.  —  Christian  Cemete¬ 
ries. —  Spot  where  Paul  was  Converted.  —  Bab  esh  Shurky.  —  Extensive  View  from 
the  Top  of  a  Mound. — Throwing  Dust  in  the  Eyes  of  European  Commissioners. — 


ONE  OF  THE  OLDEST  CITIES  IN  THE  WORLD. 


363 


✓ 


Leper  Hospital. —  House  of  Naaman  the  Leper. —  Leprosy  in  Damascus. —  Roman 
Triple  Gate. — Saracenic  Tower. — Gates  of  Damascus. — “The  Street  called  Straight.” 
— Double  Colonnade  Described  by  Dr.  Porter. — Christian  Quarter. — Armenian  Con¬ 
vent. —  Syrian  and  Greek  Catholic  Churches. —  House  of  Ananias. — The  Jews  in 
Damascus,  Ancient  and  Modern. — The  Jewish  Synagogue. — Paul  Preached  in  the 
Synagogues  at  Damascus. — The  Orthodox  Greek  Church. — Massacre  of  the  Christians 
in  i860. — The  Moslem  Quarter. — Damascus  Blades  and  Damask  Silks. — Population 
of  Damascus. — House  of  Judas. — Locks  and  Keys. — Key  on  the  Shoulder.— Locks 
and  Keys  in  the  Time  of  David  and  Solomon. — Suk  el  ’Attarin. — Attar  of  Roses. — 
Dr.  Beke. — Rev.  J.  Crawford. — Extent  of  the  Damascus  Gardens  Eastward. — The 
Eastern  Plain  Destitute  of  Trees. — Licorice  Plant. — Villages  on  the  Plain. — The 
Barada. — Harran  el  ’Awamid. — The  Southern  Lake. — Bedawin. — Columns  of  Basalt. 
— Remains  of  an  Ancient  Temple. — Greek  Inscription. — The  Biblical  Haran. — Pur¬ 
suit  of  Jacob  by  Laban. — Harran  el  ’Awamid  and  Mount  Gilead. — Tradition  of  the 
Jews. — Return  to  Damascus. 

Sunday,  September  14th.  Evening. 

DAMASCUS  has  preserved  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  East 
better  than  any  other  city  in  Syria,  and  they  have  been  continued 
unchanged  from  generation  to  generation  down  to  our  own  day. 
Here  they  can  be  seen  and  examined  to  the  greatest  advantage. 

Where  there  is  so  much  to  claim  attention  one  is  at  a  loss  to 
know  where  to  begin. 

It  will  be  most  satisfactory  to  gain,  at  the  outset,  a  general  idea 
of  Damascus,  its  history,  and  its  surroundings,  and  we  cannot  do 
better  than  devote  this  evening  to  that  special  purpose.  Though 
I  would  not  venture  to  assert  that  Damascus  is  the  oldest  city  in 
the  world,  yet  it  may  safely  be  said  that  no  other  city  has  had  so 
long  and  persistent  an  existence.  The  ancient  cities  in  the  valley 
of  the  Nile,  and  of  the  Euphrates — Thebes  and  Memphis,  Babylon 
and  Nineveh — long  since  ceased  to  exist,  and  are  now  only  known 
by  their  vast  ruins  and  mounds  of  shapeless  rubbish  ;  yet  Damas¬ 
cus  is  still  the  capital  of  nearly  all  Syria,  and  the  most  populous 
and  flourishing  city  of  the  East. 

Is  it  known  when  and  by  whom  Damascus  was  founded  ? 

This  city  is  first  alluded  to  in  the  Bible  during  the  time  of  Abra¬ 
ham,  when  it  was  so  well  known  as  to  be  mentioned,  in  the  brief 
account  of  that  patriarch’s  pursuit  of  Chedorlaomer,  in  order  to 
define  the  position  of  “  Hobah,  which  is  on  the  left-hand  [or  north] 
of  Damascus.”1  Its  ancient  Hebrew  name,  Dammesek,  is  the  same 


B  2 


1  Gen.  xiv.  15. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


364 

as  the  present  Arabic  one,  Dimeshk,  but  it  is  commonly  called  by 
the  natives  esh  Sham,  the  general  name  for  Syria,  meaning  left  or 
north,  and  by  all  Arab  writers  Dimeshk  esh  Sham,  Damascus  of 
Syria.  Josephus  informs  us  that  it  was  founded  by  Uz,  the  son  of 
Aram,  the  grandson  of  Sh’em,  and  the  great-grandson  of  Noah.1  He 
appears  to  accept  the  tradition  recorded  by  the  historian  Nicolaus, 
that  Abraham  came  with  an  army  from  the  land  of  the  Chaldeans 
and  reigned  at  Damascus,  but  after  a  long  time  he  removed  and 
went  into  the  land  of  Canaan.  “The  name  of  Abram,”  he  adds, 
“  is  even  still  famous  in  the  country  of  Damascus ;  and  there  is 
shown  a  village  named  from  him  The  Habitation  of  Abram.”2 

There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  Abraham  ever  reigned  over 
Damascus;  but,  as  this  city  lay  on  the  line  of  his  migration  “from 
Ur  of  the  Chaldees  into  the  land  of  Canaan,”  it  is  quite  possible 
that  he  may  have  tarried  a  considerable  time  in  this  neighborhood.3 
His  steward,  whom  at  one  time  he  thought  would  be  his  heir,  was 
Eliezer  of  Damascus,  one  born  in  his  house,  implying  that  his  par¬ 
ents  were  members  of  Abraham’s  household  at  the  time  of  his 
sojourn  in  this  region.4  Mesjid  Ibrahim,  Abraham’s  place  of  ado¬ 
ration,  a  sacred  shrine  venerated  for  the  past  eight  centuries,  was 
erected  upon  the  spot  where,  according  to  tradition,  the  patriarch 
built  an  altar  and  gave  thanks  to  God  for  his  victory  over  “  Che- 
dorlaomer  and  the  kings  that  were  with  him.”  5  It  is  at  Burzeh,  a 
village  an  hour  to  the  north-east  of  this  city,  which  is  said,  by  an 
Arab  historian,  to  mark  the  site  of  Hobah. 

After  the  time  of  Abraham  there  is  no  further  notice  of  Da¬ 
mascus  in  the  Bible  until  the  reign  of  David — a  period  of  nearly 
eight  hundred  and  seventy-five  years.  The  possessions  of  the  tribe 
of  Naphtali,  and  those  of  Manasseh  east  of  the  Jordan,  bordered 
upon  the  territory  of  Damascus,  and  the  relations  between  the  two 
peoples  during  those  long,  silent  centuries  appear  to  have  been  gen¬ 
erally  amicable.  But  when  David  “  became  one  of  the  great  men 
of  the  earth”  he  began  to  extend  his  power  and  his  dominions,  and 
“  as  he  went  to  recover  his  border  at  the  river  Euphrates  ”  he  was 
brought  into  hostile  collision  with  “  the  Syrians  of  Damascus,”  who 
“  came  to  succour  Hadadezer  king  of  Zobah.  David  slew  of  the 
1  Ant.,  i.  6,  4.  2  Ant.,  i.  7,  2.  3  Gen.  xi.  31.  4  Geii.  xv.  1-4.  5  Gen.  xiv.  17. 


DAVID  GARRISONS  DAMASCUS.— INVASIONS  OF  BEN-HADAD. 


Syrians  two  and  twenty  thousand  men.”  He  also  “put  garrisons 
in  Syria  of  Damascus :  and  the  Syrians  became  servants  to  David, 
and  brought  gifts.”1  At  that  time,  according  to  Josephus  and 
Nicholaus,  Hadad,  a  great  king,  ruled  over  Damascus  and  other 
parts  of  Syria,  and  his  “posterity  reigned  for  ten  generations.”2 

The  conquest  of  David,  and  the  tributary  condition  of  the  Syri¬ 
ans  of  Damascus,  lasted  only  during  his  lifetime;  for  when  Solomon 
came  to  the  throne  Rezon,  a  servant  of  the  former  King  of  Zobah, 
and  a  “  captain  over  a  band  ”  of  robbers,  in  all  probability  became 
“an  adversary  to  Israel  all  the  days  of  Solomon.” 3  He  came  to 
Damascus  and  dwelt  there  and  ruled  over  it ;  but,  being  an  adven¬ 
turer  and  usurper,  Rezon  was  probably  soon  expelled  from  this  city, 
and  it  again  became  the  seat  of  the  Hadad  dynasty.  After  the  re¬ 
volt  of  the  ten  tribes  there  was  a  league  between  Abijam,  King  of 
Judah,  and  Tabrimon,  King  of  Syria,  and  between  Baasha,  King  of 
Israel,  and  Ben-hadad,  the  son  of  Tabrimon,  who  succeeded  his 
father  and  dwelt  at  Damascus.  It  was  to  this  Ben-hadad  I.  that 
Asa  sent  presents  of  silver  and  gold  from  the  treasures  of  the  house 
of  the  Lord  and  from  the  king’s  house,  saying,  “  Come  and  break 
thy  league  with  Baasha,  King  of  Israel,  that  he  may  depart  from 
me.”  Ben-hadad  took  the  presents  and  sent  his  captains  “against 
the  cities  of  Israel,  and  smote  Ijon,  and  Dan,  and  Abel-beth-maa- 
chah,  and  all  Cinneroth,  with  all  the  land  of  Naphtali.”4 

Incidentally  we  learn,  from  I  Kings  xx.  34,  that  Ben-hadad  I. 
again  invaded  Israel,  and  took  many  cities,  and  established  “streets 
in  Samaria”  for  the  purpose  of  trade  and  traffic  between  the  mer¬ 
chants  of  Damascus  and  the  inhabitants  of  that  city.  His  son, 
Ben-hadad  II.,  during  the  reign  of  Ahab,  “gathered  all  his  host 
together:  and  there  were  thirty  and  two  kings  with  him,  and  horses 
and  chariots:  and  he  went  up  and  besieged  Samaria.”  The  account 
of  his  arrogant  demands  and  their  rejection  by  Ahab;  of  the  battle 
and  the  great  slaughter  of  the  Syrians,  of  the  flight  of  Ben-hadad 
and  his  horsemen,  is  given  in  the  twentieth  chapter  of  1  Kings.  “At 
the  return  of  the  year  Ben-hadad  numbered  the  Syrians,  and  went 
up  to  Aphek,  to  fight  against  Israel.  The  battle  was  joined  :  and 
the  children  of  Israel  slew  of  the  Syrians  a  hundred  thousand  foot- 
1  2  Sam.  viii.  3-6.  2  Ant.,  vii.  5,  2.  3  1  Kings  xi.  23-25.  4  1  Kings  xv.  16-20. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


366 

men  in  one  day.”  Ben-hadad  again  fled  and  hid  himself,  but  was 
prevailed  upon  by  his  servants  to  surrender  to  Ahab,  who  received 
him  as  a  brother.  “  And  Ben-hadad  said  unto  him,  The  cities  which 
my  father  took  from  thy  father  I  will  restore ;  and  thou  shalt  make 
streets  for  thee  in  Damascus,  as  my  father  made  in  Samaria.  So  he 
made  a  covenant  with  him,  and  sent  him  away.”1 

Three  years  after  that  Ahab  is  the  aggressor,  and  the  prepara¬ 
tions  for  the  encounter  with  Ben-hadad,  and  the  fatal  result  to  the 
King  of  Israel,  are  eminently  Biblical,  and  given  at  length  in  the 
last  chapter  of  1  Kings.  After  the  death  of  Ahab  there  was  a 
short  interval  of  peace.  Ahaziah,  his  son,  fell  through  a  lattice  at 
Samaria,  and  “so  he  died;”  and  Jehoram  his  brother  “reigned  in 
his  stead.”2  Then  occurred  one  of  those  most  interesting  episodes 
in  Biblical  history,  abounding  in  striking  and  instructive  illustra¬ 
tions  of  the  state  of  society  at  that  remote  period.  Naaman,  the 
Syrian,  of  Damascus,  was  a  great  captain  :  “  he  was  also  a  mighty 
man  in  valour,  but  he  was  a  leper.”  At  the  earnest  solicitation  of 
“  a  little  captive  maid  out  of  the  land  of  Israel,”  he  came  to  Sama¬ 
ria.  He  brought  ten  talents  of  silver,  and  six  thousand  pieces  of 
gold,  and  ten  changes  of  raiment,  and  a  letter  from  Ben-hadad  to 
Jehoram,  saying,  “Now  when  this  letter  is  come  unto  thee,  behold, 
I  have  therewith  sent  Naaman  my  servant  to  thee,  that  thou  mayest 
recover  him  of  his  leprosy.”  The  king  read  the  letter,  rent  his 
clothes,  and  exclaimed,  “Am  I  God,  to  kill  and  to  make  alive,  that 
this  man  doth  send  unto  me  to  recover  a  man  of  his  leprosy?” 
When  Elisha  heard  of  it  he  remonstrated  with  the  king  for  having 
rent  his  clothes.  “Let  him  come  now  to  me,”  said  he,  “and  he 
shall  know  that  there  is  a  prophet  in  Israel.”3 

But  the  story  is  too  familiar  to  need  repetition.  Every  one  can 
remember  the  indignant  and  contemptuous  reply  of  the  great  cap¬ 
tain  to  the  prophet’s  command,  “  Go  and  wash  in  Jordan  seven 
times.”  “Are  not,”  he  exclaims,  “  Abana  and  Pharpar,  rivers  of 
Damascus,  better  than  all  the  waters  of  Israel?  So  he  turned  and 
went  away  in  a  rage.”  It  is  worthy  of  note,  however,  that,  after 
he  had  “dipped  in  Jordan,  and  was  clean,”  and  when  the  prophet 
refused  his  “blessing,”  as  Naaman  called  his  gift,  the  latter  asked 
1  1  Kings  xx.  1,  26-34.  ‘2  2  Kings  i.  2,  17.  3  2  Kings  v.  1--8. 


AN  ALTAR  TO  JEHOVAH.— ELISHA  VISITS  DAMASCUS.  3 67 

that  “two  mules’  burden  of  earth”  be  given  to  him  with  which  to 
build  an  altar  here  in  Damascus,  and  “  offer  burnt  offering  and 
sacrifice  unto  the  Lord.”1  Naaman  had,  probably,  been  informed 
that  “an  altar  of  earth,”  and  “not  of  hewn  stone,”  was  necessary 
to  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  and  hence  his  request.2 

'This  interchange  of  friendly  relations  was  soon  interrupted,  for 
Ben-hadad  again  invaded  Israel,  and  endeavored  to  capture  Elisha; 
but  the  attempt  failed,  and  the  host  sent  for  that  purpose  were 
smitten  with  blindness,  and  led  into  Samaria  by  the  prophet  him¬ 
self.3  “After  this  Ben-hadad  gathered  all  his  host,  and  went  up, 
and  besieged  Samaria.”  Then  occurred  that  “great”  and  memo¬ 
rable  famine  when  “  an  ass's  head  was  sold  for  fourscore  pieces  of 
silver,”  and  children  were  eaten  by  their  own  parents.  The  city 
was  saved  by  divine  interposition,  for  “  the  Lord  had  made  the  host 
of  the  Syrians  to  hear  a  noise  of  chariots,  and  a  noise  of  horses, 
even  the  noise  of  a  great  host :  and  they  said  one  to  another,  Lo, 
the  king  of  Israel  hath  hired  against  us  the  kings  of  the  Hittites, 
and  the  kings  of  the  Egyptians,  to  come  upon  us.  Wherefore  they 
arose  and  fled  in  the  twilight,  and  left  their  tents,  and  their  horses, 
and  their  asses,  even  the  camp  as  it  was,  and  fled  for  their  life.”4 
Recent  investigations  explain  the  reason  for  that  panic  and  the 
precipitate  flight  of  Ben-hadad’s  army.  The  Hittite  confederacy 
was  one  of  the  most  powerful  military  organizations  in  Western 
Asia,  and  at  that  time  it  was  in  alliance  with  the  Egyptians. 

Ben-hadad  made  no  farther  attempts  upon  Samaria  after  that 
remarkable  panic  and  flight  of  his  army  from  before  its  walls.  He 
appears  to  have  been  engaged,  to  the  close  of  his  reign,  in  repel¬ 
ling  the  invasions  of  the  Assyrians,  who  sought  to  extend  their 
power  over  Syria  and  Palestine.  It  was  during  that  period  of 
comparative  peace  between  Syria  and  Israel  that  “  Elisha  came 
to  Damascus.”  He  visited  this  city  apparently  to  fulfil  one  of 
the  three  commands  of  the  Lord  to  Elijah  when  in  the  cave  on 
Mount  Sinai.  There  “  the  Lord  said  unto  him,  Go,  return  on  thy 
way  to  the  wilderness  of  Damascus :  and  when  thou  comest,  anoint 
Hazael  to  be  king  over  Syria:  and  Jehu  the  son  of  Nimshi  shalt 

1  2  Kings  v.  9-19. 

3  2  Kings  vi.  8-23. 


2  Exod.  xx.  24,  25. 

*  2  Kings  vi.  24,  25  ;  vii.  6,  7. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


368 

thou  anoint  to  be  king  over  Israel :  and  Elisha  the  son  of  Shaphat 
of  Abel-meholah  shalt  thou  anoint  to  be  prophet  in  thy  room.” 1 
Elijah  seems  to  have  taken  a  large  liberty  in  the  manner  of  car¬ 
rying  out  those  various  commands.  He  did  not  go  to  Damascus 
at  all,  nor  did  he,  personally,  anoint  either  Hazael  or  Jehu.  He 
“  found  Elisha  and  cast  his  mantle  upon  him  that  is,  he  invested 
him  with  the  prophetic  office  by  that  symbolic  act ;  and  Elisha 
“arose,  and  went  after  Elijah,  and  ministered  unto  him.”2 

Elisha  was  now  a  prophet  “  in  the  room  ”  of  Elijah,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  visit  to  Damascus  “  Ben-hadad  the  king  was  sick ;”  so 
he  sent  Hazael  to  meet  him,  with  “  a  present  of  every  good  thing 
of  Damascus,  forty  camels’  burden.”  And  he  “  came  and  stood 
before  him,  and  said,  Thy  son  Ben-hadad  king  of  Syria  hath  sent 
me  to  thee,  saying,  Shall  I  recover  of  this  disease?”  In  that  inter¬ 
view,  while  assuring  Hazael  that  the  king  would  surely  die,  Elisha 
fixed  his  gaze  steadfastly  upon  him  until  Hazael  “was  ashamed: 
and  the  man  of  God  wept.”  “And  Hazael  said,  Why  weepeth 
my  lord?”  Elisha  replied  that  God  had  shown  him  that  he  would 
be  king  over  Syria,  and  that  he  would  inflict  terrible  calamities 
upon  Israel.  Upon  which  Hazael  exclaims,  “  Is  thy  servant  a  dog, 
that  he  should  do  this  great  thing?”3  Well  might  the  prophet 
weep,  for  Hazael  murdered  his  master  on  the  following  morning, 
usurped  the  throne,  and,  during  a  long  reign  of  about  forty -six 
years,  desolated  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan,  “oppressed  Israel,” 
and  even  threatened  Jerusalem,  enacting  all  the  atrocities  which 
Elisha  foresaw  and  predicted. 

But  “  the  Lord  had  compassion  ”  upon  the  Israelites,  “  neither 
cast  he  them  from  his  presence  as  yet.”  He  gave  them  a  saviour 
in  the  person  of  Joash,  King  of  Israel,  who  beat  Ben-hadad  III., 
the  son  of  Hazael,  three  times,  “  and  recovered  the  cities  of  Israel.”4 
We  read  also,  in  2  Kings  xiv.  27,  28,  that  Jeroboam  II.,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Joash,  “ recovered  Damascus  and  Hamath;”  and  after 
that,  in  the  days  “of  Pekah  the  son  of  Remaliah,”  the  King  of  Da¬ 
mascus  appears  as  an  ally  of  Israel  against  Judah.  “So  Ahaz  sent 
to  Tiglath-pileser  king  of  Assyria,  saying,  Come  up  and  save  me.” 

1  I  Kings  xix.  15,  16. 

3  2  Kings  viii.  7-15. 


2  1  Kings  xix.  19-21. 
4  2  Kings  xiii.  22-25. 


HISTORY  OF  DAMASCUS.— FULFILMENT  OF  PROPHECY.  369 

And  he  “went  up  against  Damascus,  and  took  it,  and  carried  the 
people  of  it  captive  to  Kir,  and  slew  Rezin.”1  Ahaz  also  came 
to  this  city,  and  here  saw  an  altar,  a  pattern  of  which  he  sent  to 
Urijah,  who  made  one  like  it,  and  set  it  up  in  the  Temple  at  Jeru¬ 
salem.2  Thus  ran  the  checkered  history  of  those  rival  nations  until 
Damascus  and  Israel  were  overwhelmed  in  succession  by  the  Assy¬ 
rians,  Babylonians,  and  Persians,  under  Sennacherib,  Nebuchadnez¬ 
zar,  and  Darius,  on  the  north,  and  the  Egyptians  on  the  south. 
Then  was  fulfilled  the  prophecy  of  Amos,  and  that  of  Isaiah.  A 
fire  devoured  “  the  palaces  of  Ben-hadad,”  “  and  the  kingdom 
[ceased]  from  Damascus.”  “Behold,  Damascus  is  taken  away 
from  being  a  city,  and  it  shall  be  a  ruinous  heap and  the  cap¬ 
tives  of  Samaria  were  “carried  into  Assyria,  and  placed  by  the 
river  of  Gozan,  and  in  the  cities  of  the  Medes.”3 

In  the  days  of  Jeremiah,  about  600  B.C.,  Damascus  had  “waxed 
feeble  and  Ezekiel  alludes  to  its  former  prosperity  and  commer¬ 
cial  relations  with  Tyre.4  One  hundred  years  later  it  is  mentioned 
by  Zechariah,  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity.5  Then  came  the  Macedonian,  Greek,  and  Roman  con¬ 
quests,  breaking  and  fusing  all  separate  nationalities  into  one  vast 
empire.  During  those  centuries  of  turmoil  and  strife  Damascus, 
though  it  recovered  some  of  its  ancient  glory  and  again  became  a 
rich  and  flourishing  city,  had  no  independent  existence,  nor  any 
history  of  special  importance.  After  the  defeat  of  Darius  at  the 
battle  of  Issus,  B.C.  333,  Damascus  surrendered  to  Parmenio,  the 
general  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  with  it  the  family  and  treasures 
of  the  Persian  monarch.  Here,  according  to  Josephus,  Pompey 
received  ambassadors  from  Syria,  and  Judea,  and  Egypt;  and  here 
Sextus  Caesar  bestowed  the  government  of  Coelesyria  upon  Herod 
the  Great,  who  afterwards  built  a  gymnasium  and  theatre  in  this 
city.6  And  hither  came  “  Saul  (who  also  is  called  Paul),  breathing 
out  threatenings  and  slaughter  against  the  disciples  of  the  Lord.”7 

At  the  beginning  of  our  era  Damascus  was  one  of  the  many 
large  and  prospering  cities  subject  to  Roman  rule,  and  during  the 

1  2  Kings  xvi.  5-9.  ‘J  2  Kings  xvi.  10-16. 

3  Amos  i.  3,  4  ;  Isa.  xvii.  1  ;  2  Kings  xvii.  6.  4  Jer.  xlix.  23-27  ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  18. 

6  Zech.  ix.  1.  6  Ant.,  xiv.  3,  1  ;  9,  5  ;  B.  J.,  i.  21,  it.  1  Acts  ix.  1-3  ;  xiii.  9. 


370 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


following  centuries  Christianity  spread  rapidly  amongst  its  inhab¬ 
itants.  Under  the  Byzantine  Empire  this  city  was  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  and  its  ancient  heathen  temple  was  converted  into  a  Chris¬ 
tian  church  and  dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Baptist.  For  more  than 
two  centuries  after  that  Damascus  continued  to  prosper,  until  at 
the  time  of  the  Muhammedan  conquest  it  was  one  of  the  first  cities 
of  the  Eastern  Empire. 

In  the  year  634,  after  defeating  the  army  of  the  Emperor  Hera- 
clius  on  the  plain  of  Hums,  the  Arabs  besieged  Damascus,  this 
ancient  capital  of  Syria.  The  siege  lasted  seventy  days,  and  then 
the  city  surrendered,  and  most  of  the  inhabitants  were  allowed  to 
withdraw.  According  to  Gibbon,  they  were  pursued  by  Khalid, 
“  the  Sword  of  God,”  with  four  squadrons  of  cavalry,  and  “  not  a 
Christian  of  either  sex  escaped  the  edge  of  their  scymitars.”  The 
remaining  inhabitants  of  the  city  became  the  tributary  subjects  of 
the  conquerors,  and  seven  places  of  worship  were  allotted  to  them, 
and  half  of  the  church  of  St.  John.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
seventh  century  Damascus  rose,  for  a  time,  to  great  prominence  as 
the  capital  of  the  Muhammedan  Empire,  which  soon  extended  to 
India  on  the  east,  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west.  Although 
this  city  has  enjoyed  periods  of  great  prosperity  during  the  past 
twelve  centuries  of  Moslem  rule,  yet  the  baneful  influence  of  Islam, 
here,  as  elsewhere,  has  been  depressing  and  destructive.  It  is  im¬ 
possible  to  ruin  a  city  so  favorably  located  as  Damascus ;  still,  it  has 
notably  declined  in  many  important  respects — in  the  variety  and 
perfection  of  its  manufactures,  the  extent  and  value  of  its  com¬ 
merce,  and  in  the  wealth  and  refinement  of  its  inhabitants. 

As  Damascus  has  retained  its  individuality  during  a  period  of 
about  four  thousand  years,  and  as  it  is  of  all  Eastern  cities  the 
most  Oriental,  one  naturally  expects  to  find  that  not  only  have  the 
manners  and  customs  of  ancient  times  remained  unchanged,  but 
that  its  present  inhabitants  have  come  down  from  the  earliest  ages. 

Would  you  seek  acquaintance  with  the  descendants  of  Ishmael? 
They  are  to  be  seen  in  every  bazaar,  with  their  swarthy  complexion, 
sharp  features,  and  lithe  and  slender  figures,  clad  in  simple  but 
primitive  garments,  very  much  like  those  worn  by  Abraham  and 
they  of  his  household  when  sojourning  in  this  vicinity.  Do  you 


“A  HEBREW  OF  THE  HEBREWS.”— “  THE  ARABIAN  NIGHTS.”  371 

wish  to  see  a  veritable  “Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews” — a  son  of  “Abra¬ 
ham,  and  Isaac,  and  Jacob?”  You  will  find  groups  of  them  in  the 
Jewish  quarter  of  the  city,  with  fair  countenance  and  bright  eyes, 
curling  locks  and  flowing  beards,  servile  expression  and  obsequious 
manner,  clothed  in  much  the  same  style  and  costume  as  their  fore¬ 
fathers.  You  cannot  name  an  article  of  their  dress,  from  head  to 
foot,  but  that  you  there  behold  only  the  modernized  form  and  fash¬ 
ion  of  its  ancient  shape  and  size,  for  the  Jews  of  Damascus  have 
adhered  with  great  tenacity  to  the  manners,  the  customs,  and  the 
costumes  of  their  ancestors.  During  our  stay  in  this  city  you  will 
be  constantly  reminded  that  we  are  still  in  the  land  of  the  Bible, 
and  that  Damascus  furnishes,  in  many  respects,  the  best  living  illus¬ 
trations  of  the  Holy  Book  that  are  now  to  be  found  in  any  part  of 
the  Promised  Land. 

September  15  th. 

This  hotel — with  its  paved  quadrangular  court  in  the  centre, 
marble  fountains,  running  water,  orange,  citron,  and  lemon  trees, 
rose-bushes,  trailing  jessamine-vines,  and  blooming  shrubs,  its  open 
lewans,  spacious  and  lofty  rooms  on  the  ground  floor,  and  smaller 
ones  above,  with  winding  stairs,  rambling  verandas,  and  projecting 
balconies — transfers  us,  almost  by  enchantment,  into  the  realm  of 
Oriental  story  and  amid  the  scenes  of  the  “Arabian  Nights.” 

Ever  since  the  wealthy  and  pleasure-loving  Khalifs,  the  success¬ 
ors  of  the  great  prophet  of  Islam,  assumed  the  supremacy  over  their 
more  refined  Christian  subjects  and  established  their  court  at  Da¬ 
mascus,  this  city  has  been  admirably  adapted  to  illustrate  those 
Oriental  romances  of  the  happy  king,  Shahriyar,  and  his  faithful 
queen,  Shahrazar.  And  to-day  many  a  house  within  the  city  walls, 
•  and  a  garden  in  the  suburbs,  is  the  palace  and  the  grove  in  minia¬ 
ture  of  a  Moslem  Khalif  equally  minute,  though  none  the  less  ma¬ 
levolent,  than  the  famous  vicars  of  Muhammed.  We  will  let  our 
horses  rest  to-day,  and  allow  the  muleteers  the  opportunity  to  have 
their  animals  re-shod,  while  we  visit  the  bazaars  of  the  city.  There 
are  many  places  of  special  interest  within  the  walls  of  Damascus, 
besides  its  shops  and  streets,  and  we  will,  therefore,  direct  our 
steps  to  Khan  As’ad  Pasha,  passing  through  several  of  the  princi¬ 
pal  bazaars  on  the  way  to  that  celebrated  caravansary. 


372 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


In  this  large  open  space  which  we  are  crossing  horses  are  col¬ 
lected  from  the  desert  and  elsewhere  and  offered  for  sale,  on  certain 
days  of  the  week.  Some  of  them  are  in  a  semi-wild  state,  and  pre¬ 
sent  a  shaggy  and  uncouth  appearance,  while  others  are  said  to  be 
of  the  famous  Arabian  breeds  raised  by  the  Bedawin  of  the  ’Anazeh 
tribe.  That  large  plane-tree  is  one  of  the  sights  of  Damascus.  The 
trunk  is  nearly  forty  feet  in  circumference,  and  one  of  its  branches 
is  occasionally  used  as  a  gallows.  Here  are  the  shops  and  stalls  for 
the  sale  of  barley,  and  farther  on  is  the  saddle  market.  There  you 
tvill  find  saddles  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  from  the  hard  pack,  stuffed 
with  straw,  to  the  crimson  cloth  and  gold-embroidered  saddle  of  the 
Effendi  and  the  Pasha.  And  there,  too,  are  seen  girths  of  every 
description,  and  saddle-cloths  of  gaudy  colors  and  various  patterns ; 
broad,  shovel -shaped  stirrups,  and  silver -spangled  bridles  with 
clumsy  ring  bits,  and  trappings  and  tassels  for  the  horses  of  the 
Bedawin.  This  clatter  of  many  hammers  proceeds  from  the  shops 
of  the  coppersmiths.  Here  are  made  basins  and  ewers,  pots  and 
pans,  cups  and  kettles,  colanders,  and  other  kitchen  utensils.  Those 
large  copper  trays — some  of  them  nearly  five  feet  in  diameter — 
are,  in  fact,  used  as  tables,  upon  which  the  dishes  are  placed  and 
around  which  the  guests  seat  themselves  on  the  floor.  They  are 
often  adorned  with  elaborate  calligraphical  designs  and  compli¬ 
cated  texts  from  the  Koran. 

The  castle,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  street,  is  a  large,  quadran¬ 
gular  fortress,  nearly  nine  hundred  feet  long  and  seven  hundred  feet 
wide.  From  its  great  height,  and  many  projecting  towers,  and  the 
surrounding  moat — twenty  feet  broad,  and  fifteen  feet  deep — it  pre¬ 
sents  a  formidable  appearance.  The  interior,  however,  is  in  a  ruin¬ 
ous  condition,  and  only  a  few  vaults  are  occupied.  Some  of  them 
chiefly  contain  bows  and  arrows,  old  armor,  and  other  military  rub¬ 
bish.  It  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Melek  el  Ashraf,  about  A.D. 
1219,  but  this  can  only  imply  that  he  rebuilt  the  fortress  upon  the 
foundations  of  a  former  one,  for  the  substructions  are  evidently 
ancient,  and  probably  Roman.  The  main  branch  of  the  Barada 
flows  along  the  north  wall  of  the  castle,  and  its  waters  could  be  let 
into  the  fosse,  the  bottom  of  which  is  now  covered  with  reeds. 

Leaving  these  jabbering  and  importunate  auctioneers  to  dispose 


BAZAARS  AND  STREETS.— BARGAINS.— KHAN  AS’AD  PASHA.  373 

of  their  second-hand  garments,  old-fashioned  weapons,  and  copper 
trays  to  the  highest  bidder,  we  will  pass  through  Suk  el  Arwam,  or 
the  Street  of  the  Greeks.  Here  are  dealers  in  all  sorts  of  Oriental 
articles,  mostly  gaudy  and  trashy,  and  not  worth  a  quarter  of  the 
price  asked  for  them  :  tobacco-bags  of  various  colors,  embroidered 
in  silver  and  gold ;  long  pipe-stems  encased  in  blue,  green,  and 
crimson  silk,  bound  with  gold  braid  and  ornamented  with  brilliant 
tassels  suspended  from  the  middle  of  the  stems,  and  adorned  with 
amber  mouthpieces  six  inches  long.  These  persistent  dealers  offer 
you,  “for  nothing,”  a  cloth  suit,  a  red  fez,  a  shawl,  a  dagger,  or  a 
so-called  “  Damascus  blade,”  bright-colored  socks,  or  a  carpet  to 
say  your  prayers  upon  —  and  all  “without  money  and  without 
price.”  If  you  accept  on  those  terms  they  will  expect  a  present 
of  at  least  twice  the  value  of  the  goods  thus  “given  away.” 

“  It  is  the  most  difficult  thing  in  the  world,”  says  an  Oriental 
traveller,  “  to  find  one’s  way  about  a  populous  Eastern  town,  from 
the  intricacy  of  the  streets  and  the  many  winding  bazaars,  which 
are  so  very  confusing.  Sometimes  you  are  pushed  into  a  corner  for 
several  minutes  and  spattered  with  mud  by  a  string  of  donkeys, 
who  trot  heedlessly  and  with  noiseless  tread  over  the  dirty  pave¬ 
ment  ;  and  sometimes  you  are  nearly  knocked  down  and  run  over 
by  a  string  of  camels,  who  take  up  the  whole  passage  between  the 
shop-boards  on  which  the  goods  are  exposed  for  sale,  and  whose 
soft,  spongy  feet  make  no  sound  to  warn  one  of  the  approaching 
danger.”  Fortunately  for  us,  we  have  at  last  reached  this  great 
khan  without  encountering  anything  more  formidable  in  these 
bazaars  than  motley  crowds  of  men,  women,  and  children  buying 
and  selling,  and  occasionally  an  Effendi  on  horseback. 

•  This  khan  belongs  to  the  family  of  As’ad  Pasha,  by  whom  it 
was  built  nearly  one  hundred  years  ago.  He  was  the  Governor  of 
Damascus  for  fifteen  years,  and  is  said  to  have  been  an  upright  man 
and  a  public  benefactor.  The  main  entrance  is  grand  and  very 
striking — one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Arabian  architecture  in  this 
country — and  the  stone  carving  above  the  lofty  gateway  and  around 
the  stalactite  vaults  is  of  the  most  elaborate  character.  The  khan 
was  constructed  of  black  basalt  and  white  limestone  in  alternate 
layers,  and  is  about  two  hundred  feet  square.  The  interior  court  is 


374 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


half  that  size,  with  a  large,  round  fountain  in  the  centre,  above 
which  is  a  lofty  dome  resting  upon  four  arches,  each  supported  by 
four  clustered  pillars.  These  are  connected  with  the  walls  by  a 
series  of  similar  arches  and  domes — eight  in  all.  Those  domes  have 
each  sixteen  large  windows,  through  which  light,  air,  and  sunshine 
penetrate  to  the  rooms  and  the  court  below.  Around  the  sides  of 
the  court  are  vaulted  magazines  of  various  sizes  for  the  disposal  of 
merchandise  of  every  description  at  wholesale. 

On  either  side  of  the  main  entrance  a  staircase  leads  up  to  an 
arched  corridor,  which  extends  quite  around  the  building,  and  com¬ 
municates  with  the  small  retail  shops  and  offices  of  the  merchants. 
It  forms  a  fine  promenade,  from  where  one  can  look  down  upon 
the  strange  and  truly  Oriental  scenes  in  the  court  below,  free  from 
the  noise  and  confusion  which  there  characterize  every  commercial 
transaction,  large  or  small.  To  Khan  As’ad  Pasha  come  caravans 
from  Bagdad,  Mosul,  Aleppo,  Beirut,  and  elsewhere.  On  entering, 
the  muleteers  and  camel-drivers,  with  mighty  din  and  uproar,  throw 
down  their  loads  of  merchandise  in  this  court,  and  here  they  must 
remain  until  the  owners  settle  with  the  custom-house  officials. 

The  janissary  of  the  consulate  has  come  to  conduct  us  from 
this  khan  to  the  Great  Mosk.  He  will  obtain  admission  for  us, 
and  insure  proper  respect  from  the  custodians  of  that  sacred  edi¬ 
fice.  We  will  now  leave  the  khan  and  pass  through  some  of  the 
bazaars  which  you  have  not  yet  seen. 

I  have  noticed  with  surprise  the  difference  in  the  demeanor  of 
the  shopkeepers  towards  their  customers.  The  Christians  are  offi¬ 
cious  and  importunate ;  the  Moslems,  on  the  other  hand,  are  indif¬ 
ferent,  contemptuous,  and  even  insolent. 

The  Moslems  of  Damascus  number  more  than  four-fifths  of  its 
inhabitants,  and  their  intense  fanaticism  is  notorious ;  hence  their 
arrogant  treatment  of  all  unbelievers.  Christians  are  infidel  dogs, 
and  Jews  are  curs  of  the  lowest  degree,  while  all  Europeans  are 
generally  regarded  as  Russians,  with  whom  the  Sultan  is  supposed 
to  be  at  war.  Amongst  themselves,  however,  Muhammedans  are 
respectful,  and  treat  each  other  with  extreme  deference,  even  in 
matters  of  the  smallest  concern. 

A  Moslem  shopkeeper  is  a  religious  phenomenon  wonderful  to 


A  MOSLEM  SHOPKEEPER.— BAZAAR  OF  THE  GOLDSMITHS.  375 

behold,  whose  faith  is  as  necessary  to  him  as  his  food  or  his  rai¬ 
ment.  Proceeding  with  solemn  step  through  the  street,  he  strokes 
his  beard  at  every  turn,  muttering  short  ejaculations  of  praise  to 
God  and  prayer  for  his  almighty  aid.  Arriving  at  his  shop,  he 
unlocks  the  shutters,  exclaiming,  “O  thou  Opener  of  all  things, 
and  Knower  of  all  things!”  and  ascends  to  his  seat,  upon  a  quilted 
mattress,  about  a  yard  square.  Placing  his  shoes  out  of  sight,  and 
filling  his  pipe,  he  reclines  against  a  large,  soft  cushion,  and  compla¬ 
cently  strokes  his  beard  or  plays  with  his  beads  while  patiently 
awaiting  the  customer  whom  fate  or  God’s  decree  may  send  him. 
If  his  customer  be  a  Jew  or  Christian,  he  “  takes  refuge  in  God  from 
the  wiles  of  Satan for  according  to  the  nature  of  that  first 
“opening”  transaction  will  his  business  during  the  day  be  fortu¬ 
nate  or  otherwise.  If  the  amount  of  the  purchase  is  satisfactory, 
he  praises  God  for  having  diverted  the  money  of  an  infidel  into  the 
hands  of  a  true  believer;  but  should  the  amount  be  insignificant, 
he  calls  upon  the  Enricher  of  all,  the  most  merciful  God,  to  dispel 
his  ominous  ill-luck  by  sending  him  another  customer  of  a  more 
promising  countenance  and  longer  purse. 

The  infidels  are  common  victims,  and  to  cheat  and  abuse  them 
is  the  special  prerogative  of  all  true  believers.  It  is  astonishing  to 
see  a  Moslem,  at  the  close  of  a  wrangling  bargain  with  a  Christian 
or  a  Jew — during  which  the  buyer  has  been  cheated  in  quality, 
quantity,  and  price,  and  roughly  dealt  with — suddenly  betake  him¬ 
self  to  his  prayers,  perform  them  in  a  most  solemn  and  abstracted 
manner,  and  immediately  thereafter  engage  in  a  similar  scene  over 
some  petty  purchase  worth  only  a  few  piastres.  A  thousand  times 
in  the  day  is  the  name  of  God  invoked  to  confirm  the  lying  state¬ 
ment  of  the  seller  in  regard  to  the  article  offered  to  the  buyer,  and 
this  taking  of  “the  name  of  God  in  vain”  has  continued  unchanged 
from  the  time  of  Moses  down  to  the  present  day. 

We  have  now  reached  the  bazaar  of  the  goldsmiths,  and  are  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Great  Mosk.  After  examining  some  of  their 
handiwork  we  will  ascend  to  the  dilapidated  roof  of  this  bazaar, 
from  where  we  can  obtain  a  view  of  the  exterior  of  the  mosk. 
Here  you  will  be  shown  a  great  variety  of  ornaments  in  silver  or 
gold  and  in  delicate  filigree  work,  many  of  them  quite  beautiful,  for 


376 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


the  head,  the  ears,  the  neck,  the  arms,  the  fingers,  and  even  for  the 
nose  and  ankles  of  the  Bedawin  women.  There  are  also  brilliant 
sprays  of  diamonds,  and  a  great  profusion  of  pearls,  coral,  amber, 
and  costly  gems  to  tempt  the  wealthy. 

Where  do  they  keep  all  those  treasures  which  you  have  enu¬ 
merated  ?  I  see  nothing  but  a  row  of  dingy  stalls,  with  one  or  two 
men  and  as  many  boys  in  each,  apparently  trying  to  melt  something 
in  a  crucible  over  a  common  blow-pipe. 

The  jewelry  and  precious  stones  are  kept  in  tin  cases,  locked  up 
in  those  ordinary  wooden  boxes  which  you  see  in  the  stalls,  and 


DIAMOND,  PEARL,  AND  GOLD  EAR-RINGS. — DIAMOND  NECKLACE. 


they  are  exhibited  with  great  care  to  an  intending  purchaser.  The 
stalls  are  generally  raised  nearly  four  feet  above  the  street,  and  are 
about  seven  feet  square.  The  entire  furniture  consists  of  one  or 
two  mats  or  carpets  and  the  same  number  of  quilted  mattresses 
and  soft  cushions.  The  stock  in  trade  is  placed  in  the  tin  cases 
and  strong  wooden  boxes,  and  the  principal  machinery  used  is  com¬ 
prised  in  the  following  list :  a  hammer,  anvil,  hole  in  the  floor  or 
forge ;  an  oil-lamp,  a  crucible,  a  blow-pipe,  and  a  small,  flat,  and 
smooth  piece  of  charcoal ;  a  shears,  pincers,  and  a  piece  of  iron  or 
steel,  with  holes  of  various  sizes,  through  which  the  gold  or  silver 


GOLD  FILIGREE  WORK.— GREEK  INSCRIPTION. 


3/7 


wire  is  drawn.  Thus  equipped,  one  of  these  jewellers  will  make  a 
pair  of  ear-rings  in  gold  filigree  work  from  an  Oriental  design,  or 
from  any  other  which  may  be  given  to  him ;  and  the  process  is  very 
simple.  A  rude  sketch  is  made ;  the  gold  wire,  drawn  to  the  requi¬ 
site  thickness,  is  cut  into  the  necessary  pieces ;  these  are  shaped  to 
conform  to  the  design,  then  placed  in  position  on  the  flat  piece  of 
charcoal,  a  pinch  of  solder  is  dusted  over  them,  and  a  boy  with  the 
blow-pipe  is  brought  into  requisition.  That  primitive  manufactur¬ 
ing  process  is  repeated  until  the  design  is  complete,  and  then  comes 
finishing  and  polishing,  and  the  ear-rings  are  done.  They  are 
weighed,  and  to  the  value  of  the  gold  the  jeweller  adds  the  price  of 
his  labor,  and  the  result  is  the  entire  cost  of  the  ear-rings. 

A  bakhshish  has  unlocked  this  side- door,  and  we  may  now 
ascend  to  the  roof  of  the  bazaar.  From  here  we  get  a  good  view 
of  the  south  side  of  the  mosk  —  its  windows,  minarets,  sloping 
roofs,  and  central  dome.  A  part  of  the  wall  at  the  south-western 
angle,  the  remains  of  the  gate  near  the  southern  transept,  and  the 
round  arches  of  the  windows  on  either  side  and  above  the  present 
main  entrance,  sufficiently  indicate  the  Greek  and  Roman  origin 
of  this  Moslem  mosk  and  former  church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist.  If 
we  had  time  and  opportunity  we  could  approach  nearer  to  the  wall 
of  the  mosk  and  examine  these  ancient  remains,  especially  those 
of  the  triple  gate,  which  are  almost  entirely  concealed  by  the  walls 
of  this  bazaar.  The  western  arch  is  hidden  from  sight,  but  part  of 
the  central  and  eastern  arches  rise  above  the  line  of  those  roofs. 

During  one  of  my  earliest  visits  to  this  place,  in  company  with 
some  missionary  friends,  we  found  a  Greek  inscription  high  up  in 
the  wall,  and  above  the  central  gateway,  which  to  us  was  a  new  dis¬ 
covery,  as  we  supposed  it  had  not  been  seen  by  any  traveller.  Pro¬ 
curing  a  ladder,  we  succeeded,  with  some  difficulty,  in  copying  it. 
It  is  now  well  known,  and  being  interpreted  reads  as  follows : 
“  Thy  kingdom,  O  Christ,  is  an  everlasting  kingdom,  and  thy  do¬ 
minion  endureth  throughout  all  generations,”  taken  from  the  thir¬ 
teenth  verse  of  the  one  hundred  and  forty-fifth  Psalm,  with  the 
name  of  Christ  interpolated.  It  was  evidently  intended  for  the 
gateway  leading  into  the  enclosure  of  the  church,  probably  for  the 
lintel  of  the  entrance  through  which  the  Christians  had  access  to 


378 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


their  part  of  the  edifice  during  the  time  of  its  partial  occupation  by 
them  and  the  Moslems.  It  is  surprising  that  Muhammedan  fanati¬ 
cism  has  allowed  it  to  remain  there  for  more  than  twelve  hundred 
years,  and  has  not  long  since  effaced  and  removed  it  from  the  sacred 
precincts  of  this  their  grandest  mosk  in  the  city  of  Damascus. 


ARCH  AND  PEDIMENT  OF  AN  ANCIENT  GATEWAY. 


From  the  bazaar  of  the  goldsmiths  we  have  now  found  our  way 
into  that  of  the  booksellers.  Copies  of  the  Koran,  beautifully  illu¬ 
minated,  were  occasionally  found  in  the  shops,  but  in  these  days  a 
good  manuscript  copy  can  only  be  obtained  secretly  and  by  paying 
a  high  price  for  it.  The  magic  energy  of  the  printing-press  will  ere 


ANCIENT  GATEWAY.— BAB  EL  BARID.— HOUSE  OF  RIMMON.  379 

long  altogether  supersede  the  laborious  methods  of  the  copyist, 
and  even  now  but  few  manuscript  books  of  special  value  are  ex¬ 
posed  for  sale  in  these  stalls.  Here  is  another  side-door,  which  the 
same  amount  of  bakhshish  will  unlock,  and  from  the  terrace  of  this 
private  house  we  can  examine  the  remains  of  an  ancient  gateway 
in  front  of  the  western  entrance  to  the  Great  Mosk.  Those  four 
massive  columns  are  all  that  can  be  seen  of  it  here  in  the  street. 

What  we  now  see  rising  above  the  roof  of  the  bazaar  is  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  arch  and  pediment  of  the  gateway,  supported  by  three 
columns  with  Corinthian  capitals.  The  one  at  the  end  is  composed 
of  a  square  pier  of  masonry,  with  a  semi-column  on  the  inner  and 
outer  side.  The  cornice,  arch,  and  pediment  are  profusely  orna¬ 
mented  with  scroll-work,  flowers  and  foliage,  and  other  architectural 
designs  similar  to  those  seen  among  the  ruins  at  Ba’albek.  In  the 
masonry  over  the  cornice  there  is  a  small  window  with  a  double 
moulding,  and,  judging  from  the  proportions  of  this  elaborate  frag¬ 
ment,  the  entire  gateway  must  have  been  more  than  seventy  feet 
high  and  of  about  the  same  width.  Let  us  descend  and  walk 
through  the  booksellers’  bazaar  to  Bab  el  Barid,  at  the  end  of  the 
street.  The  double  colonnade  which  formerly  extended  from  this 
ancient  portal  to  the  mosk  has  been  almost  entirely  destroyed, 
and  only  a  few  of  the  columns  remain ;  some  of  them  are  built  into 
the  walls  of  the  shops  and  houses  along  the  street. 

Here  we  are  at  this  unpretentious  entrance  to  the  mosk,  and 
the  custodians  have  brought  the  slippers  we  are  required  to  wear 
within  the  sacred  edifice.  On  former  visits  I  had  to  purchase  slip¬ 
pers  in  the  shoemakers’  bazaar,  but  the  keepers  have  become  more 
accommodating,  expecting  to  be  liberally  rewarded  for  their  polite 
attentions  when  we  leave  the  mosk. 

This  is  the  most  important  historical  site  in  Damascus,  and  may 
have  been  originally  an  open  space,  the  centre  of  which  was  occu¬ 
pied  by  an  altar  dedicated  to  the  idol-god  of  the  Syrians  long  before 
Abraham  passed  this  way,  “to  go  into  the  land  of  Canaan.”  Here, 
no  doubt,  was  “the  house  of  Rimmon,”  probably  erected  by  one  of 
those  Ben-hadads  who  reigned  in  this  city  from  the  time  of  David, 
and  which  is  referred  to  by  Naaman  in  his  interview  with  Elisha.1 

1  2  Kings  v.  17,  iS. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


380 

And  here  Ahaz  the  king  of  Judah  may  have  seen  that  altar  when 
he  came  to  Damascus,  “  the  pattern”  of  which  he  sent  to  Urijah  the 
priest  in  Jerusalem.  Several  hundred  years  later,  when  the  Greeks 
and  the  Romans  were  here,  a  heathen  temple  stood  upon  this  spot, 
with  its  altars  and  courts,  its  colonnades  and  triumphal  arches.  It 
must  have  occupied  an  area  nearly  equal  in  size  to  that  of  the  pres¬ 
ent  Haram  esh  Sherif,  in  Jerusalem.  After  Christianity  became  the 


JAMIrA  ES  SEtYED  YEHYA — CHURCH  OF  ST.  JOHN  THE  BAPTIST. 

established  religion  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  the  temple  was  con¬ 
verted  into  a  church  and  dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  the 
Moslems  believe  that  his  head  still  remains  in  the  cave  where  it  is 
said  to  have  been  placed  by  the  monks  of  that  church. 

When  Damascus  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Muhammedans,  in 
the  seventh  century,  this  church  was  occupied  by  Moslems  and 
Christians,  the  former  taking  possession  of  the  eastern  part,  while 
the  latter  were  allowed  the  use  of  the  western  portion.  That 


JAMI’A  ES  SEIYED  YEHYA— THE  MOSK  OF  ST.  JOHN.  38 1 

division,  which  indicated  the  comparative  toleration  of  Muhamme- 
danism  at  that  period,  did  not  continue  long,  and  the  Christians 
were  not  only  expelled  from  their  place  of  worship,  but  they  were 
forbidden  to  enter  the  enclosure  of  the  sacred  edifice.  From  thence¬ 
forth  the  entire  structure  was  transformed  into  Jami’a  es  Seiyed 
Yehya,  or  the  Mosk  of  St.  John,  which  name  it  still  bears.  The 
church  was  in  the  form  of  a  basilica,  and  the  space  between  the 
enclosing  walls  of  the  quadrangle  upon  which  it  stood  was  about 
five  hundred  feet  long  and  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  broad. 
It  occupied  nearly  one  half  of  that  space,  on  the  south  side  of 
the  quadrangle,  and  but  few  changes  have  been  made  in  the  inte¬ 
rior  plan  since  it  was  transformed  into  a  mosk.  The  open  court 
on  the  north  occupies  much  the  largest  part  of  the  quadrangle,  and 
the  ancient  outbuildings  in  it  have  been  removed,  and  fountains  and 
minarets  erected  in  their  place. 

Turning  to  the  right,  let  us  now  enter  the  sacred  enclosure  of 
this  present  mosk  and  former  church. 

This  vast  edifice,  with  its  numerous  columns,  its  Saracenic  arches, 
lofty  roof,  and  many  pendant  frames  containing  scores  of  oil-lamps, 
dimly  lighted,  is  entirely  different  from  any  public  building  we  have 
yet  seen  in  this  country,  and  it  presents  a  most  singular  and  inter¬ 
esting  appearance. 

Though  it  cannot  be  called  magnificent  in  its  present  condition, 
yet  the  impression  produced  upon  the  beholder  by  the  architectural 
proportions  and  the  great  dimensions  of  the  mosk  is  peculiar  and 
impressive.  It  is  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long,  and  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  wide,  and  is  divided  into  three  aisles 
by  two  rows  of  columns — twenty  in  each  row — which  extend  the 
whole  length  of  the  edifice.  The  columns  are  about  twenty-four 
feet  high,  and  most  of  them  have  Corinthian  capitals.  There  is 
another  row  of  columns  along  the  north  side  of  the  mosk,  but  they 
are  encased  in  masonry,  and  the  space  between  them  is  now  taken 
up  by  many  windows  and  doors,  through  which  access  to  the  mosk 
is  gained  on  that  side.  The  triple  roof  rests  upon  two  tiers  of 
arches  supported  by  the  rows  of  columns,  and  it  is  said  to  be  cov¬ 
ered  with  lead  on  the  outside.  In  the  centre  of  the  mosk,  and  the 
transept  of  the  ancient  church,  there  are  four  massive  piers,  and 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


382 

above  them  rises  a  dome  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  high, 
and  one  hundred  feet  in  circumference.  There  is  colored  glass  in 
the  windows  on  the  south  side  of  the  mosk,  and  along  the  walls 
and  upon  some  of  the  columns  are  extracts  and  texts  from  the 
Koran,  in  the  usual  style  of  intricate  caligraphy  which  the  Arabs 
delight  to  employ  and  display. 

Almost  the  entire  marble  floor  is  covered  with  carpets  of  differ¬ 
ent  sizes  and  various  patterns,  upon  which  the  “true  believers”  per¬ 
form  their  daily  prayers.  Looking  eastward  along  these  aisles  the 
most  striking  objects  are  those  great  dome-shaped  frames  with  their 
hundreds  of  lamps,  and  the  numerous  chandeliers,  suspended  by 
long  chains  from  the  arches  and  lofty  roof.  The  minbar,  or  pulpit, 
and  the  mihrab,  or  praying-niches,  in  the  south  wall,  with  their  slen¬ 
der  marble  columns,  are  quite  attractive  and  suggestive.  But  the 
most  sacred  spot  in  the  mosk  is  the  cave  above  which  is  the  shrine, 
or  Mukam  es  Seiyed  Yehya.  The  mukam  is  between  the  third  and 
fourth  column,  to  the  right  of  the  dome,  and  near  the  south  wall  of 
the  eastern  part  of  the  mosk.  It  is  enclosed  by  a  quadrangular 
wall,  built  of  five  courses  of  polished  marble,  upon  which  stand 
twenty  square  columns,  six  on  each  side,  and  four  at  either  end, 
counting  the  corner  columns  twice.  The  cornice  is  elaborately 
ornamented  by  extracts  from  the  Koran,  in  large  letters,  and  above 
it  rises  a  ribbed  dome,  resting  upon  an  octagonal  structure,  and  sur¬ 
mounted  by  a  gilded  crescent.  The  height  of  the  dome  is  about 
twenty-five  feet,  and  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist  is  believed  by 
the  Moslems  to  be  still  preserved  beneath  that  mukam.  Like  those 
of  many  Christian  saints,  the  remains  of  the  Baptist  have  been  gen¬ 
erously  distributed  amongst  several  favored  mosks.  His  head  is 
here,  his  heart  is  claimed  in  Aleppo,  and  one  of  his  fingers  is  said 
to  be  in  a  mosk  at  Beirut. 

The  association  of  Biblical  and  even  Christian  celebrities  with 
Muhammedan  shrines  in  and  around  this  most  Moslem  of  cities 
appears  to  be  one  of  the  strange  features  of  Damascus. 

We  are  now  in  the  large  open  court  enclosed  by  the  walls  of  the 
mosk.  Including  the  colonnade  on  the  east,  north,  and  west,  the 
court  is  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long,  and  -one  hundred 
and  eighty  feet  broad.  The  columns  in  the  northern  colonnade  are 


COURT  OF  THE  GREAT  MOSK.— ORNAMENTAL  PIERS.  383 


encased  in  masonry,  and  support  twenty-four  horseshoe  arches,  upon 
which  rests  an  upper  tier  of  fifty  smaller  round  arches.  The  sides 
of  the  masonry  piers  are  ornamented  with  various  patterns  in  panel- 
work,  and  elaborate  designs  of  rich  arabesque  adorn  the  capitals, 
while  the  arches  are  painted  on  the  inside  in  alternate  black  and 
white  irregular  squares,  presenting  a  striking  and  checkered  appear¬ 
ance.  The  upper  tier  of  arches  is  composed  entirely  of  layers  of 


MUKAM  ES  SEtYED  YEHYA — TOMB  OF  ST.  JOHN  THE  BAPTIST. 


black  and  white  limestone,  and  the  combined  effect  of  those  varied 
designs  and  different  colors  in  the  colonnade  give  it  an  appearance 
eminently  Oriental  and  attractive.  More  than  half  the  number  of 
Corinthian  columns  remain  exposed  to  view  in  the  eastern  and 
western  colonnade,  and  the  arches  in  the  upper  tier  are  supported 
by  smaller  columns  of  the  same  order. 

This  Saracenic  structure  over  the  fountain  in  the  middle  of  the 
court  is  quite  imposing,  with  its  eight  columns  and  as  many  arches ; 
and  the  domed  pavilion  above  them  is  large  and  attractive. 


3§4 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


It  is  called  Kubbet  en  Naufarah,  dome  of  the  water-spout,  a 
name  suggested  no  doubt  by  the  constant  and  refreshing  sound  of 
the  plashing  waters  from  those  numerous  jets.  Here  “the  faith¬ 
ful”  perform  their  ablutions  before  entering  the  mosk,  and  in  the 
pavilion  above  this  octagonal  basin  some  of  their  religious  ceremo¬ 
nies  are  conducted.  Kubbet  es  Sa’ah,  the  dome  of  the  hour,  is  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  court ;  and  that  curious  structure  near  the 
western  end  is  called  Kubbet  el  Khusneh,  the  dome  of  the  treasure. 
Under  the  dome  of  its  octagonal  chamber — built  upon  those  fine 
marble  columns,  whose  Corinthian  capitals  are  almost  perfect — the 
sacred  books  and  records  of  the  mosk  are  deposited,  but  no  visitor 
is  allowed  to  inspect  such  precious  “  treasure.” 

Several  years  ago  our  party  of  ladies  and  gentlemen  spent  an 

entire  forenoon  in  the  mosk  and  around  this  court.  We  were 

accompanied  by  the  dragoman  of  the  British  Consulate,  and  at  his 

request  our  photographer  was  allowed  to  take  pictures  of  some  of 

the  interesting  objects  within  this  great  court,  and  views  of  the 

colonnades  and  the  minarets  of  the  mosk.  The  entire  party 

ascended  this  central  minaret,  called  Madinet  el  ’Arus,  the  minaret 

of  the  bride — winding  up  this  same  spiral  stairway  of  one  hundred 

and  sixty  steps  which  we  are  now  climbing — to  the  gallery  from 

where  the  muezzin  proclaims  “  the  call  to  prayers.”  The  mosk  of 

St.  John  has  three  minarets.  The  one  we  are  on  is  the  oldest.  It 

is  built  up  square,  and  has  four  galleries.  Madinet  el  Ghurbiyeh, 

the  western  minaret,  on  the  south-west  side  of  the  court,  is  the  most 

beautiful.  It  is  octagonal,  built  in  receding  sections,  like  a  tele- 

« 

scope,  and  has  three  galleries.  The  loftiest  minaret  of  them  all  is 

A 

Madinet  'Isa,  minaret  of  Jesus,  so  called  from  a  Moslem  tradition 
that  on  the  morning  of  the  judgment-day  Jesus  will  descend  from 
heaven  upon  it  and  sit  in  judgment  on  all  the  nations  of  the  earth. 
It  is  built  upon  a  square  tower,  and  is  octagonal  in  shape,  taper¬ 
ing  to  a  point,  and  surmounted,  like  the  other  two,  by  a  crescent. 
There  are  two  covered  “galleries”  in  the  tower  and  two  open  ones 
on  the  “spire”  of  the  minaret. 

The  view  from  this  minaret  over  this  most  Oriental  of  cities  is 
exceedingly  characteristic  and  interesting.  We  look  down  upon  a 
motley  scene  of  flat,  drab-colored  roofs,  dark,  narrow  streets,  square, 


A  PANORAMA  FROM  THE  MINARET  OF  THE  BRIDE. 


ORNAMENTED  PIERS  AND  ARCHES  IN  THE  COURT  OF  THE  GREAT  MOSK, 


whitewashed  walls,  innumerable  domes,  lofty  minarets,  and  tall,  ta¬ 
pering  cypress-trees,  varied  here  and  there  by  the  green  shrubs  and 
large  fruit-trees  in  the  courts  of  some  of  the  principal  houses. 

A  panorama  taken  from  the  gallery  of  this  Madinet  el  ’Arus 


386 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


would  include  nearly  every  important  house,  public  building,  mosk, 
and  church  in  the  city,  and  a  large  number  of  the  villages  on  the 
plain.  The  new  Greek  Catholic  Church  in  the  extreme  south-east¬ 
ern  part  of  the  city  is  seen  to  advantage  from  here,  and  the  great 
castle  west  of  us  rears  its  lofty  quadrangular  walls  high  above  all  its 
surroundings.  The  outlook  from  our  stand-point  extends  far  be¬ 
yond  the  city  and  its  suburbs,  to  Jebel  Kasyun,  above  es  Salihiyeh, 
on  the  north  ;  to  Mount  Hermon,  on  the  west;  to  the  distant  region 
of  the  Hauran,  on  the  south  ;  and  eastward  to  the  green  marshes 
of  the  lakes  —  a  vast  and  endlessly  diversified  prospect  of  moun¬ 
tains  and  valleys,  waving  forests  of  fruit-trees,  fertile  plains,  and 
stern,  hopeless  deserts. 

We  will  now  descend  from  this  minaret,  having  “  made  the 
tour”  of  the  mosk  of  St.  John,  which,  as  we  have  already  re¬ 
marked,  probably  occupies  the  site  of  “  the  house  of  Rimmon,”  in 
which  Ben-hadad  worshipped,  leaning  upon  the  hand  of  Naaman.1 

Was  Rimmon  one  of  the  many  names  given  to  Baal  ? 

As  the  name  of  the  ancient  Syrian  god  it  is  mentioned  only 
once  in  the  Bible,  and  its  signification  and  derivation  are  doubtful. 
It  may  have  had  reference  to  the  pomegranate,  still  abundant  in 
the  gardens  of  Damascus ;  or  have  been  an  abbreviated  form  of 
Hadadrimmon,  the  combined  names  of  the  Syrian  deities.  Some 
suppose  that  it  was  derived  from  Aram,  the  general  name  for  Syria, 
and  the  region  of  which  Damascus  was  the  capital.  It  is  probable, 
therefore,  that  “  the  house  of  Rimmon,”  in  this  city,  was  one  of  the 
many  temples  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Baal,  the  supreme  god 
of  the  Aramsean  tribes. 

The  most  interesting  monuments  in  the  vicinity  of  this  mosk 
are  the  mausoleum  of  Salah  ed  Din,  the  famous  Saladin  of  Crusad¬ 
ing  times,  and  the  tomb  of  Melek  ed  Dhaher  Bibars,  the  Mameluke 
Sultan  of  Egypt.  These  custodians  appear  to  be  satisfied  with  their 
bakhshish,  so  we  can  leave  the  mosk  through  the  same  gate  by  which 
we  entered  it  and  go  back  to  the  hotel. 

September  15th.  Evening. 

Returning  from  the  mosk  this  noon  we  passed  a  public  bath 
with  a  curtain  drawn  across  the  entrance,  indicating,  as  you  said, 

1  2  Kings  v.  iS. 


PUBLIC  BATHS  INTRODUCED  BY  HEROD  THE  GREAT.  387 

that  it  would  be  occupied  for  the  rest  of  the  day  by  the  women. 
Are  they  not  allowed  to  use  the  bath  at  night  ? 

Muhammed  is  credited  with  the  ungallant  assertion  that  when 
a  woman  enters  a  bath  the  devil  goes  in  with  her;  and  he  forbade 
women  to  go  there  except  in  rare  cases  of  emergency  and  for  sani¬ 
tary  purposes.  Moslem  women,  however,  have  entirely  disregarded 
his  injunction,  and  those  forbidden  places  are  occasionally  engaged 
for  special  nights  by  the  families  of  the  wealthy.  The  ordinary 
custom  is  to  reserve  the  bath  for  the  exclusive  use  of  men  in  the 
forenoon,  and  women  in  the  afternoon.  Brides  are  taken  to  the 
bath  by  their  relatives  and  friends  a  short  time  before  the  wed¬ 
ding;  and  such  parties  often  spend  several  hours  there,  drinking 
lemonade,  sipping  coffee,  smoking  the  nargileh,  and  partaking  of 
sweetmeats  and  other  refreshments.  Singing  women  are  hired 
to  add  to  the  entertainment  on  those  occasions,  and  the  merry¬ 
making  is  often  noisy  enough  to  be  heard  out  on  the  street. 

Is  it  not  strange  that  private  and  public  baths  similar  to  those 
now  in  use  in  this  country  are  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible  ? 

The  Hebrews  appear  never  to  have  built  any  in  their  houses 
nor  in  their  cities,  though  ablutions  of  various  kinds  were  common 
enough,  and  even  enjoined,  as  part  of  the  necessary  ceremonial 
observances  on  numerous  occasions.  For  the  performance  of  some 
of  those  ablutions  provision  was  made  in  the  Tabernacle,  and  also 
in  the  Temple  of  Solomon.  Subsequently,  when  synagogues  came 
into  use,  a  small  tank  or  pool  was  provided  for  the  same  purpose. 
It  is  possible  that  the  “  pools”  in  and  around  Jerusalem  were  con¬ 
structed  for  general  bathing,  and  the  Pool  of  Bethesda  was  evi¬ 
dently  resorted  to  by  the  infirm  and  diseased  for  its  healing  virtues. 
Still,  there  is  no  evidence  that  baths,  artificially  heated  and  sup¬ 
plied  with  hot  and  cold  water,  like  those  now  so  common  in  nearly 
every  part  of  the  world,  were  ever  erected  in  Palestine  until  about 
the  time  of  Herod  the  Great.  He  and  his  successors  had  become 
accustomed  to  them  during  their  visits  to  Rome,  and  they  built 
baths  in  many  of  the  cities  of  this  country,  as  part  of  a  general 
plan  to  break  down  the  stern  exclusiveness  and  isolation  of  the 
Jews,  and  induce  them  to  associate  with  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
conform  as  far  as  possible  to  their  manners  and  customs.  Chris- 


388 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


tians  throughout  the  Roman  Empire  resorted  to  the  baths  as  early 
as  the  first  century,  and  they  are  now  patronized  by  all  classes, 
especially  of  the  Moslem  community.  Muhammed  disliked  baths; 
and  as  they  are  supposed  to  be  the  favorite  resort  of  evil  spirits, 
prayer  is  not  performed  in  them,  but  an  ejaculation  is  uttered  on 
entering  to  be  protected  from  the  machinations  of  the  jan. 

While  we  were  passing  through  the  crowded  bazaars  this  after¬ 
noon,  on  our  way  to  visit  some  of  the  fine  houses  of  this  city,  I 
was  very  much  interested  and  amused  by  the  number  and  variety 
of  the  street  calls  or  cries.  I  have  been  startled  in  Beirut  by  shrill 
warnings  to  look  behind  or  before  me  to  avoid  being  run  over  by 
loaded  animals,  but  here  in  Damascus  one’s  ears  are  assailed  by 
many  additional  calls:  “Ya  Khawajah  !”  “Ya  Kunsul !”  “Ya  Ef- 
fendi !”  “Ya  Sheikh!”  “Ya  sit!”  “Ya  walled!”  “Ya  bint!”  “Yem- 
minak !”  “  Shemalak  !”  “  Rasak  !”  “  Riglak  !” — all  warnings  to  be¬ 
ware,  uttered  now  in  front,  now  behind,  now  on  this  side,  now  on 
that,  until  one  knows  not  which  way  to  turn  for  safety.  Two  lads, 
carrying  between  them  a  large  tray  loaded  with  bread,  cried  out, 
“Ya  Karim!  ya  Karim!”  That  is  not  the  name  for  bread. 

No,  it  is  one  of  the  attributes  of  God,  and  signifies  the  bounti¬ 
ful  or  generous ;  and  since  bread  is  the  staff  of  life,  the  name  im¬ 
plies  that  it  is  the  gift  of  the  Bountiful  One. 

Another  cry  was  made  by  a  man  carrying  on  his  back  a  large 
leathern  “bottle,”  and  jingling  in  his  hand  several  deep  and  bright 
copper  saucers,  to  attract  attention.  I  could  hear  nothing  but 
“  Ishrub  ya  ’atshan  !  ishrub  ya  ’atshan  !”  which  meant,  you  said, 
“  Drink,  O  thirsty !”  That  sounded  like  the  Biblical  invitation, 
“Ho,  every  one  that  thirsteth,  come  ye  to  the  waters.”1 

Yes;  but,  according  to  Isaiah,  they  were  to  “buy  without 
money  and  without  price.”  That  man’s  invitation,  however,  is 
very  different.  By  the  sale  of  his  sherbet  he  makes  his  living,  and 
he  who  has  no  money  will  get  no  drink ;  and  if  he  should  thus 
publicly  offer  to  sell  wine  with  or  “  without  price,”  he  would  be 
torn  to  pieces  by  a  fanatical  Moslem  mob. 

I  liked  the  sound  of  his  invitation,  nevertheless. 

And  I  will  only  add  that  it  is  a  most  significant  and  encourag- 

1  Isa.  lv.  i. 


PRIVATE  HOUSES  IN  DAMASCUS. 


339 


ing  fact  that  the  colporteur  may  be  seen  in  those  bazaars  pursuing 
his  humble  vocation,  and  offering  the  true  “bread”  and  the  water 
of  “everlasting  life”  to  the  perishing  multitudes  in  this  intensely 
Moslem  city.  And  the  best  wish  we  can  express  in  behalf  of  the 
Damascenes  is  that  they  may  be  brought  to  accept  it,  through 
Him  whose  kingdom,  according  to  the  inscription  over  the  entrance 
to  their  mosk,  “is  an  everlasting  kingdom,”  and  whose  “dominion 
endureth  throughout  all  generations.” 

The  house  of  our  obliging  vice-consul,  and  those  of  his  friends 
and  acquaintances  which  he  took  us  to  see  this  afternoon,  are  all, 
apparently,  constructed  upon  the  same  general  plan. 


SPECIMENS  OF  TESSELLATED  PAVEMENT. 


The  exterior  wall  is  always  of  rough  mud,  of  a  plain  drab  color, 
and  without  windows,  or  with  very  small  ones.  The  entrance  from 
the  street  is  through  a  most  unpretending  door,  opening  into  a 
dark  and  narrow  hall,  with  a  projection  or  screen  at  the  farther  end, 
which  shuts  off  the  view  into  the  main  court.  That  court  has  no 
roof,  and  is  nearly  square,  and  in  some  of  the  larger  houses  is  more 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long.  The  walls  of  the  court  are 
constructed  of  red  and  white  limestone  or  black  basalt,  in  alternate 
layers,  to  a  height  of  about  fifteen  feet,  and  finished  with  ordinary 
masonry.  It  is  p-aved  with  large  slabs  of  white  marble,  bordered 
with  narrow  strips  of  black  slate,  and  sometimes  arranged  in  pretty 
patterns  and  complicated  figures,  especially  in  front  of  the  chamber 


390  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

doors  or  around  the  fountains.  In  the  middle  of  the  court  is  a 
large  tank  or  fountain,  generally  octagonal  in  shape,  and  raised  two 
feet  or  more  above  the  pavement.  It  is  cased  in  marble,  and  the 
sides  and  panels  are  profusely  ornamented  with  intricate  designs 
in  slate  and  limestone  of  various  colors.  The  fountain  is  kept  full 
of  clear,  sparkling  water  from  the  never-failing  “river  of  Damascus,” 
by  one  or  more  bronze  spouts  and  central  jets.  Upon  it  choice 
flowers  are  arranged  in  large  pots,  and  near  it  are  fruit-trees, 
rose-bushes,  and  jessamine-vines,  which  impart  an  attractive  and 
pleasing  aspect,  and  their  fragrance  pervades  the  entire  court  and 
penetrates  into  every  room  in  the  house. 

On  the  south  side  of  the  court,  and  facing  the  fountain,  is  an 
open  lewan,  with  a  lofty  arch  in  front  to  support  the  roof.  The 
pavement  of  the  lewan  is  of  marble,  with  designs  in  mosaic  of 
various  shapes  and  sizes,  and  of  different  colors.  Along  three 
sides  of  it  are  divans  with  marble  fronts ;  they  are  generally  a 
foot  and  a  half  high,  and  the  quilted  mattresses,  together  with  the 
numerous  cushions  piled  upon  them,  are  covered  with  Damascus 
silk  of  brilliant  color  and  rich  texture.  The  walls  of  the  lewan 
are  built  up  for  about  ten  feet,  with  alternate  layers  of  red  and 
white  limestone  or  black  basalt,  and  above  that  there  is  an  elabo¬ 
rate  display  of  fresco  or  mosaic  work,  in  large  panels  and  patterns. 
On  either  side  of  the  lewan  there  are  spacious  and  lofty  rooms, 
sometimes  over  thirty  feet  high.  They  are  entered  by  doors  lead¬ 
ing  from  the  lewan,  and  one  of  them  at  least  is  furnished  and 
decorated  in  a  more  elaborate  style  and  design  than  the  lewan. 
Frequently  there  is  a  marble  fountain  in  the  centre  of  the  room, 
and  the  walls  display  a  profuse  ornamentation  in  marble,  stucco, 
mosaic  work,  and  fresco  painting. 

The  roof  is  sustained  by  long,  slender  beams  of  poplar,  polished 
and  painted  in  bright  colors.  In  some  of  the  mansions  of  the 
wealthy  those  beams  are  covered  with  gilt,  and  farther  ornamented 
with  small  pieces  of  mirrors  and  mother-of-pearl,  inlaid  in  the  wood, 
which  add  to  the  brilliancy  of  the  apartment.  The  panels  in  the 
ceiling,  in  the  doors,  the  window-frames,  and  shutters  are  similarly 
ornamented,  and,  in  addition,  are  composed  of  many  small  pieces 
of  polished  wood  of  different  kinds,  arranged  in  curious  figures — 


PRIVATE  HOUSE  IN  DAMASCUS. 


/ 


I 


COFFEE-SHOPS  ON  THE  BANKS  OF  THE  BARADA. 


39 1 


over  fifty  in  one  panel.  The  apartments  for  the  use  of  the  family 
and  those  reserved  for  domestic  purposes,  kitchen,  bath,  and  ser¬ 
vants’  rooms,  are  arranged  around  the  court,  on  this  side  or  that, 
according  to  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  inmates  of  the 
establishment.  The  Moslems  have  an  interior  and  entirely  distinct 
and  separate  house,  sometimes  more  profusely  ornamented  and 
elegantly  furnished,  for  their  harem,  the  entrance  to  which  is 
from  the  court  of  the  main  dwelling. 

The  coffee -shops  along  the 
banks  of  the  Barada,  which  we 
looked  into  this  evening,  were 
more  attractive,  and  the  mot¬ 
ley  throng  in  some  of  them 
was  greater  and  far  more  in¬ 
teresting,  than  any  we  saw  at 
Beirut. 


i 

Mil 

lollf '  "□llQl  ||||k 

isihLIL 

ill 

l 

|  III  ^ 

Ml 

mkm 

ill 

ill 

yn==!jtd  lift 

Eta  [01 

illl 

|csl 

fc==31 

 aDlrai 

 |t==3  0 

l«==al 

That  is  due  in  a  great  meas¬ 
ure  to  the  time,  the  place,  and 
the  people.  Damascus  is  famous 
above  all  the  cities  of  Syria  for 
its  coffee-shops  and  the  eminent¬ 
ly  Oriental  appearance  of  the 
crowds  in  its  streets,  and  “night 
is  the  propitious  season  to  visit 
the  cafes.  The  glare  of  the  sun 
glancing  on  the  waters  is  passed 
away;  the  company  is  then  most 
numerous,  for  it  is  their  favorite 
hour,  and  the  lamps,  suspended 

from  the  slender  pillars,  are  lighted.  The  throng,  in  the  various 
and  brilliant  colors  of  their  costumes,  crowd  the  place,  some  stand¬ 
ing  moveless  as  the  pillars  beside  them,  some  reclining  against  the 
rails,  others  seated  in  groups,  or  solitary,  as  if  buried  in  ‘lonely 
thoughts  sublime;’  while  the  rush  of  the  falling  waters  is  sweeter 
music  than  that  of  the  tambourine  and  the  guitar  that  vainly 
strive  to  be  heard,  and  the  glare  of  the  lamps  mingles  strangely 
with  the  moonlight,  that  rests  with  a  soft  and  vivid  glory  on 


SPECIMENS  OF  WOOD  PANEL-WORK. 


392 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


the  waters  and  falls  beneath  pillar 
and  roof  on  the  picturesque  groups 
within.”  1 

But  the  music  was  excrucia¬ 
ting,  and  the  singing  the  most 
outrageous  concert  of  harsh, 
nasal  sounds  I  ever  heard. 
The  same  nasal  twang 
and  grating 
gutturals  are 
heard  in  all 
the  singing  of 
every  denomi¬ 
nation  through- 

KANUN,  AND  MODE  OF  PLAYING  IT.  Ollt  tile  East. 

The  Orientals 

know  nothing  of  harmony,  and  cannot  appreciate  it  when  heard, 
but  they  are  often  spellbound  or  wrought  up  to  transports  of 
ecstasy  by  that  very  music  which  so 
tortured  your  nerves.  I  have  rarely 
known  song  to  be  more  truly  ef¬ 
fective  than  among  these  stolid  chil¬ 
dren  of  the  East,  especially  in 
such  places  of  public  resort. 

Seated  on  a  raised  platform 
at  one  end  of  the  coffee- 
shop,  half  a  dozen  per¬ 
formers  discourse  strange 
music  from  curious  instru¬ 
ments,  interspersed  occa¬ 
sionally  with  wild  bursts  of 
song,  which  seem  to  elec¬ 
trify  the  smoking,  coffee- 

MODE  OF  PLAYING  THE  KAMANJEH. 

sipping  company.  They 

usually  have  a  violin,  two  or  three  kinds  of  flutes,  a  tambourine, 
kettle-drums,  and  derbekkeh.  One  man  plays  a  large  harp,  lying 


1  Carne’s  Syria,  The  Holy  Land,  etc.,  p.  71. 


ORIENTAL  MUSIC  AND  SINGING. 


393 


DEFF — TAMBOURINE. 


CASTANETS. 


upon  his  lap,  called  a  kanun,  and  an  expert  performer  often  makes 
very  agreeable  music  with  it.  Another  man,  with  a  droll  but 
merry  countenance,  tells  stories  and 
perpetrates  jokes,  to  the  infinite 
amusement  of  the  audience.  There 
are  also  players  on  the  guitar,  or  ka- 
manjeh,  and  one  of  them  has  a  very 
large  instrument  of  that  kind,  over 
whose  few  chords  his  nimble  fingers 
sweep  at  times  like  magic. 

The  Greeks,  and  especially  the  Al¬ 
banians,  manage  the  kamanjeh  with  great  skill.  They  have  a  small 

kind,  which  they  take  with  them  on  their 
extemporaneous  picnics,  and  they  will  sit  by 
the  hour  on  the  shady  bank  of  some  mur¬ 
muring  brook  and  sing  to  its  faint  and  mo¬ 
notonous  notes.  But  the  most  popular  of  all  musical  instruments 
in  this  country  are  the  der- 
bekkeh,  the  deff,  or  tambou¬ 
rine,  the  castanets,  and  the 
nukkairat,  or  kettle  -  drums. 

At  weddings,  birthdays,  and 
all  other  festal  gatherings 
they  will  thrum  the  derbek- 
keh,  and  beat  the  deff,  clink 
the  castanets,  and  clap 
their  hands  in  concert 
without  weariness  or 
intermission  until  long 
after  midnight. 

It  is  now  impossi¬ 
ble,  I  suppose,  to  ob¬ 
tain  an  accurate  knowl¬ 
edge  of  Biblical  music* 
and  of  the  musical  in¬ 
struments  used  by  the 
Hebrews. 

D  2 


DERBEKKEH. 


DERBEKIvEH. 


394 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


That  is  the  more  surprising,  since  the  allusions  to  both  are 
almost  innumerable  throughout  the  entire  Bible.  The  antedilu¬ 
vians  had  both  music  and  musical  instruments,  the  latter  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  Jubal,  the  son  of  Lamech,  the  first  bigamist, 
or,  rather,  polygamist — an  origin  sufficiently  illustrious.  It  is  be¬ 
lieved  that  musical  instruments  were  not  employed  in  the  worship 
of  God  until  long  after  their  invention. 

Music  was  used  by  the  prophets,  at  least  occasionally,  to  su¬ 
perinduce  a  condition  of  mind  and  body  suitable  for  the  reception 
of  prophetic  communications.  When  Samuel  had  anointed  Saul  he 
told  him,  “Thou  shalt  meet  a  company  of  prophets  coming  down 
from  the  high  place  with  a  psaltery,  and  a  tabret,  and  a  pipe, 
and  a  harp,  before  them  ;  and  they  shall  prophesy :  and  the  Spirit 
of  the  Lord  will  come  upon  thee,  and  thou  shalt  prophesy  with 
them.”  And  so  he  did,  to  the  amazement  of  the  people.  “  There¬ 
fore  it  became  a  proverb,  Is  Saul  also  among  the  prophets.”1  Eli¬ 
sha  says,  “But  now  bring  me  a  minstrel.  And  it  came  to  pass, 
when  the  minstrel  played,  that  the  hand  of  the  Lord  came  upon 
him”  and  he  prophesied.2 

The  power  of  music  over  both  mind  and  body  is  one  of  the 
most  curious  and  mysterious  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  David  with 
his  harp  could  charm  away  “  the  evil  spirit  ”  from  Saul.  And, 
whether  it  was  actually  a  demon  permitted  by  God  to  terrify  him, 
or  a  fit  of  demoniacal  jealousy  and  hatred,  the  effect  of  the  music 
was  equally  surprising.3  “  The  harp  and  the  viol,  the  tabret  and 
the  pipe,”  were  in  the  feasts  of  the  ungodly  both  before  and  after 
the  time  of  David,  but  they  were  so  far  redeemed  from  those  evil 
associations  by  him  that  they  ultimately  became  consecrated  to  the 
worship  of  Jehovah.4 

September  16th. 

I  propose  that  we  ride  out  this  morning  to  Salihiyeh,  the  large 
suburb  of  Damascus  on  the  north-west,  and  from  there  along  the 
canal  to  the  gorge  of  the  Barada,  and  then  through  the  Merj  and 
around  the  Meidan  to  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  city  wall, 
and  back  to  the  hotel  along  “  the  street  called  Straight.”  We  will 


1  i  Sam.  x.  5,  6,  10-12. 
3  1  Sam.  xvi.  14,  23. 


2  2  Kings  iii.  15. 

4  1  Chron.  xv.  16. 


THE  GARDENS.— THE  CANAL.— ES  SALIHiYEH. 


395 


pass  out  of  the  city  at  Bab  es  Salihiyeh,  and  ride  northward  for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  along  the  broad,  well-paved,  and  shaded  road 
between  Damascus  and  es  Salihiyeh. 

The  glimpses  into  the  gardens  obtained  over  these  mud-walls 
are  very  inviting,  and  one  feels  inclined  to  enter  and  wander  about 
under  the  trees  and  along  the  little  rills. 

I  have  done  that  often,  and,  were  our  visit  in  June  instead  of 
September,  you  could  fully  appreciate  Canon  Tristram’s  account  of 
what  he  saw  within  them.  “Tall  mud-walls,”  he  says,  “extended 
in  every  direction  under  the  trees,  and  rich  flowing  streams  of  water 
from  the  Barada  everywhere  bubbled  through  the  orchards,  while 
all  was  alive  with  the  song  of  birds  and  the  hum  of  bees.  The 
great  apricot-trees  were  laden  and  bent  down  under  strings  of  ripe, 
golden  fruit.  The  lanes  were  strewn  with  apricots.  Asses,  mules, 
and  camels  in  long  strings  carried  heaped  panniers  of  these  ‘  golden 
apples.’  Walnut,  peach,  plum,  pomegranate,  pear,  olive,  orange,  and 
even  apple  trees,  crowded  the  maze  through  which  for  an  hour  we 
wound,  till  we  found  our  camping -ground  in  a  garden,  one  tent 
shaded  by  an  apricot,  the  other  by  a  walnut-tree,  surrounded  by 
pomegranates  in  full  blossom,  while  a  rill  from  the  Barada  ran  past 
to  cool  our  water-bottles.”1 

Nahr  et  Taurah,  which  we  have  just  crossed,  is  the  largest  of  the 
many  canals  taken  from  the  Barada  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation. 
It  is  conducted  along  the  plain  for  several  miles,  and  passes  through 
some  of  the  villages  east  of  Damascus,  before  it  is  finally  lost  in  the 
marshes  of  the  eastern  lakes. 

Salihiyeh  is  quite  a  long  and  narrow  village,  and  the  greater 
part  of  it  appears  to  be  above  the  plain  and  the  gardens. 

It  has  been  regarded  as  more  healthy  than  Damascus,  and  many 
of  its  wealthy  citizens  have  built  spacious  residences  here;,  in  which 
they  spend  the  hot  months  of  summer.  During  my  first  visit  to 
Damascus  I  was  the  guest  of  Mr.  Farren,  the  British  Consul-gen¬ 
eral,  who  resided  in  one  of  those  villas.  It  was  located  in  the  midst 
of  a  large  garden,  a  short  distance  to  the  east  of  our  present  road, 
and  the  entrance  was  through  a  low  door  into  the  front  court. 
Beneath  an  arbor  over-canopied  with  running  roses  and  other  flow- 

1  Land  of  Israel,  p.  616,  617. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


396 

ering  creepers  there  was  a  large  fountain  with  a  lively  jet  d’eau  in 
full  play;  and  on  three  sides  of  the  arbor  marble  platforms  for 
divans  were  raised  about  two  feet  above  the  court.  A  short  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  arbor  there  was  a  pool  twenty  feet  long,  twelve  feet 
wide,  and  three  feet  deep ;  and  beyond  that  another  fountain,  in 
an  octagonal  basin  or  reservoir,  cased  with  white  marble.  From 
there  the  water  was  conducted  to  a  garden  in  a  channel  paved 
with  colored  tiles.  In  the  centre  of  the  inner  court  there  was  a 
fine  octagonal  reservoir,  supplied  with  clear  cold  water  by  four 
bronze  spouts  with  serpents’  heads. 

Besides  those  various  fountains  and  reservoirs,  basins  and  pools, 
a  canal  ran  along  the  western  wall  of  the  garden ;  and  the  waters 
of  still  another  flowed  through  the  middle  of  it,  to  refresh  the 
flowers,  irrigate  the  fruit-trees,  and  water  the  vegetables. 

Mr.  Farren’s  villa  was  constructed  upon  the  same  general  plan 
as  that  of  the  houses  we  have  visited  in  Damascus,  and  it  was 
adorned  with  the  usual  amount  of  ornamentation  on  walls  and  ceil¬ 
ings  ;  but  it  was  furnished  in  the  European  style,  and  combined 
the  comforts  of  the  West  with  the  luxury  of  the  East. 

The  abundance  of  water  causes  vegetation  of  all  kinds  to  grow 
in  these  gardens  with  surprising  exuberance.  Even  the  myrtle 
expands  into  a  stout  tree,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Damascus  make 
frequent  excursions  to  es  Salihiyeh,  during  the  season,  to  pick  the 
myrtle-berries,  which  are  eaten  when  ripe,  or  dried  and  sold  in  the 
market. 

Fountains,  streams,  basins,  reservoirs,  in  the  city  and  in  the  gar¬ 
dens — seem  to  constitute  the  special  charm  of  Damascus. 

You  have  only  to  supply,  in  imagination,  every  court,  and 

house,  and  mosk,  and  khan,  and  the  numberless  coffee-shops,  with 

* 

one  or  more,  and  then  you  will  not  be  surprised  that  there  are  not 
only  hundreds  but  thousands  of  them,  and  they  constitute  one  of 
the  principal  attractions  of  the  gardens  themselves.  It  is  very 
common  to  see  the  Damascenes  sitting  under  the  trees  making 
kaif — eating  luscious  fruit,  and  inhaling  fragrant  timbek  from  nar- 
gilehs  placed  in  the  rills  that  flow  through  these  gardens — while 
the  plane,  the  sycamore,  and  the  willow  spread  a  leafy  canopy  over 
their  heads  and  shade  them  from  the  burning  sun. 


\ 


397 


NAHR  EL  YEZID. — JEBEL  KASYUN. 


This 
broad  ca¬ 
nal,  called 
Nahr  el  Yezid, 
which  abundantly  sup¬ 
plies  es  Salihiyeh  with 
water,  sharply  defines  the 
limit  of  fertile  gardens 


below  from  the  arid  waste 
of  the  mountain  above. 

Jebel  Kasyun — steep,  rug¬ 
ged,  and  treeless — domi¬ 
nates  the  plain  on  the 
north,  and  obstructs  the 

view  in  that  direction.  Like  other  places  in  and  around  Damascus, 

it  has  its  fabulous  sites  and  idle  legends  that  connect  the  primeval 

home  of  the  human  race  with  the  valley  of  the  Barada. 

After  following  the  windings  of  the  canal  for  half  an  hour  the 
D  2* 


INNER  COURT  OF  A  HOUSE  AT  SALIHiYEH. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


398 

road  will  lead  us  to  the  gorge  of  the  river,  where  the  Barada  flows 
out  on  to  the  plain,  and  from  whence  its  life-giving  waters  are  dis¬ 
tributed  far  and  wide  by  numerous  canals  to  all  the  suburbs  and 
the  gardens  around  the  city. 

The  Barada  is  supposed  to  be  the  Abana,  or  Amana,  one  of 
those  “rivers  of  Damascus”  preferred  by  Naaman  the  Syrian  leper 
to  “all  the  waters  of  Israel.”  Is  there  any  reason  to  question  the 
correctness  of  the  identification?1 

None  of  much  force.  For  the  city  itself  the  Barada  is  the  only 
river;  and,  being  the  largest  of  the  two,  it  would  naturally  be  men¬ 
tioned  first  by  Naaman.  The  A’waj,  or  Pharpar,  is  several  miles 
south  of  Damascus,  and  its  waters  do  not  reach  even  the  suburbs. 
In  the  fifth  century  the  Barada  was  called  Bardines  by  the  Greeks; 
and  it  is  undoubtedly  the  Chrysorrhoas — golden-flowing  river — of 
the  ancients.  That  name  was  probably  given  to  it  because  of  the 
inestimable  blessings  it  bestowed  upon  the  inhabitants  of  this 
region,  since  gold  is  not  found  along  its  banks,  nor  in  the  moun¬ 
tains  between  which  it  rushes  on  its  way  to  the  plain. 

This  chasm  through  which  the  Barada  issues  on  to  the  plain  is 
quite  narrow,  and  the  lofty  limestone  cliffs  on  either  side  are  jagged 
and  precipitous.  But  the  foaming  river  and  the  waving  trees,  the 
tall  poplars  and  the  exuberant  vegetation,  present  a  contrast  as 
striking  as  it  is  picturesque;  and  the  carriage-road  from  Beirut, 
winding  down  the  defile,  adds  a  novel  feature  to  the  scene. 

Some  distance  up  the  chasm  there  is  a  dam  across  the  river 
where  the  canal  of  et  Taurah  begins;  and  still  farther  up  another 
dam,  below  Dummar,  conducts  the  waters  from  the  Barada  into 
the  canal  of  el  Yezid.  Opposite  to  us,  across  the  chasm,  other 
canals  are  taken  out  of  the  river ;  and  here  begins  that  net-work  of 
watercourses  for  which  Damascus  is  celebrated.  The  main  stream 
of  the  Barada,  after  issuing  from  this  chasm,  passes  directly  down 
through  the  Merj,  and  flows  along  the  northern  wall  of  the  city; 
and  although  a  large  portion  of  the  water  has  been  drawn  off  by 
the  five  or  more  canals  above  this  chasm,  and  a  great  quantity  is 
distributed  throughout  the  city  proper,  still  a  considerable  amount 
is  conveyed  to  the  numerous  villages,  gardens,  and  fields  north, 

1  2  Kings  v.  12. 


MUD-WALLS.— SUN-DRIED  BRICKS.— EL  MERJ. 


399 


east,  and  south  of  Damascus.  Nor  is  the  Barada  exhausted  in  the 
marshes  about  Lake  ’Ataibeh,  for  it  flows  into  that  lake  a  consid¬ 
erable  stream  of  clear  water.  A  short  distance  up  this  chasm  there 
is  a  Cufic  inscription  on  the  face  of  the  cliff  above  the  carriage- 
road.  It  records  the  deeds  of  one  of  the  Khalifs  of  Damascus ; 
and  though  the  letters  are  large  and  well-cut,  they  are  so  compli¬ 
cated  that  the  inscription  is  difficult  to  decipher.  My  reason  for 
mentioning  it  is  because  Damascus,  though  one  of  the  oldest  cities 
in  the  world,  has  almost  no  inscriptions  of  any  age  or  importance. 

We  will  now  turn  back  and  ride  along  the  carriage-road  towards 
the  city,  with  the  Barada  below  us  on  the  right,  and  this  wilderness 
of  verdure  on  our  left  extending  northward  for  many  a  mile. 

These  high  mud-walls  that  border  the  gardens  and  narrow  lanes 
effectually  shut  off  the  view  of  those  on  foot,  and  they  are  certainly 
anything  but  attractive  to  those  on  horseback. 

They  are  constructed  more  for  service  than  for  ornament,  and 
in  this  climate  they  last  several  years.  The  walls  are  generally  over 
six  feet  high,  and  are  built  of  compact  masses  of  earth,  like  great 
sun-dried  bricks.  A  wooden  frame,  three  feet  or  more  square  and 
about  two  feet  wide,  is  placed  on  the  spot  which  the  “brick”  is  to 
occupy ;  it  is  then  filled  with  earth  and  mud  and  pressed  down 
firmly.  When  sufficiently  hard  and  dry  the  frame  is  removed,  and 
another  “brick”  is  constructed  in  the  same  manner,  and  so  on  until 
the  entire  mud-wall  is  finished. 

What  a  beautiful  expanse  of  greensward  that  is  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river!  We  have  seen  nothing  like  it  near  any  city 
or  village  in  this  country. 

It  is  called  el  Merj,  and  it  is  the  favorite  resort  of  the  Damas¬ 
cenes  ;  nor  is  there  another  city  in  Syria  that  can  boast  of  such  a 
verdant  “  meadow,”  as  its  name  implies.  It  is  frequented  by  men, 
women,  and  children,  who  sit  lazily  on  the  river-bank  sipping  coffee, 
smoking  water-pipes,  or  eating  sweetmeats  and  fruits,  while  they 
watch  the  passers-by,  or  admire  the  horsemen  from  the  city  exer¬ 
cising  their  Arabian  steeds.  Here  the  Damascenes  come  forth  to 
meet  their  returning  friends  and  relatives ;  and  from  here  they 
speed  the  departing  and  welcome  their  coming  guests.  Here,  also, 
the  caravans  and  pilgrims  encamp  previous  to  their  departure  for 


400  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

Mecca;  and  when  the  Haj  is  about  to  leave  Damascus  this  beauti¬ 
ful  Merj  presents  an  extraordinary  and  animated  spectacle,  and  one 
eminently  Oriental.  Instead  of  entering  the  city  by  the  gate  be- 


MOSK  OF  SULTAN  SELIM  IN  THE  TEIvIyEH. 


fore  us  we  will  cross  the  river  and  continue  our  ride  southward  and 
eastward  on  the  outside  of  the  city  walls.  We  will  pass  along  the 
extensive  suburb  of  el  Meidan,  and  thus  complete  the  circuit  of  the 
city  as  far  as  the  eastern  gate. 


ET  TEKIYEH.— TOMBS  OF  MUHAMMED’S  WIVES.— FUNERALS.  40 1 

That  large  edifice  on  our  right,  at  the  end  of  the  Merj,  with  its 
numerous  domes  and  tall  minarets,  is  called  et  Tekiyeh.  It  was 
built  by  Sultan  Selim  I.,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  “  is  a  large 
quadrangular  enclosure,  divided  into  two  courts.  Around  the  wall 
of  the  [northern]  court  runs  a  row  of  cells,  with  a  portico  or  gallery 
of  columns  in  front.  Over  each  cell  is  a  small  dome,  and  another 
over  the  portico  in  front  of  it,  forming  thus  two  rows  of  small 
domes  around  the  court.”  The  southern  court  is  similar,  except 
that  it  contains  “  a  large  and  fine  mosk,  with  its  dome  and  two 
minarets.  There  poor  pilgrims  are  lodged  and  fed,  especially  those 
going  to  or  returning  from  Mecca  with  the  Haj.”  1  The  mosk,  with 
its  double  row  of  marble  columns  in  front,  its  large  dome,  and  tall, 
slender  minarets,  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Damascus,  but  the  whole 
structure  is  fast  falling  into  a  dilapidated  condition. 

We  have  been  riding  for  some  time  through  this  Moslem  bury- 
ing-ground,  but  I  have  seen  nothing  impressive  about  it — only  a 
confused  number  of  graves  huddled  together  without  order,  and  no 
conspicuous  monument  anywhere  to  relieve  “the  dreary  shades”  of 
this  great  city  of  the  dead  ! 

Yet  there  are  some  fine  marble  tombs,  and  beneath  many  ordi¬ 
nary  graves  there  are  vaults  capable  of  holding  several  bodies. 
Most  of  the  marble  head -stones  are  surmounted  by  a  neatly- 
wrought  turban,  and  below  it  is  a  long  Arabic  inscription  record¬ 
ing  the  virtues  of  the  true  believer  who  has  “entered  upon  the 
mercy  of  God”  and  experienced  peace.  In  the  great  cemetery 
south  of  the  city  “rest  in  peace,”  it  is  said,  three  of  Muhammed’s 
wives,  and  Fatimeh,  the  child  of  his  favorite  daughter,  the  wife 
of  ’Ali.  To-day  this  silent  city  of  the  dead  —  this  wilderness  of 
tombs — is  almost  deserted,  but  on  certain  occasions  it  is  crowded 
with  women  and  children,  who  visit  those  whited  sepulchres  of 
their  relatives  to  place  upon  them  fresh  branches  of  the  myrtle 
and  the  palm.  They  are  frequently  accompanied  by  poor  sheikhs 
from  the  mosks,  who  recite  portions  of  the  Koran,  and  short  prayers 
in  behalf  both  of  the  living  and  the  dead. 

At  funerals,  and  over  the  graves  in  which  relatives  and  friends 
have  been  recently  buried,  manifestations  of  grief  are  often  bois- 

1  Rob.  Res.,  vol.  iii.  p.  459. 


402 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


sects  and  classes  in  this  country.  Amidst  all  the  parade  of  ficti¬ 
tious  grief  there  are  burning  tears  and  aching  hearts,  and  heads 
bowed  in  silent  agony  and  hopeless  despair.  Many  a  Fatimeh  or 
a  Mary  goes  “  to  the  grave  to  weep  there,”  and  loving  friends  fol¬ 
low  them  thither,  to  comfort  them  with  their  real  sympathy.1 

1  John  xi.  31. 


terous  and  extravagant ;  but  many  of  the  mourners  are  hired 
for  the  occasion,  and  weep,  lament,  beat  their  breasts,  and  tear 
their  hair,  according  to  custom  and  contract.  But  from  all  that 
we  must  not  infer  that  there  is  no  genuine  mourning  amongst  all 


WOMEN  WEEHNG  AT  THE  GRAVE. 


HIRED  MOURNERS.— BOISTEROUS  WEEPING. 


403 


The  custom  of  hiring  mourners  is  very  ancient.  Jeremiah  says, 
“Consider  ye,  and  call  for  the  mourning  women,  that  they  may 
come  ;  and  send  for  cunning  women,  that  they  may  come :  and  let 
them  make  haste,  and  take  up  a  wailing  for  us,  that  our  eyes  may 
run  down  with  tears,  and  our  eyelids  gush  out  with  waters.”  1  Every 
particular  there  alluded  to  is  observed  on  funeral  occasions  at  the 
present  day.  There  are  in  every  city  and  community  “  cunning 
women,”  and  these  are  always  sent  for.  When  a  company  of  sym¬ 
pathizers  comes  in  those  women  “make  haste”  to  “take  up  a  wail¬ 
ing,”  that  the  newly  come  may  the  more  readily  unite  their  tears 
with  the  mourners.  They  know  the  domestic  history  of  every  per¬ 
son,  and  immediately  “take  up”  an  impromptu  lamentation,  in 
which  they  introduce  the  names  of  relatives  who  have  recently 
died,  touching  some  tender  chord  in  every  heart ;  and  thus  all  weep- 
for  their  own  dead,  and  the  “  mourning,”  which  might  otherwise  be 
impossible,  comes  naturally  and  sincerely. 

The  references  to  lamentation  and  mourning  are  very  numerous 
in  the  Bible,  and  some  of  the  ways  in  which  the  afflicted  and 
bereaved  gave  expression  to  their  grief  seem  to  us  extravagant  and 
unbecoming;  loud,  boisterous  weeping  by  men,  for  example,  and 
yet  that  was  very  common  in  those  ancient  times.  Esau,  when 
robbed  of  his  birthright,  “  cried  with  a  great  and  exceeding  bitter 
cry,  and  he  lifted  up  his  voice  and  wept.”2  Job’s  three  friends, 
“when  they  lifted  up  their  eyes  afar  off,  and  knew  him  not,  they 
lifted  up  their  voice,  and  wept ;  and  they  rent  every  one  his  mantle, 
and  sprinkled  dust  upon  their  heads  toward  heaven.”  3  David  often 
wept  long  and  loud — for  Saul  and  Jonathan,  over  Absalom,  and  over 
his  own  sins.4  “I  am  weary  with  my  groaning,”  he  exclaims;  “all 
the  night  make  I  my  bed  to  swim  ;  I  water  my  couch  with  my 
tears.” 5  “Oh  that  my  head  were  waters,”  says  Jeremiah,  “and 
mine  eyes  a  fountain  of  tears,  that  I  might  weep  day  and  night 
for  the  slain  of  the  daughter  of  my  people  !” e 

There  appears  to  have  been  a  marvellous  propensity  to  weep 
and  a  wonderful  capability  to  pour  out  floods  of  tears  in  those 
olden  days.  Even  in  the  time  of  Christ  we  read  that  Jesus  him- 

1  Jer.  ix.  17,  18. 

4  2  Sam.  xix.  4. 


2  Gen.  xxvii.  34,  38. 
6  Psa.  vi.  6. 


3  Job  ii.  12. 
6  Jer.  ix.  1. 


404 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


self  wept;1  and  in  another  place  that  the  woman  who  “stood  at 
his  feet  behind  him,”  as  he  “  sat  at  meat  in  the  Pharisee’s  house, 
began  to  wash  his  feet  with  tears,  and  wipe  them  with' the  hairs 
of  her  head,  and  kissed  his  feet.”2 

So  far  from  regarding  such  overflowing  tears  as  unbecoming, 
the  ancients  treasured  them  up  in  “  bottles,”  as  evidence  of  their 
lasting  sorrow,  perhaps  ;  and  for  a  similar  reason,  I  suppose,  they 

deposited  those  lachryma¬ 
tories  in  the  sepulchres  of 
the  dead.  Allusion  to  that 
extraordinary  custom  is 
thought  to  be  found  even 
in  the  Bible.  David  prays, 
“  Put  thou  my  tears  into 
thy  bottle  :  are  they  not 
in  thy  book  ?”  3  Lachry¬ 
matories  are  still  found  in 
ancient  tombs  throughout 
this  country.  They  were 
made  of  thin  glass,  or  more 
generally  of  pottery,  often 
not  even  baked  or  glazed. 
They  are  of  various  sizes, 
with  a  slender  vase -like 
body,  and  a  long  funnel- 
shaped  neck ;  but  nothing 
except  dust  is  found  in  them  at  present.  If  the  relatives  and 

friends  were  expected  to  contribute  their  share  of  tears  for  those 

bottles  they  would  certainly  need  “cunning  women”  to  cause  their 
“  eyelids  to  gush  out  with  waters.” 

Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  speak  of  smiting  the  thigh  in  times  of  great 
distress  and  mourning.  Is  that  custom  observed  to  this  day?4 

On  such  occasions  you  will  often  see  people  sitting  on  the 

ground  with  their  feet  under  them,  which  brings  the  thighs  into 

such  a  position  that  the  smiting  of  them  is  rendered  perfectly 

1  John  xi.  35. 

3  Psa.  lvi.  8. 


LACHRYMATORIES,  OR  TEAR  BOTTLES. 


2  Luke  vii.  37,  38. 

4  Jer.  xxxi.  19  ;  Eze.  xxi.  12. 


MUIIAMMEDAN  FUNERAL  PROCESSION 


i 


SMITING  THE  THIGH.— EL  MEIDAN.— FUNERAL  PROCESSION.  405 

natural.  Thus  seated,  and  swaying  backwards  and  forwards,  they 
lift  their  hands  spasmodically,  from  time  to  time,  and  smite  each 
thigh  with  considerable  violence,  giving  expression  to  their  grief  in 
loud  wailing  and  lamentation.  No  one  can  live  long  in  this  coun¬ 
try  without  witnessing  every  exhibition  of  mourning  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  —  rending  the  garments,  tearing  the  hair,  beating  the 
breast,  falling  upon  the  ground,  smiting  the  thighs,  casting  dust 
upon  the  head,  and  the  like. 

We  have  passed  out  of  the  Meidan,  as  that  southern  extension 
of  Damascus  is  called,  and  we  will  continue  our  ride  through  the 
suburbs  towards  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  city  wall. 

We  seem  to  be  entering  a  winding  labyrinth  of  crooked  lanes, 
with  wretched  houses  and  mounds  of  rubbish  on  either  side,  and 
dilapidated  tombstones  all  around — in  such  a  maze  there  is  danger 
of  becoming  bewildered  and  losing  the  way. 

That  would  certainly  be  the  result  if  we  attempted  to  pene¬ 
trate  it  alone ;  but  our  guide  will  take  us  safely  through.  On  our 
left  is  one  of  the  many  gates  of  Damascus,  called  Bab  es  Saghir, 
through  which  have  passed  for  many  centuries  countless  funeral 
processions  to  the  numberless  tombs  and  graves  which  cover  this 
whole  region  far  and  wide.  Like  almost  everything  else  purely 
Oriental,  such  processions  are  conducted  without  much  regard  to 
order  and  propriety.  A  confused  medley  of  men  and  boys,  in  all 
kinds  of  costumes,  follow  the  bier,  which  is  preceded  by  two  or 
more  dervishes  carrying  the  flags  of  their  order,  three  or  four  small 
boys  with  an  open  copy  of  the  Koran,  and  six  or  eight  blind  men 
chanting  in  a  monotonous  tone  the  profession  of  faith.  That 
“eternal  truth,”  “La  ilali  ilia  Allah” — “There  is  no  god  but 
God,”  accompanied  by  that  “  necessary  fiction,”  as  Gibbon  styles 
it,  “  Muhammed  rasul  Allah” — “  Muhammed  is  the  prophet  of 
God  ” — is  the  only  funeral  dirge,  and  they  repeat  it  over  and  over 
until  the  grave  is  reached. 

We  have  caught  occasional  glimpses  of  the  city  wall,  on  our 
left,  and  it  appears  to  be  almost  as  dilapidated  and  ruinous  as  the 
suburb  along  which  it  extends. 

Bab  es  Saghir  is  probably  of  Roman  origin,  and  in  a  few  places 
along  the  wall  large  and  well-cut  stones  are  seen  which  may  be  of 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


406 

any  age;  but  the  present  wall  is  mere  patch-work,  built  by  Sara¬ 
cens,  Arabs,  or  Turks,  and  barely  sufficient  to  defend  the  city 
against  incursions  from  the  Bedawin.  We  shall  soon  escape  from 
this  cemetery,  through  which  we  have  been  threading  our  doubt¬ 
ful  way  for  half  an  hour,  and,  turning  to  the  left,  we  will  reach  the 
south-east  angle  of  the  wall  not  far  from  Bab  Kisan.  That  gate 
has  been  walled  up  for  many  centuries,  but  this  neighborhood  is 
not  devoid  of  interest.  Although  the  wall  has  been  rebuilt  several 
times,  monkish  tradition  still  points  to  that  part  of  it  between  this 
round  tower  on  our  left  and  the  gate  west  of  it  as  the  place  from 


SOUTH  WALL  OF  DAMASCUS,  WHERE  PAUL  WAS  LET  DOWN. 


where  Saul  “  was  let  down  through  a  window  in  a  basket  by  the 
wall,  and  escaped,”  from  the  hands  of  the  governor,  as  he  informs 
us  in  his  second  letter  to  the  Corinthians.1  In  this  vicinity  are  the 
cemeteries  of  the  various  Christian  denominations ;  and  there,  too, 

1  2  Cor.  xi,  32,  33. 


CONVERSION  OF  PAUL.— LEPER  HOSPITAL.— EASTERN  GATE.  407 

the  monks  have  recently  located  the  spot  where  Paul  was  con¬ 
verted,  “  as  he  came  near  Damascus,  breathing  out  threatenings 
and  slaughter  against  the  disciples  of  the  Lord.” 1  During  the 
Crusades  the  site  of  that  stupendous  miracle  was  located  at  Juneh, 
near  Kaukab,  a  village  on  the  road  to  Jerusalem,  about  six  miles 
to  the  south-west  of  Damascus ;  but  as  four  places  along  the  roads 
leading  to  the  city  have  been  pointed  out  at  different  times,  it  is 
evident  that  the  true  site  is  still  unknown. 

As  we  approach  Bab  esh  Shurky,  the  eastern  gate,  we  see  large 
mounds  of  rubbish,  and  from  the  top  of  one  of  them  an  extensive 
view  is  obtained,  not  only  of  the  surrounding  country,  but  also  of 
a  considerable  part  of  the  city.  After  the  massacres,  and  confla¬ 
grations  in  i860,  these  mounds  were  largely  increased  by  the  ruins 
of  the  Christian  quarter,  which  were  carried  out  of  the  town,  in 
order  to  clear  the  encumbered  streets  and  prepare  the  way  for 
rebuilding  the  houses  of  the  Christians.  That  work  was  vigorously 
prosecuted  by  the  Turkish  authorities  when  the  city  was  visited  by 
the  international  commission  appointed  by  the  six  great  Powers 
of  Europe  to  investigate  that  awful  tragedy.  The  day  upon  which 
the  High  Commissioners  visited  the  ruins  was  quite  windy,  and  the 
dust  from  the  rubbish  was  blown  into  their  faces.  Lord  Dufferin, 
the  English  representative,  is  said  to  have  remarked  upon  that 
occasion  that  the  Turkish  authorities  were  attempting  to  throw 
dust  in  their  eyes,  both  literally  and  politically. 

A  short  distance  north  of  this  East  Gate  is  a  large,  dilapidated 
building,  now  used  as  a  leper  hospital,  and  said  to  occupy  the 
site  of  the  house  of  Naaman  the  leper.  In  the  same  neighbor¬ 
hood  are  the  wretched  hovels  of  those  afflicted  with  that  loath¬ 
some  disease ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  leprosy  has  been 
perpetuated  in  this  city  from  the  time  of  Naaman  down  to  the 
present  day.  Some  of  the  most  frightful  ravages  of  that  dreadful 
scourge  of  God  are  still  to  bo  seen  upon  its  miserable  victims  in 
and  around  the  leper  hospital  at  Damascus. 

Bab  esh  Shurky  deserves  to  be  carefully  examined,  as  it  is  evi¬ 
dently  Roman,  and  the  walls  and  arches  present  almost  the  only 
specimens  of  antiquity  to  be  seen  in  this  mud-built  Muhammedan 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


city.  The  entire  triple  gate¬ 
way  was  nearly  one  hundred 
feet  long  and  about  fifty  feet 
high.  The  central  arch  was 

o 

forty  feet  high  and  twenty  feet 
wide,  and  the  side  arches  are 
about  twenty  feet  in  height 
and  ten  feet  broad.  The  main 
arch  has  fallen  long  ago,  and 
the  gateway  has  been  walled  up 
for  more  than  eight  centuries, 


,  BAB  ESH  SHtjRKY — THE  EAST  GATE. 


together  with  the  smaller  portal  on  its  south  side.  The  entrance 
to  the  city  is  now  through  the  small  portal  on  the  north  side,  and 


THE  STREET  CALLED  STRAIGHT.— THE  HOUSE  OF  ANANIAS.  409 

built  upon  the  northern  buttress  of  the  central  arch  is  a  square 
minaret,  from  the  top  of  which  a  fine  view  of  the  city  and  its  sur¬ 
roundings  is  obtained.  East  of  the  gateway  are  the  remains  of  a 
Saracenic  tower.  Damascus  now  has  about  a  dozen  gates,  but  for¬ 
merly  it  had  more  than  three  times  that  number,  most  of  which  are 
in  ruins,  or  have  been  closed  for  several  centuries.  Many  of  the 
principal  streets  leading  to  the  various  quarters  of  the  city  also  have 
gates,  which  are  closed  after  dark;  but  a  bakhshish  to  the  gatekeeper 
will  admit  the  belated  wayfarer  at  any  reasonable  hour  of  the  night. 

We  will  now  pass  through  Bab  esh  Shurky  and  follow  the  street 
which  extends  westward  from  it  quite  across  the  city.  It  is  called 
the  Sultaneh,  or  highway,  and  is  the  modern  representative  of  Kthe 
street  which  is  called  Straight,”  where  sfood  the  house  of  Judas 
when  Paul  visited  Damascus. 

The  street,  though  not  exactly  “  straight,”  is  wide  for  an  East¬ 
ern  city;  but  a  moment’s  inspection  of  the  dilapidated  houses  along 
it  will  convince  any  one  that  none  of  them  could  by  any  possibility 
have  been  in  existence  at  that  time. 

If  it  was  then  adorned  throughout  its  whole  length  by  a  double 
colonnade  it  must  have  been  a  fine  avenue.  Dr.  Robinson  men¬ 
tions  the  report  about  such  a  colonnade,  “  but  could  hear  of  no  one 
who  had  actually  seen  the  columns.”1  Since  then  Dr.  Porter  has 
“  traced  the  remains  of  the  colonnades  at  various  places  over  nearly 
one  third  of  its  length.”  He  says  that  the  street  “was  divided  by 
Corinthian  colonnades  into  three  avenues,  of  which  the  central  was 
for  foot  passengers  and  the  others  for  chariots.”  Thus  “  a  noble 
street  extended  from  the  east  to  the  west  gate,  intersecting  the 
city.  Its  length  is  about  a  mile,  and  its  breadth  exceeded  one  hun¬ 
dred  feet.”2  We  are  now  in  the  Christian  quarter,  most  of  which  lies 
along  the  northern  side  of  the  street,  but  here  on  our  left  is  the 
Armenian  convent.  The  Syrian  church  and  convent  and  the  Greek 
Catholic  church  are  also  on  the  south  side  of  the  street,  but  to 
reach  them  we  would  have  to  penetrate  this  quarter  for  some  dis¬ 
tance  through  narrow  and  crooked  lanes.  All  those  ecclesiastical 
edifices  have  been  rebuilt  since  the  massacres  and  conflagrations  of 
i860.  The  house  of  that  “certain  disciple  named  Ananias,”  by 
1  Rob.  Res.,  vol.  iii.  p.  455.  2  Five  Years  in  Damascus,  p.  18. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


whom  Paul  was  miraculously  restored  to  sight,  is  but  a  short  dis¬ 
tance  up  that  narrow  street  to  the  right.  There  is  a  cave  in  the  • 
house  which  the  Latin  priests  have  converted  into  a  chapel,  and 
there,  according  to  their  traditions,  the  angel  of  the  Lord  ap¬ 
peared  to  Ananias  and  directed  him  to  “  go  into  the  street  which 
is  called  Straight,  and  inquire  in  the  house  of  Judas  for  one  called 
Saul,  of  Tarsus:  for,  behold,  he  prayeth.”  1 

1  Acts  ix.  io,  ii. 


410 


“THE  STREET  CALLED  STRAIGHT.” 


THE  JEWS  OF  DAMASCUS.— PAUL  IN  THEIR  SYNAGOGUES.  41 1 

There  must  have  been  quite  a  colony  of  Jews  here  at  the  time 
when  Saul  came  with  his  cruel  commission  from  the  high  priest. 

The  Jews  of  Damascus  claim  to  be  the  descendants  of  its  an¬ 
cient  Hebrew  inhabitants,  and  they  have  perpetuated  their  language 
and- religion,  their  costume,  and  their  manners  and  customs,  from 
the  time  of  David  down  to  the  present  day.  As  in  past  ages,  and 
in  nearly  every  country,  the  Jews  had  special  localities  allotted  to 
.them,  so  here  they  have  their  own  distinct  quarter.  It  occupies 
the  south-eastern  part  of  the  city,  and  is  separated  from  the  Chris¬ 
tian  quarter  by  this  street  which,  as  in  the  time  of  Paul  so  now, 
is  still  called  “  Straight.”  If  religious  institutions  and  forms  of 
worship  improve,  like  wine,  from  mere  age,  then  the  ten  or  more 
Jewish  synagogues  in  this  city,  and  the  services  observed  within 
them,  would  be  without  a  rival  for  strength  of  body  and  character¬ 
istic  virtue.  At  any  rate,  the  transmission  unchanged  of  a  form  of 
faith  and  mode  of  worship — resembling  in  many  respects  those  of 
the  primitive  Christians — through  countless  generations  of  mighty 
revolutions  in  the  affairs  of  men  and  nations,  is  a  marvellous  fact, 
to  be  explained  only  by  reference  to  Providential  agency.  It  forms 
one  of  the  thousand  links  in  the  chain  which  anchors  our  faith  fast 
to  the  Bible,  as  the  Word  of  God. 

Paul  must  have  often  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the  synagogue 
worship  in  this  city,  when  “  he  preached  Christ  in  the  synagogues, 
that  he  is  the  Son  of  God,  and  confounded  the  Jews  which  dwelt 
at  Damascus,  proving  that  this  is  very  Christ.”1 

We  may  without  hesitation  carry  the  institution  of  the  syna¬ 
gogue  and  its  worship  here  in  Damascus  many  centuries  farther 
back  than  the  time  of  Paul — to  the  Babylonian  Captivity  at  least, 
and  even  beyond  that  more  than  three  hundred  years,  to  the  day 
when  Ahab  “  made  streets  ”  in  this  city.  It  is  improbable  that  a 
colony  of  Jews  would  reside  here  without  places  of  worship,  and 
they  were,  perhaps,  much  like  the  synagogues  of  the  present  day. 

This  street  on  our  right  leads  to  the  Orthodox  Greek  church, 
the  residence  of  the  Patriarch,  and  the  flourishing  schools  adjoining 
it.  The  church  is  dedicated  to  the  Virgin,  and  has  been  rebuilt 
since  the  massacres  of  i860.  “  It  was  the  scene  of  one  of  the  most 


1  Acts  ix.  20,  22. 


412 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


fearful  acts  in  the  tragedy  of  i860,”  says  Dr.  Porter.  “  Hundreds 
of  men,  women,  and  children  had  taken  refuge  in  it.  It  was  at¬ 
tacked  by  the  mob,  set  on  fire,  and  those  who  attempted  to  escape 
were  hurled  back  into  the  flames.”  1 

H  as  it  been  possible  to  ascertain  how  many  Christians  were  the 
innocent  victims  of  Turkish  treachery  and  Muhammedan  fanati¬ 
cism  during  the  three  days  of  those  atrocious  massacres  and  dread¬ 
ful  conflagrations? 

The  most  reliable  estimates  place  the  number  of  adult  males 
killed  outright  at  over  two  thousand  five  hundred.  But  even  that 
apparently  large  number  of  murdered  men  fails  to  convey  to  the 
minds  of  those  who  have  never  resided  in  this  country  an  adequate 
idea  of  the  horrors  and  terrible  results  of  that  massacre  of  the 
Christians  by  Turkish  troops  and  fanatical  Muhammedans  here  in 
Damascus,  on  the  9th,  10th,  and  nth  of  July,  i860.  The  whole 
number  of  Christians  massacred  in  i860,  from  Lebanon  on  the 
north  to  Hermon  on  the  south,  exceeded  six  thousand. 

We  have  now  reached  the  bazaars  and  the  business  portion  of 
the  city,  which  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  Moslem  quarter,  to 
the  north  and  north-west.  European  manufactures  have  nearly 
paralyzed  every  branch  of  Oriental  art  which  flourished  in  this 
city  in  other  days.  The  “  Damascus  blade,”  formerly  so  cele¬ 
brated,  and  the  rich  silk  fabric  called  “  damask,”  have  disappeared 
entirely  from  the  bazaars,  and  have  been  replaced  by  cheap  and 
coarse  imitations  from  the  forges  and  looms  of  Europe.  The  trade 
and  traffic  of  this  city  is  now  chiefly  with  the  pilgrims  to  and  from 
Mecca  and  the  surrounding  tribes  of  Bedawin. 

A  walk  through  the  crowded  bazaars  gives  the  impression  that 
Damascus  is  a  very  populous  city. 

Four-fifths  of  the  inhabitants,  or  nearly  one  hundred  thousand, 
are  Muhammedans.  There  are  also  about  four  thousand  Meta- 
wileh,  and  five  hundred  Druses,  who,  however,  conform  to  the  faith 
of  Islam  while  residing  in  the  city.  The  Christians  of  various 
sects  amount  to  more  than  fifteen  thousand — principally  Greeks 
and  Greek  Catholics — including  the  small  communities  of  Latins, 
Maronites,  Armenians,  Syrians,  and  Protestants.  The  Jews  may 

1  Five  Years  in  Damascus,  p.  20,  21. 


“THE  KEY  UPON.  HIS  SHOULDER.”— ORIENTAL  LOCKS,  ETC.  413 


number  five  thousand,  and  the  entire  population  cannot  be  much 
less  than  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand. 

We  have  passed  the  narrow  lane  on  the  left,  on  which  the  tra¬ 
ditional  house  of  Judas  stands,  where  Ananias  restored  Paul  to 
sight  and  baptized  him.1  It  is  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Mu, 
hammedans,  and  contains  the  tomb,  not  of  Judas,  but  that  of 
Ananias,  which  is  much  respected  by  them. 

This  Moslem  has  unconsciously  exhibited  an  illustration  of 
Isaiah  xxii.  22:  “And  the  key  of  the  house  of  David  will  I  lay 
upon  his  shoulder;  so  he  shall  open,  and  none  shall  shut;  and  he 
shall  shut,  and  none  shall  open.”  The  key  with  which  he  locked 
the  door  of  his  magazine  was  large  enough,  certainly,  and  it  might 
well  be  laid  on  his  shoulder. 

I  have  seen  keys  more  than  twice  the  size  of  that  one,  carried 
upon  the  shoulder  of  merchants,  shopkeepers,  and  others.  The 
material  “house  of  David”  was  the  stronghold  of  Zion,  and  such 

castles  have  great  wooden  locks, 
with  keys  in  proportion.  I  once 
spent  a  summer  in  an  old  castle 
whose  outer  gate  had  such  a  lock,, 
and  the  key  was  almost  a  foot  and 
a  half  in  length,,  and  A 

quite  a  load  to  carry. 

Locks  of  that  kind  are 


5= 


©  ®  ®  ©  ©  ® 


£ 


— 


LOCK  AND  KEY. 


no  doubt  very 
ancient.  Their 
construction, 
though  truly 

simple,  is  such  that  a  false  key  can  scarcely  be  made  to 
fit  them,  and  the  difficulty  is  increased  in  proportion  to  the  num¬ 
ber  and  position  of  the  movable  metal  drops  and  the  holes  into 
which  they  are  required  to  fall. 

These  locks  are  often  placed  on  the  inside  of  the  gates  of  gar¬ 
dens  and  outer  courts,  and  even  on  the  doors  of  inner  rooms  in 
some  places.  To  enable  the  owner  to  unlock  them  a  hole  is  cut 

1  Acts  ix.  17,  18. 


4H 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


in  the  door,  through  which  he  thrusts  his  arm  and  inserts  the  key. 
The  garden  gates  about  Damascus  are  thus  secured,  and  such  must 
have  been  the  custom  at  Jerusalem  in  the  days  of  Solomon.  In 
Song  v.  4  he  makes  the  bride  say,  “  My  beloved  put  in  his  hand 
by  the  hole  of  the  door;”  that  is,  she  saw  him  thrust  in  his  hand 
to  unlock  the  door,  that  he  might  enter. 

The  strong  scent  of  musk,  the  aromatic  odor  of  spices  and 
drugs,  and  the  lavish  display  of  boxes  and  bottles,  of  many  colors 
and  sizes,  remind  us  that  we  are  now  in  Suk  el  ’Attarin,  as  this 
part  of  the  “Straight  Street”  is  called.  As  in  all  Oriental  cities, 
so  pre-eminently  here,  in  Damascus,  the  principal  streets  derive 
their  names  from  the  special  branch  of  trade  to  which  they  have 
been  devoted  from  time  out  of  mind.  It  may  be  well  to  mention 
in  passing,  and  by  way  of  explanation,  that  a  dealer  in  essences 
is  a  ’attar,  and  that  here  can  be  purchased  rose-petals  for  confec¬ 
tions,  rose-water  to  flavor  refreshing  beverages,  and  curiously- 
shaped  vials  of  attar  or  otto  of  roses,  so  well-known  abroad,  and 
so  highly  prized  as  a  perfume  in  Oriental  countries.  Riding  in 
these  covered  bazaars  and  through  this  motley  crowd  is  both  un¬ 
pleasant  and  quite  unsafe ;  besides,  it  is  not  customary  here  in 
Damascus,  so  we  will  send  the  horses  forward,  and  walk  to  the 
hotel  by  the  shortest  route. 

September  15  th.  Evening. 

No  one  who  takes  such  a  ride  through  the  exuberant  suburbs 
of  Damascus  as  we  did  to-day  will  be  at  a  loss  to  account  for  its 
existence  from  early  times,  or  for  its  long  life  and  enduring  pros¬ 
perity  ;  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  Dr.  Beke  should  have  tried 
to  prove  that  Haran,  the  place  to  which  Abraham  migrated  from 
Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  and  from  which  he  went  forth  into  the  land 
of  Canaan,  was  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  this  city. 

Dr.  Beke  was  thoroughly  convinced  that  Harran  el  ’Awamid,  a 
village  south-east  of  Damascus,  and  near  the  South  Lake,  marks 
the  true  site  of  the  Biblical  Haran,  and  he  made  a  tour  with  his 
wife  through  that  region  to  establish  the  identification,  which 
nearly  cost  him  his  life. 

Have  you  ever  been  to  that  Harran  ? 

I  visited  it  in  company  with  Rev.  J.  Crawford,  the  well-known 


THE  EASTERN  PLAIN.— BEDAWIN.— HARRAN  EL  ’AWAMID.  415 

missionary  of  this  city,  and  will  give  you  an  account  of  our  ride 
thither.  That  neighborhood  is  infested  by  lawless  Druses  and 
roving  Bedawin,  and  we  were  obliged  to  take  a  guard  of  Turkish 
soldiers  or  horsemen  for  our  protection.  Issuing  from  Bab  esh 
Shurky,  we  came  in  an  hour  to  Meliha,  and  in  half  an  hour  more 
to  Zebdin.  The  gardens  of  Damascus  extend  for  several  miles  in 
that  direction,  and  the  road  was  shaded  nearly  all  the  way  by  fruit- 
trees  and  high  and  wide -spreading  walnuts.  During  the  next 
hour’s  ride  we  crossed  many  watercourses  lined  with  tall  silvery 
poplars,  and  finally  forded  a  large  stream  called  Nahr  Harush. 

Beyond  that  the  country  was  destitute  of  trees,  and  little  culti¬ 
vated.  The  plain,  for  several  miles  before  reaching  Harran,  was 
covered  with  a  short  grass,  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  stiff 
sward,  with  here  and  there  a  thin  sprinkling  of  low  bushes.  Large 
tracts  were  also  overrun  with  the  licorice-plant,  called  by  the  Arabs 
rub  es  sus.  Numerous  villages,  with  their  gardens  of  fruit-trees 
and  groves  of  poplars,  dotted  the  plain  in  all  directions;  and  about 
an  hour’s  distance  on  the  left  flowed  the  Barada,  meandering  east¬ 
wards  towards  the  lake.  It  took  us  just  four  hours  to  reach  Har¬ 
ran,  which  lies  on  the  perfectly  level  plain  that  extends  to  the 
marshes  of  Bahret  el  Kibliyeh,  into  which  the  Barada  enters,  and 
through  which  it  finds  its  way  to  the  lake. 

From  the  roof  of  the  mosk  in  the  western  part  of  the  village 
we  could  see  the  green  fringe  of  tall  reeds  that  borders,  and  in 
some  places  nearly  covers,  the  surface  of  the  lake ;  but  the  lake 
itself  was  not  visible.  The  Bedawin,  however,  assured  us  that 
there  was  always  a  considerable  expanse  of  clear  water  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Barada,  even  during  the  dryest  season  of  the  year. 
The  villanous-looking  Arabs  and  Bedawin  in  and  around  the  vil¬ 
lage  caused  our  guides  great  uneasiness,  and  they  requested  us  not 
to  remain  there  any  longer  than  was  necessary.  We  therefore  pro¬ 
ceeded  at  once  to  examine  the  three  tall  columns  in  the  centre  of 
the  village,  from  which  it  derives  the  specific  name  of  Harran  el 
’Awamid,  Harran  of  the  Columns.  They  are  detached  from  any 
other  ancient  remains,  and  are  in  some  respects  quite  unique,  and 
excite  the  surprise  of  the  visitor. 

The  material  of  the  columns  is  black  basalt,  somewhat  porous, 


416 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


but  very  hard.  They  are  nearly  twelve  feet  in  circumference,  and, 
including  base  and  capital,  are  about  forty  feet  high.  The  shafts, 
T  composed  of  six  or  seven  pieces — the  number  differing  in  each — 
are  much  worn  and  cracked,  large  fragments  having  split  off  and 


REMAINS  OF  A  TEMPLE  AT  HARRAN  EL  ’AWAmId. 


fallen  away.  Two  of  the  columns  have  Ionic  capitals,  but  that  of 
the  third,  which  stands  at  an  angle  to  the  others,  has  fallen  from 
its  high  position  ;  and  as  the  edifice  to  which  they  belonged  no 
longer  exists,  one  is  at  a  loss  to  understand  the  object  for  which 
they  were  erected.  They  are  probably  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
temple,  the  ruins  of  which,  consisting  of  hewn  stones  and  broken 


THE  BIBLICAL  HARAN.— THE  PURSUIT  OF  JACOB. 


417 


columns,  are  scattered  about  the  village.  Built  into  the  wall  of  the 
mosk  is  a  portion  of  a  shaft  with  a  Greek  inscription  ;  but  it  is  so 
defaced,  and  partially  concealed,  that  we  could  not  decipher  it. 
That  is  the  last  village  in  the  direction  of  the  lake ;  and,  apart 
from  the  columns,  there  is  nothing  of  the  least  interest  at  Harran, 
nor  any  indication  that  it  ever  was  a  place  of  any  importance. 

Does  the  topographical  position  of  Harran  correspond  to  the 
requirements  of  the  Biblical  Haran  ? 

Exactly  where  Haran  was  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  it 
is  only  in  connection  with  the  pursuit  of  Jacob  by  Laban  that  the 
identity  of  Harran  el  ’Awamid  with  the  Biblical  Haran  should  be 
considered.  Three  days  after  his  flight  Jacob  was  pursued  by  La¬ 
ban  and  overtaken  “  in  Mount  Gilead,”  after  a  chase  of  seven  days. 
The  distance  between  Harran  el  ’Awamid  and  the  place  in  Gilead 
where  Jacob  “pitched  his  tent”  could  not  have  been  more  than 
ninety  miles,  and  it  might  have  taken  him  ten  days  to  get  there ; 
but  it  is  almost  ridiculous  to  suppose  that  it  would  take  Laban 
seven  days’  hot  pursuit  to  reach  the  same  spot.  Remembering 
that  the  uniform  tradition  of  the  Jews  themselves  is  that  they 
came  from  Mesopotamia,  and  that  “the  city  of  Nahor”  was  in 
that  country,  and  from  other  reasons  which  it  is  not  necessary  to 
mention,  we  must  conclude  that  the  accidental  resemblance  in 
the  names  of  the  two  places  is  too  slender  a  basis  to  support  the 
theory  of  their  identity. 

On  our  way  back  to  Damascus  we  followed  a  path  farther  to  the 
north,  crossing  and  re-crossing  the  main  stream  of  the  Barada,  and 
we  were  glad  to  get  safely  back  to  the  city,  and  so  were  the  horse¬ 
men  sent  for  our  protection  by  the  Pasha. 


418 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


XI. 

DAMASCUS  TO  EL  MUSMEIH. 

Damascus  the  Capital  City  of  Islam. — The  Religion  Established  by  Muhammed. — Life 
and  Character  of  the  Arabian  Prophet. — The  Caaba. — Khadija. — Muhammed  Asserts 
his  Prophetic  Mission. — El  Hegira. — The  Crescent  and  the  Star. — Conversion  of  the 
Inhabitants  of  Yathreb. — Jewish  Colonies. — Inconsistencies  in  the  Character  of  Mu¬ 
hammed  Described  by  Mr.  Muir. — “Weeping  with  them  that  Wept,”  yet  taking 
Pleasure  in  cruel  Assassination  and  Massacre. — Death  of  Muhammed  in  Medina,  and 
his  Burial  in  the  House  of  ’Ayesha. — El  Haram. — “The  Illiterate  Prophet.” — The 
Koran  Revealed  by  the  Angel  Gabriel  and  Transcribed  upon  the  Shoulder-blades  of 
Camels  and  Goats. — Compilation  and  Revision  of  the  Koran. — Muhammedan  Rever¬ 
ence  for  the  Koran. — The  Death  Penalty. — The  Pentateuch,  the  Psalms,  and  the 
Gospels  of  Jesus. — The  Patriarchs  Inspired  Messengers. — Jesus  Mentioned  with  Re¬ 
spect  in  the  Koran. — Muhammed  the  Last  and  Best  of  God’s  Prophets. — Moslems 
are  Unitarians  and  Fatalists. — Apostasy  Imperils  Life. — The  Attributes  of  God. — 
Spiritual  Beings. — Worship  of  Saints. — The  Resurrection  of  the  Body. — Judgment 
at  the  Last  Day. — Paradise. — Wine  Prohibited. — Prayer. — Ablutions. — Friday,  the 
Assembly. — Alms -giving. — Bread  Thrown  to  Dogs. — Alms  Forbidden  to  Christians 
and  Jews. — Rigid  Fast  during  Ramadan. — Necessary  Preparations  for  a  Tour  through 
Bashan  and  Gilead. — Pilgrimage  to  Mecca. — El  Haj. — Damascus  the  Starting-place 
of  the  Syrian  Pilgrims. — Emir  el  Haj. — Departure  of  the  Pilgrims  from  Damascus. — 
The  Mahmel. — Escort  of  Bedawin  Mounted  on  Camels. — Pilgrims  on  Camels,  Horses, 
and  Mules. — Return  of  the  Haj  from  Mecca. — Forlorn  and  Woe-begone  Appearance 
of  the  Pilgrims. — Bab  Allah. — “Bab  el  Maut,  the  Gate  of  Death.” — Burckhardt. — 
Pilgrims  that  now  Pass  through  the  Suez  Canal. — Mr.  Muir’s  Estimate  of  the  Benefits 
Conferred  upon  the  World  by  Islam. — The  Continuation  of  Derb  el  Haj. — The  Ghu- 
tah. — Abulfeda. — One  of  the  Four  Paradises  of  the  Earth. — Moslem  Legend. — The 
Plain  of  Damascus  Crowded  with  Villages. — Absence  of  Important  Ruins.  —  The 
Merj. — Jebel  el  Aswad. — Quarries  of  Basalt. — The  Pharpar. — El  Ivesweh. — El  ’Awaj. 
— The  Sabirany. — Wady  Barbar. — ’Ain  Menbej,  an  Intermitting  Fountain. — Roman 
Road. — Jebel  Mani’a. — Villages.  —  Jebel  esh  Sheikh. — Aklim  el  Bellan.  —  Kul’at 
Jendal.  —  Ascent  of  Hermon. — Wady  el  ’Ajam. —  Moslem  Villages. —  Bedawin  and 
Kurds. — Cold  Winds. — S’as’a. — Ancient  Road. — El  Kuneitirah. — Paul’s  Journey  to 
Damascus. — Juneh. — Deir  ’Aly. — Frogs. — Greek  Inscriptions. — Leboda. — Marcion. — 
The  Marcionites. — El  Jeidur. — Jetur. — The  Hagarites. — The  Half  Tribe  of  Manas- 


DAMASCUS,  THE  CAPITAL  CITY  OF  ISLAM. 


419 


seh. — The  Captivity. —  Alexander  the  Great.  —  Seleucidae.  —  Iturea.  —  Aristobulus. — 
Philip,  Tetrarch  of  Iturea. — John  the  Baptist. — El  Jaulan. — Golan,  a  City  of  Refuge. 
— Gaulanites. — Elevated  Lava  Plateaus. — Wuld  ’Aly  Bedawm. — No  Inhabited  Vil¬ 
lages. — Lava  Bowlders. — Robbers. — Ruins  of  Old  Towns  and  Deserted  Villages. — 
Ez  Zughbar. — A  World  once  on  Fire. — El  Merjany. — Good  Water. — Basaltic  Soil. — 
Burckhardt. — Column  of  the  Morning. — Small  Temple. — Subterraneous  Aqueduct. — 
Private  Habitations  at  El  Burak  Described  by  Dr.  Porter. — Stone  Walls,  Doors,  Win¬ 
dows,  and  Roofs. — Stone  Gate. — Saltpetre  Manufactories. — El  Liwa. — Wady  Liwa. 
— Arabs  of  the  Lejah. — Villages  and  Towns  in  Ruins. — Cultivation  and  Winter  Tor¬ 
rents. — Um  ez  Zeitun. —  Druses. — Hid  Treasure.  —  Ard  el  Bathanyeh. —  Batanis. — 
M.  Waddington.  —  Inscriptions.  —  The  Ancient  Names  of  Places  still  Preserved. — 
Jebel  Hauran. — Ard  el  Bathanyeh  Described  by  Dr.  Porter. — Ibrahim  Pasha. — El 
Harrah. — Mr.  Cyril  C.  Graham’s  Adventurous  Tour  in  the  Harrah. — A  Desert  Waste. 
— Ancient  Wells. — Deserted  Places. — Rock  Inscriptions. — Himyritic  Writing. — Kings 
of  the  Himyri. — Dr.  J.  G.  Wetzstein. — The  Safah. — Volcanic  Soil. — Arabs  of  the  Le¬ 
jah. — Nomadic  Tribes  of  the  Desert. — The  Apostle  Paul. — Early  Christian  Churches 
East  of  the  Jordan. — Origin. — “The  Region  of  Argob.” — Trachonitis. — Zenodorus. 
—  Robbers’  Caverns.  —  Caesar,  Herod,  Philip,  Agrippa.  —  El  Lejah,  an  Asylum. — 
Dr.  Porter’s  Description  of  the  Lejah. 

September  17th. 

DAMASCUS  being  the  capital  city  of  Islam  in  Syria,  it  must  be 
the  best  place  to  study  the  religion  of  “the  true  believers.”  We 
move  about  among  Moslems  every  day,  and  the  spirit  of  their  re¬ 
ligion  pervades  the  very  air  we  breathe,  yet  I  have  only  a  general 
and  vague  idea  of  its  origin  and  religious  obligations. 

Islam — “submission  to  the  will  of  God” — is  the  religion  estab¬ 
lished  by  Muhammed,  and  it  is  the  dominant  faith  of  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  the  human  race ;  and  the  mosk,  the 
dome,  and  the  minaret  are  seen  everywhere  throughout  the  Moslem 
world,  from  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  to  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  As  Muhammed  is  himself  the  incarnation  of  the  religion 
which  commonly  bears  his  name,  it  is  impossible  to  speak  of  Islam, 
or  even  think  about  it,  apart  from  the  life  and  character  of  the 
Arabian  Prophet,  “  the  apostle  of  God.”  I  will  therefore  give  you 
a  brief  account  of  his  career,  and  of  the  faith  of  Islam. 

Muhammed  was  born  about  the  year  571,  at  Mecca,  an  ancient 
city  of  Arabia,  in  the  province  of  Hedjaz,  and  nearly  sixty  miles 
inland  from  Jiddah,  its  sea-port  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Red 
Sea.  His  parents  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Kureish  and  the  family 
of  Hashem,  the  most  illustrious  and  influential  in  the  city;  the 


420 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


hereditary  custodians  of  the  Caaba,  with  its  black  stone  and  sacred 
well,  Zemzem.  The  Caaba  was  said  to  have  contained  statues  of 
all  the  gods  worshipped  by  the  Arabs  before  the  time  of  Muham- 
med,  but  he  broke  all  the  idols,  and  it  is  now  the  most  venerated 
shrine  in  the  Moslem  world.  Having  lost  his  parents  in  early  life, 
the  future  prophet  was  adopted  by  his  uncle,  and  accompanied 
him  on  a  trading  expedition  to  Syria.  Subsequently,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-five,  he  conducted  a  similar  expedition  in  the  interest  of 
Khadija,  a  rich  widow  of  his  native  city,  who  ultimately  rewarded 
him  with  her  hand  and  fortune. 

During  his  visit  to  Syria,  then  a  part  of  the  Byzantine  empire, 
he  was  brought  into  contact  with  Christianity  as  represented  by 
the  Greek  Church  of  that  day,  which,  no  doubt,  greatly  influenced 
the  general  character  of  some  of  his  peculiar  visions  and  revelations 
recorded  in  the  Koran.  It  was  not  until  his  fortieth  year  that  Mu- 
hammed  began  to  assert  his  prophetic  mission,  and,  after  enduring 
great  opposition  from  his  fellow-townsmen  for  ten  years,  he  was 
obliged  to  flee  for  his  life  to  Medina,  then  called  Yathreb.  That 
flight  of  the  prophet,  known  as  el  Hegira,  occurred  on  the  1 6th  of 
July,  A.D.  622,  and  has  served  to  fix  the  date  of  the  Muhammedan 
lunar  year  from  that  day  to  this  —  a  period  of  more  than  twelve 
centuries.  And  “from  the  fact  that  on  that  night  the  moon  was, 
gibbous,  a  crescent  with  a  star  has  been  adopted  by  the  Muham- 
medans  as  an  ensign  of  the  royal  arms,  and  on  their  banners,  in 
commemoration  of  what  they  consider  as  the  most  distinguished 
period  in  the  life  of  the  prophet.”1 

The  conversion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Yathreb  enabled  Muham- 
med  rapidly  to  establish  his  authority  as  Prince  and  Prophet  over 
the  whole  of  Arabia.  In  Yathreb  there  were  two  colonies  of  Jews 
to  whom  the  prophet  must  have  been  indebted  for  many  of  the 
moral  and  religious  precepts  incorporated  into  the  Koran.  Before 
the  Hegira,  and  until  the  time  when  he  established  himself  in 
Yathreb  as  a  powerful  and  warlike  prince,  Muhammed’s  moral  and 
religious  record  was  fair  and  honorable  in  the  main,  but  from  that 
date  and  onward  every  evil  element  in  the  character  of  the  prophet 
developed  with  surprising  rapidity. 

1  Rev.  J.  Wortabet’s  Reseai*ches  into  the  Religions  of  Syria,  p.  164. 


INCONSISTENCIES  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  MUIiAMMED.  42 1 

“The  truth  is,”  says  Mr.  William  Muir,  “that  the  strangest  in¬ 
consistencies  blended  together — according  to  the  wont  of  human 
nature — throughout  the  life  of  the  prophet.  The  student  of  the 
history  will  trace  for  himself  how  the  pure  and  lofty  aspirations  of 
Mahomet  were  first  tinged,  and  then  gradually  debased,  by  a  half¬ 
unconscious  self-deception  ;  and  how  in  this  process  truth  merged 
into  falsehood,  sincerity  into  guile — these  opposite  principles  often 
co-existing  even  as  active  agencies  in  his  conduct.  The  reader  will 
observe  that,  simultaneously  with  the  anxious  desire  to  extinguish 
idolatry  and  to  promote  religion  and  virtue  in  the  world,  there  was 
nurtured  by  the  prophet  in  his  own  heart  a  licentious  self-indul¬ 
gence  ;  till  in  the  end,  assuming  to  be  the  favorite  of  Heaven,  he 
justified  himself  by  ‘revelations’  from  God  in  the  most  flagrant 
breaches  of  morality.  He  will  remark  that  while  Mahomet  cher¬ 
ished  a  kind  and  tender  disposition,  ‘  weeping  with  them  that  wept,’ 
and  binding  to  his  person  the  hearts  of  his  followers  by  the  ready 
and  self-denying  offices  of  love  and  friendship,  he  could  yet  take 
pleasure  in  cruel  and  perfidious  assassination,  could  gloat  over  the 
massacre  of  an  entire  tribe,  and  savagely  consign  the  innocent  babe 
to  the  fires  of  hell.  Inconsistencies  such  as  these  continually  pre¬ 
sent  themselves  from  the  period  of  Mahomet’s  arrival  at  Medina ; 
and  it  is  by  the  study  of  these  inconsistencies  that  his  character 
must  be  rightly  comprehended.”1 

Muhammed  died  June  8th,  A.D.  632,  in  the  sixty-third  year  of 
his  age,  at  Yathreb,  then  called  Medinat  en  Neby,  the  city  of  the 
prophet;  and  he  was  buried  on  the  spot  where  he  died,  in  the 
house  of  ’Ayesha,  over  which  now  rises  the  green  dome  of  el  Haram, 
the  sacred  mosk  of  Medina.  Passing  from  this  mere  glance  at  the 
man  to  the  religion  which  he  established,  the  attention  is  naturally 
directed  to  the  Koran,  of  which  he  was  the  original  author.  Muham¬ 
med  exulted  in  the  title  of  the  Illiterate  Prophet,  and  it  is  presumed 
that  he  could  neither  read  nor  write.  The  angel  Gabriel  revealed 
to  him,  as  occasion  required,  the  chapters,  verses,  and  fragments  of 
the  Koran,  and  they  were  written  by  some  of  his  friends  upon 
palm-leaves,  white  stones,  pieces  of  leather,  and  the  shoulder-blades 
of  camels  and  goats.  After  the  death  of  Muhammed  those  literary 

1  Life  of  Mahomet,  vol.  iv.  pp.  322,  323. 


422 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


fragments  were  collected  and  compiled  during  the  caliphate  of  Abu 
Bekr,  and  subsequently  revised  in  that  of  Othman.  The  result  was 
the  Koran,  which  the  entire  Moslem  world  has  accepted  as  contain¬ 
ing  the  inspired  “  revelations  ”  of  the  Arabian  prophet. 

El  Koran  is  regarded  by  the  Muhammedans  with  a  degree  of 
profound  reverence  accorded  to  no  other  book  in  the  world,  for 
it  is  believed  to  be  absolutely  divine,  uncreated,  incorruptible,  and 
eternal.  Its  teachings  prescribe  their  religious  faith,  guide  their 
daily  life,  and  permeate  and  control  their  whole  intellectual  being 
and  moral  character,  and  to  deny  its  divine  authority  the  penalty 
is  death.  Besides  the  Koran,  Muhammed  accepted  certain  other 
scriptures  as  being  inspired  by  God,  including  the  Pentateuch,  the 
Psalms  of  David,  and  the  Gospels  of  Jesus,  but  all  of  them  are 
supposed  to  have  been  corrupted,  and  their  authority  was  abro¬ 
gated  by  his  own  “revelations.”  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  Moses, 
and  Jesus  were  inspired  messengers  and  apostles.  Jesus  is  men¬ 
tioned  with  respect  in  the  Koran,  but  he  is  not  the  Son  of  God, 
and  the  Jews  “did  not  crucify  him,  but  one  like  him  was  given 
up  unto  them.”1  Muhammed  was  the  last  and  the  best  of  God’s 
prophets,  and  has  abrogated  the  authority  of  all  his  predecessors. 

A  Moslem,  or  Muslim,  is  one  who  has  submitted  to  the  will  of 
God,  and  all  Moslems,  as  you  know,  are  Unitarians  and  fatalists. 
Any  one  who  makes  the  brief  declaration  that  “  there  is  no  god  but 
God,  and  Muhammed  is  the  Apostle  of  God,”  is  a  Moslem,  nor  can 
he  apostatize  except  at  the  peril  of  his  life.  Muhammedans  believe 
in  the  essential  attributes  of  God :  that  he  is  infinite,  unchangeable, 
and  eternal,  the  Lord  of  all,  and  the  creator  of  the  universe,  and 
that  all  events,  both  good  and  evil,  are  foreordained  by  him  and 
inevitable.  The  practical  and  living  faith  of  a  community  is  gener¬ 
ally  very  different  from  its  fundamental  creed  and  religious  dogmas, 
and  so  it  is  and  always  has  been  amongst  the  Moslems.  Though 
they  acknowledge  “  no  god  but  God,”  yet  there  are  innumerable 
companies  of  spiritual  beings,  good  and  bad,  and  of  both  sexes, 
some  of  whom  were  created  long  before  Adam ; .  and  there  are 
many  shrines  dedicated  to  reputed  saints  all  over  the  Muhammedan 
world  which  are  regarded  with  the  utmost  reverence. 


1  El  Koran. 


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WORSHIP  OF  SAINTS.— PARADISE.— PRAYER  AND  ALMS-GIVING.  423 

Pilgrimages  are  made  to  those  shrines,  prayers  and  sacrifices  are 
there  offered  to  the  saints,  and  various  rites  and  ceremonies  per¬ 
formed  which  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  from  actual  worship. 
Thus  the  saint  is  invoked,  and  the  invisible  spiritual  beings  propi¬ 
tiated,  and  in  reality  the  followers  of  the  prophet  are  practically 
superstitious  and  idolatrous,  notwithstanding  his  fierce  denunciation 
of  the  worship  of  any  being  other  than  God  alone.  Moslems  be¬ 
lieve  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  in  a  general  judgment  at  the 
last  day,  with  subsequent  rewards  and  punishments,  and  in  a  future 
life  in  paradise — a  place  of  gardens  and  fountains — amidst  never- 
fading  scenes  of  luxury,  and  in  the  enjoyment  of  eternal  delights. 
The  “  true  believers  ”  deserve  paradise  who  have  faith,  and  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  measure  of  their  good  works  so  will  their  portion  be 
in  that  promised  abode  of  the  blest. 

Every  Moslem  is  required  to  pray,  to  give  alms,  to  fast,  and  to- 
make  pilgrimages ;  they  are  forbidden  to  eat  certain  meats,  and  the 
use  of  wine  is  strictly  prohibited.  As  “in  the  beginning,”  so  now 
“the  evening  and  the  morning”  constitute  the  day,  and  the  Mos¬ 
lem  is  directed  to  commence  his  daily  prayers  at  sunset.  Prayer 
may  be  offered  at  any  time,  or  on  any  spot  not  polluted,  but  it  is 
forbidden  in  baths  and  a  few  other  places.  As  you  are  already 
aware,  the  regular  and  appointed  times  for  prayer  are  five,  and  Mos¬ 
lems  are  obliged  to  perform  certain  ablutions  before  engaging  in 
their  devotions.  Those  ablutions  consist  in  washing  the  face,  hands, 
arms,  head,  neck,  mouth,  ears,  nostrils,  and  feet,  and,  like  nearly 
every  important  action  performed  by  a  Mussulman,  these  are  begun 
with  the  formula,  “  In  the  name  of  God,  the  merciful,  the  compas¬ 
sionate.”  Friday  is  the  Moslem  Sabbath,  because  Adam  was  created 
on  that  day  of  the  week,  and  also  because  the  resurrection  is  to 
take  place  on  that  day;  hence  its  name,  el  Jhum’ah,  the  assembly. 
Muhammedans  do  not  abstain  from  transacting  business  or  follow¬ 
ing  their  usual  avocations  on  Friday,  but  the  noonday  services  in 
the  mosks  are  more  varied  and  prolonged. 

Next  to  the  most  important  duty  of  prayer  is  that  of  alms-giv¬ 
ing.  Alms  were  at  first  both  obligatory  and  voluntary,  but  now 
they  are  freely  bestowed,  and  may  be  dispensed  either  in  money  or 

in  kind.  The  least  amount  should  not  fall  short  of  a  fortieth,  but 
F  2 


424 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


many  give  a  far  greater  proportion  of  their  income  in  charity  and 
alms.  Bread  may  be  thrown  to  the  dogs  in  the  street,  and  money 
distributed  among  the  poor  and  needy  followers  of  the  prophet,  but 
it  is  forbidden  to  give  alms  to  the  infidel  Christian,  and  to  aid  the 
unbelieving  Jew.  “During  the  month  of  Ramadan,  in  which  the 
Koran  was  revealed,”  Moslems  are  required  to  abstain  from  eating 
and  drinking,  nor  can  they  smoke,  from  daylight  to  sunset.  That 
rigid  fast  is  obligatory,  even  upon  children,  “  but  whoever  is  sick,  or 
on  a  journey,  he  shall  fast  the  like  number  of  days.”1  The  nights 
being  given  up  to  feasting  and  revelry,  there  is  no  great  hardship 
in  that  fast  when  Ramadan  occurs  in  winter;  but  during  the  long, 
hot  days  of  summer  the  suffering  is  very  great,  especially  among 
the  working-classes.  As  the  Muhammedan  year  is  composed  of 
twelve  lunar  months,  Ramadan  retrogrades  through  the  entire  cir¬ 
cuit  of  months  in  about  thirty-three  years  and  a  half,  so  that  during 
my  residence  in  this  country  that  long  fast  has  occurred  in  all  times 
and  seasons,  from  midwinter  to  midsummer. 

But  the  preparations  for  our  journey  through  Bashan  and  Gil¬ 
ead,  and  the  region  “beyond  Jordan  eastward,”  are  completed.  The 
mules  have  been  loaded,  and  the  muleteers  are  ready  to  proceed, 
for  an  early  start  is  necessary  this  morning  in  order  to  reach  the 
place  where  we  are  to  encamp  to-night. 

I  notice  that  you  have  increased  the  number  of  our  caravan. 

The  regions  we  are  to  pass  through  are  entirely  destitute  of 
markets,  nor  can  our  store  of  provisions  be  replenished  until  we 
reach  es  Salt,  on  Mount  Gilead,  above  the  north-eastern  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  The  needed  supplies  for  many  days  were,  therefore, 
obtained  here,  and  I  have  hired  two  additional  mules  to  transport 
them.  One  of  the  muleteers  is  a  Druse,  the  other  is  a  Christian, 
and  both  are  from  the  Hauran.  As  they  are  acquainted  with  the 
roads  and  the  inhabitants  of  that  district,  they  will  often  save  us 
from  the  delay  and  annoyance  of  having  to  procure  local  guides, 
and  they  will  add  to  our  protection  in  that  wild  and  lawless  region. 

We  are  now  passing  through  the  narrow  suburb  of  the  city 
called  el  Meidan,  the  Race-course,  which  extends  southward  along 
this  broad  street,  or  Derb  el  Haj,  the  pilgrims’  road  from  Damascus 

1  El  Koran. 


THE  PILGRIMAGE  TO  MECCA.— DEPARTURE  OF  THE  HAJ.  425 

to  Mecca.  Every  Moslem  who  is  able  to  do  so  is  required  to  make 
“  the  pilgrimage  to  the  house  of  God,  el  Haram,”  at  Mecca.  When 
that  long  journey,  which  usually  occupies  four  months,  is  under¬ 
taken  in  the  summer  or  in  midwinter  the  suffering  and  loss  of  life 
is  very  great,  and  often  only  a  small  portion  of  “  the  pilgrims”  ever 
return  to  their  homes.  Those  who  survive  the  pilgrimage  are  al¬ 
ways  thereafter  dignified  with  the  title  of  Haj,  an  honor  bestowed 
alike  upon  the  Muhammedan  devotee  from  Mecca  and  the  pious 
Christian  who  visits  Jerusalem,  the  Holy  City,  though  the  latter 
rarely  avails  himself  of  the  meritorious  distinction.  Damascus  is 
the  starting-place  of  the  Syrian  pilgrims,  and  the  Pasha  of  the  city 
is  the  Emir  el  Haj.  He  is  expected  to  accompany  the  sacred  Mah- 
mel,  or  canopy,  which  contains  the  covering  sent  every  year  by  the 
Sultan  for  the  Caaba  at  Mecca,  but  that  pious  duty  is  generally 
relegated  to  his  representative. 

The  spectacle  of  the  departure  of  the  Haj  from  Damascus  for 
that  city  is  quite  imposing,  is  it  not? 

To  the  European  it  is  altogether  unique,  but  to  those  familiar 
with  Muhammedan  religious  processions  the  difference  is  entirely  in 
the  degree  of  reverence  paid  to  the  Mahmel,  and  in  the  greater  dis¬ 
play  of  fanatical  feeling  by  those  who  take  part  in  the  showy  pag¬ 
eant.  Motley  crowds  of  men,  women,  and  children  of  every  age 
and  size  throng  this  thoroughfare  in  the  Meidan,  line  the  roadway 
on  either  side,  fill  the  shops,  the  windows,  and  the  roofs  of  the 
houses  along  the  whole  length  of  Derb  el  Haj — the  men  dressed  in 
garments  of  various  shapes  and  every  shade  of  color,  the  women 
enveloped  in  white  izars,  their  faces  hardly  concealed  by  thin  and 
gaudy  veils,  and  the  children  decked  out  in  tawdry  tinsel  and  pro¬ 
tected  from  “  the  evil  eye  ”  by  mystic  amulets  and  charms. 

The  Mahmel,  carried  upon  the  back  of  a  special  camel,  is  a  can- 
opy  of  green  silk  supported  on  silver  posts  and  surmounted  by  a 
gilded  ball  and  crescent.  It  is  followed  by  the  Emir  el  Haj  and  his 
guard,  consisting  of  a  detachment  of  irregular  cavalry  and  an  escort 
of  Bedawin  mounted  on  camels.  Then  come  the  pilgrims,  whose 
number  is  growing  less  every  year.  They  perform  the  journey  on 
camels,  though  a  few  ride  horses  and  mules,  and  the  rich  even  hire 
palanquins  for  themselves  or  their  families.  The  procession  along 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


426 

the  Meidan  is  preceded,  surrounded,  and  followed  by  a  noisy  and 
tumultuous  rabble  of  men,  women,  and  children,  which  imparts 
neither  dignity  nor  order  to  the  movements  of  the  caravan. 

Similar  scenes  are  witnessed  here  on  the  return  of  the  Haj  from 
Mecca,  but  the  pilgrims  then  come  in  groups,  straggling  along,  with 
no  attempt  at  parade  or  to  present  a  grand  spectacle.  The  burn¬ 
ing  sun  has  tanned  them  to  a  dark  bronze  hue ;  their  garments  are 
travel -stained,  dusty,  and  ragged,  and  their  appearance  is  forlorn 
and  woe -begone  to  the  last  degree.  They  could,  indeed,  fit  out 
another  Gibeonite  embassy  with  “  old  sacks  upon  their  asses,  and 
[water]  bottles,  old  and  rent,  and  bound  up ;  and  old  shoes  and 
clouted  upon  their  feet,  and  old  garments  upon  them  ;  and  all  the 
bread  of  their  provision  dry  and  mouldy” — no  doubt  like  the  “re¬ 
mainder  biscuit”  after  a  voyage  round  the  world.1 

This  unpretending  city  gate  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Meidan 
which  we  are  now  approaching  is  called  Bab  Allah,  because  through 
it  the  Haj  passes  when  commencing  the  long,  trying,  and  perilous 
journey  to  the  “  House  of  God,”  in  Mecca.  Bab’  Allah,  the  gate  of 
God  !  “  but  it  might,  with  more  propriety,  be  named  Bab  el  Maut, 
the  Gate  of  Death,”  as  Burckhardt  remarks ;  “  for  scarcely  a  third 
ever  returns  of  those  whom  a  devout  adherence  to  their  religion,  or 
the  hope  of  gain,  impel  to  this  journey.”2  Most  of  the  pilgrims 
from  the  northern  parts  of  the  Turkish  empire  now  pass  through 
the  Suez  Canal  by  steamers  to  Jiddah,  the  port  of  Mecca  on  the 
Red  Sea ;  and  similar  facilities  are  also  availed  of  by  the  pilgrims 
from  Egypt,  northern  Africa,  and  elsewhere ;  and  if  the  merit  of  the 
pilgrimage  is  thereby  somewhat  diminished,  so  also  is  the  hardship 
and  loss  of  life  in  a  still  greater  degree. 

In  comparing  the  advantages  conferred  upon  the  world  by  Mu- 
hammedanism,  with  its  attendant  evils,  Mr.  Muir  may  be  thought 
to  hold  the  balance  with  too  even  a  hand,  but  some  of  his  observa¬ 
tions  are  weighty  and  well  worth  remembering.  “  We  may  freely 
concede,”  he  says,  “  that  it  banished  forever  many  of  the  darker 
elements  of  superstition  which  had  for  ages  shrouded  the  Peninsu¬ 
la  [of  Arabia].  Idolatry  vanished  before  the  battle-cry  of  Islam  ; 
the  doctrine  of  the  unity  and  infinite  perfections  of  God,  and  of  a 

2  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.  pp.  52,  53. 


1  Josh.  ix.  3-6. 


BENEFITS  CONFERRED  UPON  THE  WORLD  BY  ISLAM.  427 

special  all-pervading  Providence,  became  a  living  principle  in  the 
hearts  and  lives  of  the  followers  of  Mahomet,  even  as  it  had  in  his 
own.  An  absolute  surrender  and  submission  to  the  Divine  will — 
the  very  name  of  Islam — was  demanded  as  the  first  requirement  of 
the  religion.  Nor  are  social  virtues  wanting.  Brotherly  love  is  in¬ 
culcated  within  the  circle  of  the  faith  ;  orphans  are  to  be  protected, 
and  slaves  treated  with  consideration ;  intoxicating  drinks  are  pro¬ 
hibited,  and  Mahometanism  may  boast  of  a  degree  of  temperance 
unknown  to  any  other  creed. 

“Yet  these  benefits  have  been  purchased  at  a  costly  price.  Set¬ 
ting  aside  considerations  of  minor  import,  three  radical  evils  flow 
from  the  faith,  in  all  ages  and  in  every  country,  and  must  continue 
to  flow  so  long  as  the  Coran  is  the  standard  of  belief.  First :  Polyg¬ 
amy,  divorce,  and  slavery  are  maintained  and  perpetuated — striking 
as  they  do  at  the  root  of  public  morals,  poisoning  domestic  life,  and 
disorganizing  society.  Second:  freedom  of  judgment  in  religion  is 
crushed  and  annihilated.  The  sword  is  the  inevitable  penalty  for 
the  denial  of  Islam.  Toleration  is  unknown.  Third  :  a  barrier  has 
been  interposed  against  the  reception  of  Christianity.  They  labor 
under  a  miserable  delusion  who  suppose  that  Mahometanism  paves 
the  way  for  a  purer  faith.  No  system  could  have  been  devised  with 
more  consummate  skill  for  shutting  out  the  nations  over  which  it 
has  sway  from  the  light  of  truth.  Idolatrous  Arabia — judging  from 
the  analogy  of  other  nations — might  have  been  aroused  to  spiritual 
life,  and  to  the  adoption  of  the  faith  of  Jesus;  Mahometan  Arabia 
is,  to  the  human  eye,  sealed  against  the  benign  influences  of  the 
Gospel.  Many  a  flourishing  land  in  Africa  and  in  Asia  which  once 
rejoiced  in  the  light  and  liberty  of  Christianity  is  now  overspread  by 
a  gross  darkness  and  a  stubborn  barbarism.  It  is  as  if  their  day  of 
grace  had  come  and  gone,  and  there  remained  to  them  ‘no  more 
sacrifice  for  sins.’  That  a  brighter  day  will  yet  dawn  on  these 
countries  we  may  not  doubt ;  but  the  history  of  the  past  and  the 
condition  of  the  present  is  not  the  less  true  and  sad.  The  sword 
of  Mahomet  and  the  Coran  are  the  most  fatal  enemies  of  civiliza¬ 
tion,  liberty,  and  truth  which  the  world  has  yet  known.”1 

I  should  like  to  emphasize  most  of  these  remarks  of  Mr.  Muir, 

1  Muir’s  Life  of  Mahomet,  vol.  iv.  pp.  320-322. 


428 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


especially  the  last  of  them  ;  and  it  would  be  easy  to  add  to  the  list 
of  evils  conferred  upon  the  world  by  Muhammedanism  many  others 
so  weighty  as  to  sink  Islam,  the  religion  of  the  “  Illiterate  Prophet,” 
forever  in  the  profound  gulf  of  utter  condemnation. 

We  are  now  favored  with  a  tolerably  smooth  and  very  wide 
road,  bordered  on  each  side  by  groves  of  olive-trees. 

It  is  the  continuation  of  Derb  el  Haj,  and  extends  southward  in 
nearly  a  straight  line  for  more  than  an  hour,  but  not  at  this  unusual 
width.  No  doubt  it  was  made  thus  broad  in  this  immediate  vicinity 
to  accommodate  the  crowds,  the  pilgrims,  and  their  camels  that 
congregate  here  at  the  commencement  of  the  Haj.  The  bridges 
over  the  watercourses  are  constructed  very  low  and  broad,  to  facib 
itate  the  passage  of  the  caravans  during  the  rainy  season — a  great 
convenience,  as  I  have  found,  after  a  heavy  storm  of  rain  in  winter. 

This  district  immediately  around  Damascus  to  the  south,  the 
east,  and  the  north-east  is  called  the  Ghutah.  It  includes  the  city 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  region  irrigated  by  the  Barada  and  its 
numerous  canals.  Of  course  it  is  exceedingly  fertile  wherever  the 
water  extends  over  the  plain.  Abulfeda  says  of  it:  “The  Ghutah 
of  Damascus  is  one  of  the  four  paradises  which  are  the  most  excel¬ 
lent  of  the  beautiful  places  of  the  earth,  but  it  excels  the  other 
three.”  And  the  Moslem  legend  reminds  us  that  Muhammed  re¬ 
fused  to  enter  this  charming  region,  declaring  that,  as  man  could 
have  but  one  paradise,  he  chose  to  have  his  in  the  other  world. 
Notwithstanding  these  flattering  commendations,  I  have  found  many 
places  in  the  Ghutah  neglected  and  barren,  and,  though  the  plain 
of  Damascus  is  crowded  with  villages,  nearly  a  hundred  by  actual 
count,  most  of  them  are  wretched  hamlets,  with  nothing  attractive 
about  them,  and  one  is  surprised  at  the  almost  total  absence  of 
important  ruins  on  this  great  plain.  To  the  south-east  of  the  Ghu¬ 
tah  is  the  Merj,  extending  to  the  lakes,  and  west  and  south  of  our 
road  is  the  district  of  Wady  el  ’Ajam. 

This  plain  of  Damascus  is  not  so  level  as  it  appears  from  the 
outlook  near  Kubbet  en  Nusr,  north-west  of  the  city,  and  those  sur¬ 
rounding  hills,  from  their  dark  color,  must  be  of  volcanic  origin. 

The  range  on  the  left  is  called  Jebel  el  Aswad,  the  black  moun¬ 
tain,  and  the  basaltic  stones  so  largely  used  in  building  the  khans, 


EL  A’WAJ,  THE  PHARPAR.— VILLAGE  OF  EL  KESWEH.  429 

mosks,  and  other  public  edifices  of  Damascus  are  brought  from 
quarries  in  those  hills.  We  have  now  left  the  plain  and  begin  to 
descend  into  the  valley  of  the  A’waj,  supposed  to  be  the  Pharpar, 
the  second  river  of  Damascus,  mentioned  by  Naaman,  the  Syrian 
leper.  In  about  an  hour  we  will  reach  the  long  bridge  of  several 
arches  over  the  river  east  of  the  village  of  el  Kesweh. 

The  valley  lies  much  lower  than  the  general  level  of  the  sur¬ 
rounding  country,  and  the  banks  of  the  river  are  bordered  by  thou¬ 
sands  of  tall  silver-leaved  poplars,  by  which  the  course  of  the  stream 
can  be  traced  both  east  and  west  for  a  long  distance. 

Its  Arabic  name,  A’waj,  means  crooked,  and  was  probably  given 
to  indicate  that  peculiarity  in  the  ever-winding  way  of  the  river. 
It  drains  the  south-eastern  slopes  of  Hermon,  traverses  from  west 
to  east  the  district  of  Wady  el  ’Ajam,  and,  after  passing  through 
the  rough  and  rocky  region  eastward  from  the  village  of  el  Kesweh, 
it  meanders  over  the  plain,  and  is  finally  lost  in  the  marshy  lake 
called  Bahret  Hijaneh. 

What  is  the  name  of  that  village  above  us  on  the  right?  It 
appears  to  be  a  considerable  place,  with  mosks,  minarets,  and  other 
public  buildings ;  and  these  winding  and  well-wooded  banks  of  the 
river,  the  tall  poplar  trees,  and  the  green  meadows  on  either  side 
of  the  stream,  are  decidedly  pretty. 

That  is  el  Kesweh,  and  it  is  inhabited  principally  by  Moslems. 

Here  also  is  a  spacious  khan,  with  many  native  travellers  about 
it,  and  even  several  Bedawin  with  their  horses  and  camels. 

Like  them,  we  will  rest  awhile  at  this  inn  and  refresh  ourselves 
with  a  cup  of  “black  coffee.”  From  here  on  these  primitive  wayside 
institutions  become  few  and  far  between,  as  we  advance  into  the 
region  east  of  the  Jordan  until  we  reach  es  Salt,  on  Mount  Gilead. 

The  A’waj,  or  Pharpar,  is  a  much  larger  stream  than  I  expected. 

Once  when  I  crossed  over  this  substantial  bridge  below  el  Kes¬ 
weh  the  river  was  running  full  up  to  the  top  of  the  arches,  and  a 
considerable  part  of  the  narrow  valley  was  under  water.  Many 
years  before  I  had  crossed  and  recrossed  it  on  my  way  to  S’as’a, 
and  then  got  the  impression  that  it  was  a  small  stream,  but  on  that 
occasion  it  was  everywhere  unfordable,  and  the  volume  of  water  in 
it  appeared  to  be  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  Barada.  It  was  then, 


430 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


however,  exceptionally  large,  owing  to  recent  rains  and  the  melting 
of  the  snow  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  Hermon,  or  Jebel  esh  Sheikh. 
The  main  permanent  tributaries  of  this  river  come  from  fountains 
which  rise  near  the  villages  of  el  ’Arny  and  Beit  Jenn,  on  the  south¬ 
eastern  slopes  of  Hermon,  and,  uniting  in  the  neighborhood  of  S’as’a, 
form  the  Sabirany,  the  local  name  for  the  A’waj  between  the  vil¬ 
lages  of  el  Kesweh  and  Beit  Sabir. 

It  is  also  re-enforced  by  small  streams  from  that  part  of  the 
mountain,  one  of  which  comes  down  Wady  Barbar,  and  the  name  of 
that  valley  is  supposed  to  preserve,  in  its  Arabic  form,  the  ancient 
Hebrew  word  Pharpar.  I  visited  one  of  those  permanent  sources 
at  the  fountain  called  ’Ain  Menbej,  a  short  distance  eastward  from 
Beit  Jenn.  The  stream  issues  from  a  deep  cavern  extending  under 
the  mountain,  and  at  times,  according  to  native  accounts,  there  is 
a  great  rush  of  water  from  it,  accompanied  with  a  loud  rumbling 
noise.  The  volume  of  water  thus  discharged  is  said  to  be  full  of 
fish.  When  I  was  there  the  fountain  was  comparatively  quiet,  but 
there  were  plenty  of  small  fishes  in  the  deep  pool  within  the  mouth 
of  the  cavern.  ’Ain  Menbej  is  probably  an  intermitting  fountain, 
like  those  found  in  other  places  in  this  country. 

We  have  thus  far  followed  the  regular  Haj  road,  which  leads 
from  Damascus  to  Mecca,  but  from  el  Kesweh  the  pilgrims  con¬ 
tinue  southward  along  the  ancient  Roman  highway  to  Sunamein 
and  Mezarib.  Our  road,  however,  trends  a  little  to  the  eastward, 
and  gradually  ascends  the  slope  of  Jebel  Mani’a. 

I  am  surprised  to  find  the  country  so  sparsely  inhabited.  There 
is  not  a  village  in  sight  on  either  side  of  the  path,  and  only  a  small 
part  of  the  land  appears  to  be  under  cultivation. 

The  villages  whose  inhabitants  till  the  land  in  this  neighborhood 
are  hid  away  in  the  ravines  of  Jebel  Mani’a,  and  the  first  inhabited 
place  along  our  route  is  Deir  ’Aly,  about  two  hours  distant  from 
el  Kesweh.  As  we  rise  to  a  greater  elevation  the  views  of  Jebel 
esh  Sheikh,  towering  high  above  the  surrounding  district  and  rocky 
ridges  of  el  Bellan,  are  truly  magnificent.  Aklim  el  Bellan,  as  that 
region  is  called,  extends  southward  along  the  foot-hills  of  Hermon 
from  the  dreary  plateau  of  es  Sahra,  north-west  of  Damascus,  to  the 
district  of  el  Jeidur,  the  ancient  Iturea.  Large  parts  of  both  dis- 


AKLIM  EL  BELLAN.— KUL’AT  JENDAL.— WADY  EL  ’AJAM.  43 1 

tricts  are  encumbered  with  volcanic  rock  and  incapable  of  profitable 
cultivation.  Bellan,  as  you  are  aware,  is  the  Arabic  name  of  the 
low,  tangled  thorn-bush  which  covers  a  large  part  of  this  country. 
It  is  the  poterium  spinosum,  and,  from  its  great  abundance  in  that 
region,  it  probably  gave  the  name  Bellan  to  the  entire  district. 

I  have  repeatedly  passed  through  Aklim  el  Bellan,  and  once,  on 
my  way  from  Damascus  to  the  summit  of  Hermon,  night  overtook 
us  as  we  entered  a  dark  defile  of  the  mountain,  and  our  guide  con¬ 
ducted  us  to  a  ruined  castle  in  Wady  Barbar  called  Kul’at  Jendal, 
near  the  village  of  the  same  name.  That  region  was  then  in  a  dis¬ 
turbed  state,  owing  to  an  uprising  of  the  Druses,  and  we  found  the 
old  castle  occupied  by  a  band  of  highway  robbers.  After  learning 
who  we  were  they  allowed  us  to  enter,  and  we  remained  there 
that  night  unmolested.  In  the  morning  they  sent  a  guard  of  their 
number  to  protect  us  as  far  on  our  way  as  they  thought  was  neces¬ 
sary.  Our  road  led  up  a  long  ravine  with  a  gradual  ascent  until  we 
reached  the  water-shed  at  the  head  of  the  pass  into  Wady  Shib’a. 
From  the  top  of  the  pass  we  turned  to  the  right  and  ascended 
northward  along  the  edge  of  the  ridge  leading  up  the  mountain-side, 
and  in  about  two  hours  we  reached  the  ruined  temple  now  called 
Kusr  ’Antar,  which  once  crowned  the  summit  of  Hermon.  The  as¬ 
cent  of  Jebel  esh  Sheikh  from  Kul’at  Jendal  is  less  fatiguing,  ac¬ 
cording  to  my  experience,  than  any  other,  but  it  is  entirely  desert¬ 
ed,  and  some  of  the  gorges  that  descend  from  the  mountain  east¬ 
ward  to  the  plain  far  below  are  extremely  wild  and  picturesque. 

The  district  south  of  the  Ghutah,  through  which  we  have  been 
riding,  and  which  is  traversed  by  the  river  A’waj,  is  called  Wady  el 
’Ajam,  the  valley  of  the  Persians,  but  when  and  how  that  name 
came  to  be  applied  to  this  region  is  unknown.  The  district  extends 
eastward  from  Aklim  el  Bellan  to  Bahret  Hijaneh,  and,  though 
mountainous,  rough,  and  rocky,  much  of  it  is  well  watered  and  thor¬ 
oughly  cultivated.  There  are  more  than  thirty  villages  in  Wady  el 
’Ajam,  many  of  which  lie  west  of  the  Haj  road,  and  are  principally 
inhabited  by  Moslems.  El  Kesweh  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
flourishing,  and  the  small  hamlet  of  Deir  ’Aly,  ahead  of  us,  one  of 
the  poorest  and  most  dilapidated. 

The  entire  region  south-west  of  our  road  to  the  valley  of  the 


432 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Jordan  is  given  up  to  wandering  tribes  of  Bedawin  Arabs  and 
Kurds,  and  even  they  abandon  the  more  elevated  parts  of  it  in 
winter,  and  descend  to  the  sheltered  ravines  below,  to  escape  the 
fierce  winds  that  then  sweep  over  it.  They  are  sometimes  so  cold 
as  to  kill  not  only  the  flocks,  but  their  shepherds  also. 

Many  years  ago  we  rode  direct  from  Damascus  to  S’as’a,  and, 
though  it  was  in  the  early  part  of  May,  we  nearly  perished  by  the 
way-side,  owing  to  a  most  pitiless  gale  of  wind.  When  we  reached 
the  dilapidated,  castle-like  khan  at  S’as’a  my  companion  was  speech¬ 
less,  and  so  chilled  that  he  had  to  be  lifted  off  his  horse  and  have  his 
limbs  rubbed  for  nearly  an  hour  to  restore  the  circulation.  S’as’a 
is  a  miserable  village,  about  ten  miles  west  of  el  Kesweh,  on  the 
south  side  of  Nahr  el  Jennany,  a  branch  of  the  A’waj.  Formerly 
it  had  two  large  caravansaries,  one  of  which  was  fortified  with  tow¬ 
ers  and  buttresses,  and  that  part  of  it  still  standing  is  now  occupied 
as  a  modern  khan.  We  found  it  crowded  with  fellahin,  or  peasants, 
who  had  taken  shelter  within  it  from  the  cold  wind-storm,  and  had 
kindled  a  large  fire  in  one  of  the  dingy  vaults  of  the  old  khan, 
which  contributed  greatly  to  their  comfort  as  well  as  our  own. 

At  S’as’a  an  ancient  road  from  Damascus  to  the  coast  passed 
through  the  middle  of  Aklim  el  Jeidur  in  a  south-westerly  direction 
to  Kuneitirah,  and  thence  down  to  Jisr  Benat  Ya’kob  over  the  Jor¬ 
dan  below  Lake  Huleh,  and  southward  to  Tiberias  and  Jerusalem, 
or  westward  to  the  sea.  There  are  very  few  villages  along  that 
route  between  S’as’a  and  the  Jordan;  and  el  Kuneitirah,  which  is 
the  central  station,  is  now  occupied  by  a  few  peasants  only.  The 
khan  and  other  buildings  are  in  ruins,  and  the  place,  though  well 
supplied  with  water,  is  often  deserted. 

It  was  probably  along  that  road  that  the  over-zealous  Saul  hur¬ 
ried  onward  toward  Damascus  on  his  cruel  mission.  He  would 
have  crossed  the  Jordan  on  the  bridge  of  Jacob’s  Daughters,  and 
pressed  forward  by  Kuneitirah  and  S’as’a  to  Juneh,  where  he  would 
get  the  first  view  of  the  plain  of  Damascus ;  and  probably,  when 
about  to  enter  the  Ghutah,  not  far  from  that  village,  he  fell  to  the 
ground  overpowered  by  that  great  light  which  suddenly  shone 
from  heaven  round  about  him.  This  is,  of  course,  mere  inference 
from  the  line  of  travel  he  would  be  likely  to  select.  No  name  is 


jONEH. — DEIR  ’ALY.— THE  MARCIONITES. 


433 


given  to  the  place  where  Saul’s  miraculous  conversion  occurred. 
We  are  only  told  that  it  was  “near  Damascus,”  and  before  he  en¬ 
tered  the  city.1  Evidently  the  place  was  not  the  one  which  is  now 
pointed  out  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  city ;  and  a  tradition  dating 
back  to  the  twelfth  century  places  the  actual  spot  near  Juneh. 

It  has  taken  nearly  five  hours  from  Damascus  to  reach  this 
Druse  village  of  Deir  ’Aly,  and  we  can  spare  a  few  minutes  only  for 
rest  and  lunch,  for  half  our  day’s  ride  to  el  Musmeih,  on  the  north¬ 
ern  border  of  the  Lejah,  remains  to  be  accomplished. 

There  seems  to  be  nothing  of  special  interest  in  or  about  this 
forlorn  and  dilapidated  village. 

It  evidently  occupies  the  site  of  an  ancient  town,  and  there  are 
several  Greek  inscriptions  on  old  stones  built  into  the  walls  of  these 
ruinous  houses.  In  company  with  a  party  of  English  and  Ameri¬ 
can  friends,  I  spent  a  night  at  this  place  a  few  years  ago.  The  day 
had  been  rainy,  and  the  evening  air  was-  chilly  and  uncomfortable, 
and  all  night  long  we  were  serenaded  by  an  innumerable  multitude 
of  frogs  in  a  pond  near  our  tents.  In  the  morning  we  copied  some 
of  the  inscriptions.  According  to  one  of  them,  on  the  lintel  of  a 
door  of  a  private  house,  the  name  of  this  place  in* the  fourth  century 
was  Leboda;  and  its  modern  name  of  Deir  ’Aly  may  have  been 
given  to  it  from  the  ruins  of  a  church  which,  according  to  the 
same  inscription,  belonged  to  the  heretical  sect  of  the  Marcionites. 
There  are  several  other  short  inscriptions  built  into  the  walls  of 
these  miserable  hovels,  and  over  the  door  of  a  ruined  apartment  in 
the  court  of  the  sheikh’s  house  is  carved  an  altar,  a  scroll  with  a  few 
Greek  letters,  the  figure  of  a  bird,  probably  meant  for  a  dove,  and 
a  palm-branch — all  clearly  cut  and  well  preserved.  The  present  in¬ 
habitants  are  quite  proud  that  their  village  had  an  ancient  name 
and  history,  even  though  Christian  and  heretical. 

Who  were  the  Marcionites? 

A  sect  that  derived  the  name  from  Marcion,  a  native  of  Sinope, 
on  the  Black  Sea,  and  a  religious  sceptic  of  the  second  century. 
Marcion  held  that  the  God  of  the  Old  Testament  was  the  creator 
of  matter  which  was  essentially  evil,  and  the  source  of  evil  in  this 
world,  and  that  he  was  not  the  God  of  the  New  Testament.  He 

1  Acts  ix.  3. 


434 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


also  rejected  all  the  gospels  except  that  of  Luke,  and  he  even  al¬ 
tered  it  to  accord  with  his  own  teachings.  He  denied  the  resurrec¬ 
tion  of  the  body  and  other  essential  doctrines  held  by  the  ortho¬ 
dox,  and  by  his  zeal  in  disseminating  his  religious  opinions  he 
caused  great  controversy  in  the  Church. 

Marcion  was  repeatedly  excommunicated,  and  finally  cut  off  en¬ 
tirely  from  Christian  fellowship.  Subsequently  he  became  the  head 
of  the  sect  that  bore  his  name,  and  was  both  dreaded  and  hated, 
as  the  following  anecdote  makes  sufficiently  evident.  He  was  anx¬ 
ious  to  claim  acquaintance  with  Polycarp,  and,  meeting  him  on  one 
occasion,  Marcion  asked  if  he  knew  him.  “  I  know  thee  as  the  first¬ 
born  of  Satan,”  was  the  repellent  and  curt  reply.  It  does  not  ap¬ 
pear  that  Marcion  ever  visited  this  part  of  the  country,  but  his  doc¬ 
trines  spread  extensively  among  the  Eastern  churches. 

It  is  strange  to  find  the  name  of  such  an  ancient  schismatic 
sect  established  in  the  early  days  of  Christianity  at  this  now  forlorn 
and  wretched  hamlet  of  ignorant  Druses,  and  I  suppose  that  many 
of  the  “  initiated  ”  among  that  peculiar  people  would  accept  most 
of  the  heretical  speculations  of  Marcion. 

The  district  weSt  of  us  is  far  more  varied  and  interesting  than  a 
large  part  of  the  featureless  region  over  which  we  have  been  riding 
since  leaving  Deir  ’Aly.  It  is  now  called  el  Jeidur,  and  the  name 
was  probably  derived  from  Jetur,  one  of  the  twelve  sons  of  Ishmael, 
whose  descendants  appear  to  have  inhabited  that  region.1  In  the 
fifth  chapter  of  1st  Chronicles  we  read  that  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes 
— “  the  sons  of  Reuben,  and  the  Gadites,  and  half  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh,  valiant  men,  able  to  bear  buckler  and  sword,  and  to 
shoot  with  bow,  and  skilful  in  war,  made  war  with  the  Hagarites 
[Ishmael’s  descendants],  with  Jetur,  and  Nepish,  and  Nodab.  And 
they  were  helped  against  them,  and  the  Hagarites  were  delivered 
into  their  hand,  and  all  that  were  with  them.  And  the  children  of 
the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  dwelt  in  the  land  ;  they  increased  from 
Bashan  unto  Baal-hermon,  and  Senir,  and  unto  Mount  Hermon.”2 

Though  the  entire  country  east  of  the  Jordan  to  Hermon,  in¬ 
cluding,  of  course,  the  possessions  of  Jetur,  was  thus  practically  sub¬ 
dued,  the  Hagarites  were  not  exterminated,  but  they  were  held 

1  Gen.  xxv.  15,  16.  2  1  Chron.  v.  18-23. 


EL  JEIDUR. — 1TUREA. 


435 


in  subjection  by  the  two  tribes  and  a  half,  who  dwelt  in  the  land 
“until  the  captivity.”  After  that  event,  and  until  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  Babylon,  the  inhabitants  of  this  part  of  the  country 
appear  to  have  regained  their  independence.  But  after  the  con¬ 
quest  of  Syria  by  Alexander  the  Great,  B.c.  333,  the  various  tribes 
in  this  region  came  under  the  sway  of  the  Ptolemies  and  the  Seleu- 
cidse,  and  the  Greeks,  according  to  their  custom,  changed  the  name 
of  the  ancient  Jetur  into  Iturea. 

During  the  interregnum  between  the  revolt  of  the  Jews  against 
the  Syrian  kings  and  the  establishment  of  the  Roman  empire  in 
this  land,  and  about  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  B.C.,  we 
learn  from  Josephus  that  Aristobulus,  one  of  the  Maccabean  princes, 
who  had  assumed  the  kingly  title,  “  made  war  against  Iturea,  and 
added  a  great  part  of  it  to  Judea,  and  compelled  the  inhabitants,  if 
they  would  continue  in  that  country  [to  become  Jews],  and  to  live 
according  to  the  Jewish  laws.”1  About  forty  years  later  Syria  was 
declared  a  Roman  province  by  Pompey,  and  Iturea  was  comprised 
within  it.  And  in  Luke  we  read  that  Philip,  the  son  of  Herod  the 
Great,  was  tetrarch  of  Iturea  at  the  time  when  “  the  word  of  God 
came  unto  John  the  son  of  Zacharias  in  the  wilderness.” 2  He  prob¬ 
ably  obtained  it  from  his  father,  and  it  seems  to  have  remained  in 
the  Herodian  family  until  the  death  of  Herod  Agrippa,  the  last  of 
that  line,  when  it  reverted  to  the  Roman  empire. 

The  subsequent  history  of  Iturea  is  essentially  the  same  as  that 
of  Damascus,  of  which  it  became  a  dependency,  and  has  remained 
so  to  this  day.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  identification  of 
the  modern  district  of  el  Jeidur  with  at  least  a  part  of  the  posses¬ 
sions  of  Jetur,  the  son  of  Ishmael,  and  of  the  Greco-Roman  prov¬ 
ince  of  Iturea.  The  names  are  nearly  the  same,  and  the  position  of 
the  present  district  accords  with  the  general  situation  given  to  it 
in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  by  Josephus  and  others. 
El  Jeidur  is  comparatively  a  large  district,  having  Wady  el  ’Ajam 
and  Aklim  el  Bellan  on  the  north  ;  the  lower  ranges  and  foot-hills 
of  Hermon  on  the  west ;  el  Jaulan,  the  ancient  Golan,  and  el  Lejah, 
Trachonitis,  on  the  south;  the  latter  also  forming  its  eastern  boun¬ 
dary,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  present  Haj  road  only. 

1  Ant.  xiii.  11,  3.  2  Luke  iii.  I,  2. 


436 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


There  is  no  natural  division  between  the  districts  of  el  Jeidur 
and  el  Jaulan,  but  an  imaginary  line,  drawn  from  Dan  over  the 
southern  end  of  Hermon  and  across  the  plain  in  a  south-easterly 
direction  to  the  Haj  road,  would  sufficiently  indicate  their  relative 
positions.  El  Jaulan  was  called  Gaulanitis  by  the  Greeks,  and  that, 
as  well  as  its  present  Arabic  name,  was  derived  from  Golan,  given 
by  Moses  to  the  Levites,  and  appointed  to  be  one  of  the  three 
cities  of  refuge  “  on  this  side  Jordan  towards  the  sunrising.”1  Its 
length  is  from  north  to  south  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Merom  and 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  which  form  its  western  border  down  to  the  river 
Jarmuk,  the  ancient  Heiromax. 

Both  districts  of  el  Jeidur  and  el  Jaulan  are  lava  plateaus,  over 
two  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  much  of  the  land 
is  destitute  of  water  in  summer.  But,  owing  to  the  great  elevation 
of  the  northern  portions,  that  region  is  cold  in  winter,  and  often 
covered  with  snow.  In  the  spring,  however,  it  abounds  in  rich 
pasture,  and  the  Wuld  ’Aly,  a  Bedawin  tribe,  then  take  possession 
of  it  with  their  countless  camels  and  numerous  flocks  of  sheep  and 
goats.  I  have  crossed  both  districts  in  different  directions  without 
finding  an  inhabited  village  or  an  acre  of  land  that  was  not  covered 
with  lava  bowlders.  The  entire  country  was  then  nearly  deserted, 
and  the  Kurds  and  Bedawins  I  met  with  were  robbers:  justifying 
in  that  respect  the  traditional  reputation  of  the  ancient  Hagarites 
and  the  Greco-Roman  Itureans.  In  both  districts  there  are  ruins 
of  old  towns  and  deserted  villages  to  the  extraordinary  number  of 
over  one  hundred  and  thirty ;  but  of  inhabited  places  there  are  not 
more  than  fifty,  and  while  at  least  three-fourths  of  the  former  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  Jaulan,  the  same  proportion  of  the  latter  are 
found  in  the  district  of  el  Jeidur. 

But  to  return  to  our  present  surroundings.  It  has  taken  us  an 
hour,  brisk  riding,  from  Deir  ’Aly  to  this  semi-dilapidated  hamlet 
called  ez  Zughbar,  and  half  an  hour  of  slow  progress  through  a 
barren  waste  covered  with  black  lava  bowlders,  the  debris  of  a  world 
once  on  fire,  will  bring  us  to  the  village  of  el  Merjany.  That  name 
was  probably  given  to  it  from  the  merj,  or  meadow,  north-west  of 
it,  from  whence  comes  this  little  brook  of  good  water.  We  must 

1  Deut.  iv.  41--43. 


EL  MERJANY.— EL  BURAK. 


437 


fill  our  “  bottles”  at  this  place,  for  we  may  not  find  any  water  fit  to 
drink  at  el  Musmeih,  where  we  are  to  encamp.  The  plenteous  sup¬ 
ply  of  water  here  accounts  for  the  fact  that  these  scattered  ruins 
are  partially  inhabited  while  so  many  other  places  along  this  ex¬ 
posed  frontier  are  wholly  abandoned.  El  Merjany  was  evidently 
an  ancient  site,  and  some  of  the  houses  and  other  edifices  were 
large  and  well  built;  but  no  inscriptions  have  been  found  among 
the  ruins  to  tell  what  name  it  bore  in  former  times. 

From  here  on,  for  much  of  the  distance  to  Musmeih,  we  must 
wade  through  a  loose  grayish  soil,  like  the  remains  of  a  great  ash- 
heap,  free  from  stones,  and  sparsely  covered  with  clumps  of  south¬ 
ernwood  and  other  shrubs  and  bushes.  Road  there  is  none,  and 
the  Druse  muleteer  directs  our  course  by  some  landmarks  on  the 
distant  border  of  the  Lejah,  not  far  from  el  Musmeih,  seen  by  him, 
but  which  are  quite  invisible  to  me. 

From  the  top  of  this  hill  near  Merjany,  though  it  is  not  very 
lofty,  we  look  out  over  what  appears  to  be  a  boundless  plateau 
stretching  far  away  to  the  east  and  south-east.  What  is  the 
nature  of  the  country  in  that  direction  ? 

It  has  been  rarely  visited  by  travellers,  and  comparatively  little 
is  known  about  it.  Burckhardt,  in  one  of  his  tours  from  Damascus 
through  the  Hauran,  passed  from  el  Merjany  round  the  eastern 
border  of  the  Lejah.  As  we  shall  follow  the  western  side,  a  brief 
resume  of  his  account  will  be  interesting,  and  it  will  also  help  to 
beguile  the  monotony  and  weariness  of  the  next  two  hours’  ride. 

In  half  an  hour  from  el  Merjany  to  the  south-east  Burckhardt 
came  to  ’Amud  es  Subh,  or  Column  of  the  Morning,  “  an  insulated 
pillar,”  with  a  high  pedestal,  standing  in  the  plain,  of  the  Ionic 
order,  built  of  black  lava,  and  about  thirty  feet  high.  There  were 
no  inscriptions  upon  it,  but  from  broken  fragments  of  columns 
around  the  pillar  he  supposed  that  a  small  temple  may  have  stood 
there,  and  “the  remains  of  a  subterraneous  aqueduct,  extending 
from  the  village  towards  the  spot  where  the  column  stands,  £re  yet 
visible.”  Two  hours  from  Merjany  is  el  Burak,  “  a  ruined  town  sit¬ 
uated  on  the  north-east  corner  of  the  Lejah:  there  is  no  large  build¬ 
ing  of  any  consequence  here,  but  there  are  many  private  habita¬ 
tions.”  In  the  interior  of  one  house  and  on  the  outside  wall  of 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


438 

another,  among  the  ruins  of  el  Burak,  Burckhardt  saw  two  well- 
preserved  Greek  inscriptions,  which  he  copied.1 

Dr.  Porter,  who  visited  el  Burak  many  years  after,  and  spent  a 
night  in  one  of  those  “private  habitations,”  thus  describes  it  :  “The 
house  seemed  to  have  undergone  little  change  from  the  time  its 
old  master  had  left  it,  and  yet  the  thick  nitrous  crust  on  the  floor 
showed  that  it  had  been  deserted  for  long  ages.  The  walls  were 
prefect,  nearly  five  feet  thick,  built  of  large  blocks  of  hewn  stones 
without  lime  or  cement  of  any  kind.  The  roof  was  formed  of  large 
slabs  of  the  same  black  basalt,  lying  as  regularly  and  jointed  as 
closely  as  if  the  workmen  had  just  completed  them.  They  meas¬ 
ured  twelve  feet  in  length,  eighteen  inches  in  breadth,  and  six 
inches  in  thickness.  The  ends  rested  on  a  plain  stone  cornice,  pro¬ 
jecting  about  a  foot  from  each  side  wall. 

“  The  chamber  was  twenty  feet  long,  twelve  wide,  and  ten  high. 
The  outer  door  was  a  slab  of  stone  four  and  a  half  feet  high,  four 
wide,  and  eight  inches  thick.  It  hung  upon  pivots  formed  of  pro¬ 
jecting  parts  of  the  slab  working  in  sockets  in  the  lintel  and  thresh¬ 
old,  and  though  so  massive,  I  was  able  to  open  and  shut  it  with 
ease.  At  one  end  of  the  room  was  a  small  window  with  a  stone 
shutter.  An  inner  door,  also  of  stone,  but  of  finer  workmanship, 
and  not  quite  so  heavy  as  the  other,  admitted  to  a  chamber  of  the 
same  size  and  appearance.  From  it  a  much  larger  door  communi¬ 
cated  with  a  third  chamber,  to  which  there  was  a  descent  by  a  flight 
of  stone  steps.  This  was  a  spacious  hall  equal  in  width  to  the  two 
rooms,  and  about  twenty-five  feet  long  by  twenty  high.  A  semi¬ 
circular  arch  was  thrown  across  it,  supporting  the  stone  roof,  and 
a  gate  so  large  that  camels  could  pass  in  and  out  opened  on  the 
street.  The  gate  was  of  stone,  and  in  its  place ;  but  some  rubbish 
had  accumulated  on  the  threshold,  and  it  appeared  to  have  been 
open  for  ages. 

“  Such  were  the  internal  arrangements  of  this  strange  old  man¬ 
sion.  It  had  only  one  story,  and  its  simple,  massive  style  of  archi¬ 
tecture  gave  evidence  of  a  very  remote  antiquity.  On  a  large  stone 
which  formed  the  lintel  of  the  gate-way  there  was  a  Greek  inscrip¬ 
tion  ;  but  it  was  so  high  up  that  I  was  unable  to  decipher  it,  though 

1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  pp.  214,  215. 


LUFH  EL  JEJAH.— WADY  LIWA. 


439 


I  could  see  that  the  letters  were  of  the  oldest  type.  It  is  probably 
the  same  which  was  copied  by  Burckhardt,  and  which  bears  a  date 
apparently  equivalent  to  the  year  B.C.  306.”  1 

According  to  Burckhardt,  there  were  “  two  saltpetre  manufacto¬ 
ries  at  el  Burak,  in  which  the  saltpetre  is  procured  by  boiling  the 
earth  dug  up  among  the  ruins  of  the  town.  The  boilers  of  these 
manufactories  are  heated  by  brushwood  brought  from  the  desert,  as 
there  is  little  wood  in  the  Lejah  about  el  Burak.”2  At  that  time 
there  were  many  such  manufactories  in  all  parts  of  the  Lejah  arid 
adjacent  regions,  but  they  are  now  nearly  all  abandoned. 

Continuing  his  journey,  Burckhardt  “  engaged  a  man  at  el  Burak 
to  conduct  [him]  along  the  Lufh  or  limits  of  the  Lejah.  This  east¬ 
ern  part  is  called  el  Liwa,  from  Wady  Liwa,  a  winter  torrent  which 
descends  from  Jebel  Hauran,”  far  to  the  south-east,  rising  near  a 
village  called  Nimreh,  below  which  for  some  distance  it  is  called 
Wady  Nimreh.  It  flows  northward  along  the  entire  eastern  border 
of  the  Lejah,  “  filling  in  its  course  the  reservoirs  of  all  the  ancient 
towns  situated  there.  In  some  places  Wady  Liwa  approaches  close 
to  the  Lejah,  and  in  others  advances  for  a  mile  into  the  plain ;  its 
banks  were  covered  with  the  most  luxuriant  herbage,  of  which  little 
use  is  made,  the  Arabs  of  the  Lejah  being  afraid  to  pass  beyond 
its  limits,  from  the  almost  continual  state  of  warfare  in  which  they 
live  with  the  powerful  tribe  of  the  ’Anazeh  and  the  government  of 
Damascus ;  while  the  ’Anazeh,  on  the  other  hand,  are  shy  of  ap¬ 
proaching  too  near  the  Lejah,  from  fear  of  the  nightly  robberies 
and  of  the  fire-arms  of  the  Arabs  who  inhabit  it.  The  laborers  in 
the  saltpetre  manufactories  are  Druses,  whose  reputation  for  indi¬ 
vidual  courage  and  national  spirit  keeps  the  Arabs  at  a  respectful 
distance.  The  Liwa  empties  into  Bahret  el  Merj  [or  Hijaneh], 
seven  or  eight  hours  east  of  Damascus.”3 

Burckhardt  slept  at  el  Khulkhuleh,  u  like  all  the  ancient  towns 
in  the  Hauran,  built  entirely  with  stone.”  There  he  collected  the 
names  of  several  ruined  villages  and  tells,  with  ruins  on  or  around 
them,  to  the  east  and  south-east  of  Khulkhuleh.  The  direction  of 
his  route  from  that  place  “  was  sometimes  south-east,  sometimes 

1  The  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan,  etc.,  pp.  26,  27. 

a  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  p.  214.  3  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  pt).  216,  217. 

G  2 


440 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


south,  following  the  windings  of  the  Lejah  and  the  Liwa.  In  four 
hours  [he]  reached  Um  ez  Zeitun,  a  village  inhabited  by  Druses,” 
having  passed  nine  villages  and  towns  in  ruins,  which  “  prove  the 
once  flourishing  state  of  the  Lejah.  The  advantages  of  a  wady 
like  the  Liwa  are  incalculable  in  these  countries,  where  we  always 
find  that  cultivation  follows  the  direction  of  the  winter  torrents,  as 
it  follows  the  Nile  in  Egypt;  and  the  inhabitants  make  the  best 
use  of  the  water  after  the  great  rains  have  ceased  to  irrigate  their 
fields  and  fill  the  reservoirs  which  supply  both  men  and  cattle  with 
water  till  the  return  of  the  rainy  season.” 

“Um  ez  Zeitun  is  inhabited  by  thirty  or  forty  Druse  families. 
It  appears,  by  the  extent  of  its  ruins,  to  have  been  formerly  a  town 
of  some  note.  I  here  copied  several  inscriptions.”  Burckhardt  had 
intended  to  spend  the  night  at  Um  ez  Zeitun,  but  found  the  Druses 
very  ill-disposed  towards  him.  “It  was  generally  reported,”  he 
says,  “  that  I  had  [previously]  discovered  a  hid  treasure  at  Shuhba, 
near  this  place,  and  it  was  supposed  that  I  had  now  returned  to 
carry  off  what  I  had  then  left  behind.  I  had  to  combat  against 
this  story  at  almost  every  place,  but  I  was  nowhere  so  rudely  re¬ 
ceived  as  at  this  village,  where  I  escaped  ill-treatment  only  by  as¬ 
suming  a  very  imposing  air,  and  threatening,  with  many  oaths,  that 
if  I  lost  a  single  hair  of  my  beard,  the  Pasha  would  levy  an  avania 
of  many  purses  on  the  village.”1  From  that  inhospitable  place 
Burckhardt  continued  next  day  southward  by  Suleim  and  ’Atil  to 
es  Suweideh,  but,  as  we  shall  there  come  in  contact  with  his  route, 
we  need  not  follow  it  any  farther  at  present. 

It  would  be  very  interesting  to  pass  through  that  region  and  to 
explore  the  country  beyond  it  east  of  the  Lejah. 

It  was  the  ancient  Batanaea,  and  is  still  called  Ard  el  Bathan- 
yeh,  the  land  of  Bathanyeh,  from  a  town  of  that  name  which  occu¬ 
pies  the  site  of  Batanis,  the  capital  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  prov¬ 
ince.  That  region  is  mentioned  by  Josephus  in  connection  with 
Trachonitis  and  Auranitis  as  being  subject  to  Philip,  the  son  of 
Herod  the  Great  and  Cleopatra,  and  the  same  whose  tetrarchy  is 
alluded  to  by  Luke.3 

1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  pp.  218-220. 

2  Ant.  xvii.  11,  4  :  B.  J.  ii.  6,  3  ;  ii.  12,  8  ;  iii.  3,  5  :  Luke  iii.  1. 


PROVINCE  OF  BATANAEA.— ARD  EL  BATHANYEH. 


441 


El  Bathanyeh  was  explored  by  M.  Waddington,  who  gives  in¬ 
scriptions  from  about  forty  ancient  towns  which  he  includes  within 
the  province  of  Batanaea.  But  perhaps  he  did  not  intend  to  ar¬ 
range  his  inscriptions  with  strict  reference  to  the  old  geographical 
boundaries  of  the  provinces,  for  a  number  of  places  are  mentioned 
in  his  group  which  certainly  belonged  to  Trachonitis;  that  is,  the 
Lejah  and  others  on  the  south  and  west  of  Jebel  Hauran  were  not 
connected  with  Batanaea.  The  ancient  names  are  still  preserved, 
and  several  sites  with  similar  Arabic  names  have  been  identified 
with  places  mentioned  by  classic  writers.  But  the  old  towns  are 
nearly  all  deserted,  though  many  of  the  houses,  with  their  remark¬ 
able  stone  walls,  stone  roofs,  stone  doors  and  window-shutters,  are 
still  almost  perfect,  and  would  require  very  little  repair  by  the 
natives  of  that  region  to  make  them  habitable  again. 

“  The  name  Ard  el  Bathanyeh,”  says  Dr.  Porter,  “  though  well 
known  to  the  natives,  is  not  much  used  by  strangers.  The  region 
is  generally  called  ‘Jebel  Hauran,’  or  ‘Jebel  ed  Druze.’  It  extends 
from  the  plain  near  the  conspicuous  hill  [on  the  north]  called  Tell 
el  Khalediyeh  to  Sulkhad  on  the  south,  and  from  Kunawat  to  the 
borders  of  the  great  plain  on  the  east.  The  whole  of  the  province 
is  exceedingly  picturesque.  The  mountains  are  well  wooded,  with 
forests  of  evergreen  oak,  and  the  sides  terraced.  In  the  northern 
part,  around  Bathanyeh  and  Shuka,  the  slopes  are  gentle,  and  the 
soil  the  richest  in  the  Hauran.  Along  the  whole  eastern  sides,  as 
I  was  informed,  and  in  part  saw,  the  slopes  resemble  those  on  the 
north.  Over  the  mountains  and  through  the  vales  the  pastures  are 
the  most  luxuriant  in  Syria.  There  is  a  pleasing  variety,  too,  in  the 
landscape  that  is  seldom  witnessed  in  this  land,  and  the  natural 
beauties  are  enhanced  by  the  vast  numbers  of  ruined  towns  and 
villages.  Little  peaks  are  always  in  view  as  one  wanders  along, 
crowned  with  temple,  castle,  or  crumbling  tower,  while  the  graceful 
forms  of  lofty  columns  are  here  and  there  seen  shooting  up  through 
the  green  foliage.  The  whole  of  these  mountains  are  basalt,  and 
the  two  loftiest  summits,  Abu  Tumeis  [in  the  north]  and  Kuleib 
Hauran  [on  the  south]  were  probably  at  one  time  volcanoes.  Their 
elevation  is  about  five  thousand  feet.”  1 

1  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  etc.,  October,  1856,  pp.  799,  800. 


442 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


When  the  Egyptian  army,  under  Ibrahim  Pasha,  about  forty- 
seven  years  ago,  conquered  the  Lejah  after  several  severe  battles, 
many  of  the  Druses  who  had  taken  refuge  there  escaped  into  the 
region  of  el  Bathanyeh.  Some  of  their  sheikhs,  with  whom  I  was 
acquainted,  finally  returned  to  their  homes  on  Lebanon,  and  they 
spoke  in  high  terms  of  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  that  country. 
They  also  described  a  region  in  the  dreary  wilderness  east  of  it 
called  el  Harrah,  or  the  burnt  district,  which,  they  said,  was  en¬ 
tirely  destitute  of  water,  and  that  even  the  Bedawin  Arabs  of  the 
desert  could  hardly  pass  through  it. 

That  “  burnt  district  ”  is  a  veritable  terra  incognita ,  I  suppose, 
and  must  ever  remain  an  undiscovered  region. 

The  description  of  the  Harrah  given  by  those  Druse  sheikhs 
accords  in  the  main  with  that  of  the  only  two  Europeans  who 
have  attempted  to  explore  it.  In  the  autumn  of  1857  Mr.  Cyril  C. 
Graham  accomplished  a  bold  and  hazardous  tour  through  a  con¬ 
siderable  part  of  that  district,  and  I  remember  listening  with  great 
interest  to  the  narrative  of  his  perils  and  privations  after  his  return 
to  Beirut.  He  subsequently  prepared  a  report  of  his  journey  for 
the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  which  furnishes  much  reliable  informa¬ 
tion  in  regard  to  that  region. 

El  Harrah  is  mostly  a  dreary,  undulating  plain,  extending  east¬ 
ward  and  southward  from  Jebel  Hauran  for  several  days’  journey — 
a  desert  waste,  destitute  of  verdure  and  springs  of  water,  with  no 
running  streams  and  but  few  trees,  covered  with  fragments  of  black 
basaltic  rock,  and  glowing  under  the  fierce  rays  of  the  burning  sun 
like  a  furnace — hence  its  significant  name.  There  are  a  great  num¬ 
ber  of  wells  in  that  region,  and  the  ancient  inhabitants  must  have 
depended  mainly  upon  them  for  their  supply  of  water;  but  they 
are  now  either  “  broken  cisterns  ”  or  filled  up  with  rubbish. 

“The  deserted  though  not  ruined”  places  examined  by  Mr. 
Graham  in  the  Harrah  were  of  the  same  general  character  as  those 
of  similar  sites  in  the  Hauran,  having  the  same  massive  stone  walls, 
stone  doors,  stone  window-shutters,  and  stone  roofs.  But  perhaps 
the  most  important  discovery  made  by  him  in  that  burnt  district 
was  the  finding,  in  different  places,  of  numberless  rock  inscriptions. 
“  I  found,”  he  says,  “  several  such  places,  where  every  stone  within 


EL  HARRAH.— ES  SAFAH.— ARABS  OF  THE  LEJAH. 


443 


a  given  space  bore  the  mark  of  some  beast  or  other  figure,  with  an 
accompanying  inscription.”  And  he  thinks  that  “  we  have  in  those 
inscriptions  specimens  of  a  writing  which,  though  not  purely  Him- 
yaritic,  is,  nevertheless,  very  much  allied  to  it.” 

“From  reports  brought  by  Arabs  that  there  are  innumerable 
rock  inscriptions  in  the  desert  between  the  Hauran  and  the  Eu¬ 
phrates,”  Mr.  Graham  is  convinced  “  that  one  great  race  formerly 
overran  all  those  parts,  and  eventually  settled  in  southern  Arabia, 
and  formed  the  dynasties  of  the  kings  of  whom  we  have  more 
specially  heard  under  the  name  of  the  Himyri.”  A  few  years  after 
Mr.  Graham’s  adventurous  tour,  Dr.  J.  G.  Wetzstein,  then  Prussian 
Consul  at  Damascus,  made  an  excursion  into  the  Harrah  and  the 
Safah,  north  of  it,  a  district  remarkable  for  the  number  of  its  cone- 
shaped  tells,  the  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes.  He  also  published 
an  interesting  account  of  his  tour,  especially  in  regard  to  the  little 
known  regions  of  es  Safah. 

It  seems  to  me  that  our  guide  is  treating  us  to  a  specimen  of 
the  Harrah,  or  burnt  district,  by  the  route  he  is  conducting  us. 
Our  horses  have  been  wearily  plodding  through  this  soft  volcanic 
soil  for  the  last  hour  and  a  half,  sinking  at  every  step  over  their 
fetlocks,  to  the  great  discomfort  of  both  horse  and  rider.  Mine  is 
well-nigh  exhausted  and  quite  discouraged,  and  inclined  to  halt 
every  few  minutes  to  rest  and  take  breath. 

The  temple  at  Musmeih  is  in  sight,  and  we  shall  soon  dismount 
at  our  tents,  pitched  in  front  of  it. 

September  17th.  Evening. 

The  wild -looking  Arabs  who  stared  at  us  from  amongst  the 
ruins  as  we  rode  up  to  our  tents  had  a  very  suspicious  and  sinister 
appearance. 

This  deserted  city  is  only  occupied  now  by  a  few  Bedawin  from 
the  Lejah,  and  our  Druse  muleteer,  who  is  acquainted  with  some 
of  them,  says  that  they  will  not  venture  to  molest  us.  The  half  a 
dozen  or  more  petty  tribes  of  Bedawin  who  inhabit  the  Lejah, 
though  nominally  tributary  to  the  Pasha  of  Damascus,  have  a  far 
greater  respect  for  the  Druses  in  this  region  than  for  the  Turkish 
authorities,  and  they  frequently  refuse  to  pay  the  annual  tribute 
levied  upon  them.  On  such  occasions  they  retire  into  the  fast- 


444 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


nesses  of  this  rocky  district,  and  bid  defiance  to  the  government 
troops  sent  against  them.  But,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  water  in 
the  Lejah  for  their  flocks  and  herds,  they  are  eventually  compelled 
to  come  to  terms  with  the  authorities,  and  a  compromise  is  usually 
effected  through  the  friendly  mediation  of  some  Druse  sheikh. 

During  the  spring  and  summer,  the  great  nomadic  tribes  of  the 
desert,  when  not  in  open  rebellion  against  the  Pasha,  generally 
overrun  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  and  the  Hauran  as  far 
north  as  the  Ghutah  of  Damascus.  But,  as  their  relations  with  the 
government  and  the  Druses  are  about  as  uncertain  as  their  own 
with  the  Bedawin  of  this  region,  it  frequently  happens  that  their 
hand  is  against  every  man,  and  every  man’s  hand  against  them. 
Then  travel  in  this  part  of  the  country  is  unsafe. 

Is  it  not  probable  that  the  apostle  Paul  passed  through  the 
Lejah  when  he  escaped  from  Damascus  and  “went  into  Arabia?” 

It  is,  at  least,  possible.  He  appears  to  have  remained  in  his 
retreat  for  a  considerable  time,  for  he  did  not  go  back  to  Jerusa¬ 
lem  until  three  years  after  his  return  to  Damascus.  It  is  an  inter¬ 
esting  thought  that,  perhaps  during  those  three  years,  the  zealous 
apostle  may  have  founded  some  of  the  churches  which  were  greatly 
multiplied  in  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  and  the  region  around 
Damascus  in  the  first  and  second  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. . 
Those  early  converts  seem  to  have  been  inclined  to  embrace  va¬ 
rious  doctrinal  heresies,  and  Origen,  though  quite  advanced  in 
years,  was  summoned  from  Caesarea  more  than  once  to  bring  them 
back  to  the  orthodox  faith ;  and  in  such  benevolent  missions  that 
learned  and  eminent  father  was  always  successful. 

The  Lejah  has  been  identified  with  “  the  region  of  Argob,”  a 
part  of  “the  kingdom  of  Og,”  the  giant  “king  of  Bashan,”  which 
Moses  “  gave  unto  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  with  all  Bashan, 
which  was  called  the  land  of  giants.”1  In  the  time  of  Solomon, 
about  four  hundred  and  thirty  years  later,  “the  region  of  Argob, 
which  is  in  Bashan,”  was  assigned  to  one  of  his  purveyors  with  its 
“threescore  great  cities  with  walls  and  brazen  bars.”2  We  hear 
nothing  further  of  Argob  in  the  Bible  for  a  thousand  years  or  more, 
until  after  the  reign  of  Herod  the  Great,  when  it  is  mentioned  by 

1  Deut.  iii.  3-5,  11,  13,  14.  2  1  Kings  iv.  13. 


ARGOB.— TRACHONITIS.— EL  LEJAH. 


445 


Luke  under  its  Greek  name  of  Trachonitis,  apparently  equivalent 
to  its  ancient  Hebrew  designation  of  the  rough  or  stony  region.1 

Josephus  informs  us  that  Uz,  the  great-grandson  of  Noah, 
“founded  Trachonitis  and  Damascus:  this  country,”  he  says,  “lies 
between  Palestine  and  Ccelesyria.”2  He  also  tells  us  that  in  the 
time  of  Herod  “  one  Zenodorus  became  a  partner  with  the  robbers 
that  inhabited  the  Trachonites,  and  so  procured  himself  a  larger 
income ;  for  the  inhabitants  of  those  places  live  in  a  mad  way,  and 
pillage  the  country  of  the  Damascenes.  This  way  of  robbery  had 
been  their  usual  practice,  and  they  had  no  other  way  to  get  their 
living.”  He  then  gives  a  description  of  the  extraordinay  caverns 
of  this  district  in  which  the  robbers  concealed  themselves,  their 
cattle,  and  their  plunder.  Their  raids  became  so  destructive  that 
Augustus  Caesar  “wrote  to  Varro  [then  ‘proconsul’  of  Syria]  to 
destroy  those  nests  of  robbers,  and  to  give  the  land  to  Herod,  that 
so  by  his  care  the  neighboring  countries  might  be  no  longer  dis¬ 
turbed  with  these  doings  of  the  Trachonites.”  3  Subsequently,  Tibe¬ 
rius  Caesar  gave  this  province  to  Philip,  the  son  of  Herod,  and  he 
became  tetrarch  of  this  region,  as  we  know  from  the  third  chapter 
of  Luke’s  Gospel.  During  the  reign  of  Nero,  Trachonitis  was  a  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Agrippa.4  Very  little  is  known  about  it  from 
that  time  to  the  present  day,  except  what  can  be  inferred  from 
the  numerous  inscriptions  which  have  been  found  amongst  the 
ruins  of  its  temples,  fortresses,  and  towns. 

Argob  and  its  Greek  name,  Trachonitis,  are  both  supposed  to 
have  been  given  to  this  region  on  account  of  its  rough,  stony,  and 
inaccessible  nature ;  has  its  Arabic  name  the  same  significance  ? 

Only  by  implication.  The  word  Lejah,  in  a  certain  sense,  refers 
to  the  act  of  resorting  to  a  place  for  the  purpose  of  protection, 
and  Meljah  would  be  the  Arabic  name  for  such  an  asylum  ;  and 
this  rocky  wilderness  of  black  lava  is  now,  and  probably  always  has 
been,  the  refuge  of  those  who  have  been  compelled  to  seek  safety 
from  their  enemies  and  persecutors. 

The  Lejah  is  a  district  wholly  unique,  and  is  correctly  described 
by  Dr.  Porter  as  “of  an  irregular  oval  shape,  about  twenty  miles 
long  by  fourteen  broad — the  circumference  [being]  fifty-eight  miles. 

1  Luke  iii.  I.  2  Ant.  i.  6,  4.  3  Ant.  xv.  10,  1.  4  B.  J.  ii.  6,  3 ;  iii.  3,  5. 


446 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Its  border  is  as  clearly  defined  as  the  line  of  a  rocky  coast,  which 
it  very  much  resembles.  The  surface  is  elevated  from  twenty  to 
thirty  feet  above  the  surrounding  plain.  At  a  little  distance  it 
appears  as  flat  as  a  sea;  the  only  hills  in  it  are  Tell  el  ’Amarah 
and  Tell  Sumeid.  The  former  is  the  loftier,  and  has  an  elevation 
of  about  three  hundred  feet. 

The  physical  features  of  the  Lejah  are  very  remarkable.  It  is 
composed  of  black  basalt,  which  appears  to  have  issued  from  pores 
in  the  earth  in  a  liquid  state  and  to  have  flowed  out  until  the  plain 
was  almost  covered.  Before  cooling,  its  surface  was  agitated  by 
some  powerful  agency,  and  it  was  afterwards  shattered  and  rent  by 
internal  convulsions  and  vibrations.  There  are  in  many  places  deep 
fissures  with  rugged,  broken  edges,  while  in  other  places  are  jagged 
heaps  of  rock  that  seem  not  to  have  been  sufficiently  heated  to 
flow,  but  were  forced  upwards  and  then  rent  and  shattered.  The 
rock  is  filled  with  air-bubbles;  it  is  as  hard  as  flint,  and  emits  a 
sharp  metallic  sound  when  struck.”1 

Although  barren  and  incapable  of  cultivation,  and  almost  en¬ 
tirely  destitute  of  fountains  and  streams,  yet  there  are  several 
“  pasturing  places  ”  in  and  about  the  Lejah,  and  it  is  dotted  with 
the  remains  of  old  towns,  some  of  which  were  places  of  consider¬ 
able  size  and  importance.  Thither  the  people  resorted  in  ancient 
times  from  all  sides,  and  in  this  Lejah  or  asylum  they  dwelt  secure 
from  the  raids  of  lawless  tribes,  and  bid  defiance  to  the  attacks  of 
even  regular  and  well-disciplined  armies. 

1  Five  Years  in  Damascus,  pp.  281,  282. 


EL  MUSMEIH  TO  EDHRA’  AND  KUNAWAT. 


447 


XII. 

EL  MUSMEIH  TO  EDHRA’  AND  KUNAWAT. 

Howling  Jackals  and  Barking  Dogs.  —  El  Musmeih,  Phasno.  —  Rock-cut  Road. — Cis¬ 
terns. — Roman  Legions. — An  Episcopal  City. — Temple  at  el  Musmeih. — Shell-shaped 
Roof. —  Columns  with  Wreaths  or  Bands. —  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  and  Lucius 
Aurelius  Verus.  —  Greek  Inscription. — Trachonitis,  el  Lejah.  —  Governor’s  Palace 
and  Bishop’s  Residence. — Ruins  of  Private  Houses. — Influence  of  External  Nature 
upon  Human  Character. — The  Border  of  the  Lejah. — Rocky  Labyrinths. — Fountains 
and  Streams. — The  Egyptian  Army  driven  out  of  the  Lejah. — Regular  Troops  of  no 
Avail  in  the  Volcanic  Clefts  and  Chasms  of  the  Lejah*. — Sha’arah. — Tower,  Temple, 
and  Inscription. — Manufacture  of  Saltpetre. — The  Outer  and  the  Inner  Lejah. — Oozy 
Black  Mud. — Stream  from  Tibny. — Scarcity  of  Water. — “  Deceitful  Brooks”  and  Job’s 
“Miserable  Comforters.”  —  The  Guides  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Caravans  “Con¬ 
founded  and  Ashamed.” — Personal  Experience  in  the  Wilderness  of  Wandering. — 
Deserted  Villages  and  Partially  Cultivated  Plain. — Es  Sunamein,  the  Two  Idols. — 
Mecca  Pilgrims. — Aere. — Stone  Walls,  Doors,  Windows,  and  Roofs. — Towers,  Tem¬ 
ples,  and  Inscriptions. — Fortuna,  the  Goddess  of  Luck. — Tell  Kusweh. — Khubab. — 
Ox  Ploughing  and  Taxation. — Manufacture  of  Lava  Millstones. — A  Century  Old. — 
Boys’  School. — Desire  for  Education. — Manners  and  Customs,  Dress  and  Appearance 
of  the  People  in  the  Lejah. — Interments  in  Open  Pens  of  Lava  Fragments. — Shuk- 
•  rah. — Muddy  Causeway. — Melihat  Hazkin. — Ruined  and  Deserted  Towers. — Saints’ 
Tomb. — Gray  Wolf. — Tibny. — A  French  Monk. — A  Mass  of  Prostrate  Buildings. — 
Wheat  Concealed  in  Cisterns. — Bedawin  Robbers. — Storehouses  of  Joseph  in  Egypt. 
— Luhf  el  Lejah. — Plain  of  the  Hauran. — Ruins  of  Ancient  Cities. — Ancient  Fire¬ 
proof  Houses. — Houses  Burned  Down  on  Lebanon. — Healthy  Climate  and  Extensive 
Prospects. — El  Hauran. — En  Niikrah,  el  Lejah,  and  el  Jebel. — Dr.  Eli  Smith’s  List 
of  Two  Hundred  and  Thirty-nine  Sites  of  Towns  and  Villages. — Moslems,  Druses, 
and  Christians. — Greeks  and  Greek  Catholics. — Sites  of  Seventy-five  Villages  and  An¬ 
cient  Towns  within  and  around  the  Lejah. — “Threescore  Cities  Fenced  with  High 
Walls.” — “  The  Kingdom  of  Og  in  Bashan.” — Approach  to  Edhra’  through  Lava  De¬ 
files  and  along  a  Rock-cut  Road. — Site  of  Edhra’. — Exploits  of  the  Hebrews  in  the 
Time  of  Moses. — M.  Waddington. — Edrei. — Zorava. — Der’a. — The  Conflict  Between 
Og,  King  of  Bashan,  and  the  Hebrews. — Edhra’  identical  with  the  City  mentioned  by 
Moses.  —  Extensive  Ruins. — Subterranean  Residences. — Description  of  the  Stone 


\ 


443 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Roofs  and  the  Supporting  Arches. — Ancient  Architects. — Window-shutters  and  Doors 
made  of  Lava  Slabs. — The  Church  of  St.  Elias. — Greek  Inscriptions. — The  Church  of 
St.  George  Described  by  M.  Waddington.  —  Quadrangular  Structure  Described  by 
Burckhardt. — Square  Tower. — Columns  of  Green  Micaceous  Marble. — Ruined  Vaults 
and  Prostrate  Columns.  —  Excursion  into  the  Lejah. —  Air-bubbles  of  Hard  Rock. — 
Masses  of  Lava,  and  Petrified  Waves.  —  Shivered  Hills  and  Funnel-shaped  Pits. — 
Flocks  of  Sheep  and  Goats.  —  Bedawin  Shepherds  Professional  Robbers.  —  “All 
Thieves.” — Scarcity  of  Pasture. — Deterioration  of  the  Lejah. — No  Wild  Animals  and 
but  few  Birds. — Reservoirs  in  Caverns. — Native  Traditions. — Few  Springs  and  no 
Never-failing  Fountains. — Caverns  mentioned  by  Josephus. — Subterranean  Dwellings, 
Pools  of  Water  and  Corn  in  Granaries. — Herod  the  Great. — Robbers  of  Trachonitis 
and  the  Bedawin  of  the  Lejah. — Greek,  Cufic,  and  Nabathean  Inscriptions. — M.  Wad¬ 
dington. — Harran. — Blood  Feuds. — Law  of  Revenge. — Burckhardt’s  Visit  to  Dama. — 
Rock-cut  Cisterns. — Encampment  of  Medlej  Bedawin. — Tents  Concealed  in  the  Crev¬ 
ices  and  Fissures  of  the  Rocks. — Modem  Villages  and  Ancient  Sites. — Remarkable 
Preservation  of  Ruined  Towns  and  Cities. — Pompeii. — Houses  Constructed  of  Imper¬ 
ishable  Lava. — Temples  and  Public  Edifices  in  the  Lejah  erected  before  the  Christian 
Era. —  Ruins  at  Nejran. — Church  with  Two  Towers.  —  Blood-money. — Terebinth-oil 
used  instead  of  Olive-oil. — Disappearance  of  the  old  Earthen  Lamp.  —  Petroleum 
from  Pennsylvania. — “The  Smoking  Flax  and  the  Bruised  Reed.” — The  Servant  of 
the  Lord. — Fire  out  of  the  Heel,  and  Ink  out  of  the  Mouth. — The  Stream  in  Wady 
Kunawat. — Shuhlja  Described  by  Dr.  Porter. — A  Roman  City. —  Streets  and  Gates, 
Temples,  Baths,  and  Public  Buildings. — Theatre  at  Shuhba. — M.  Waddington  and  the 
Count  De  Vogue. — The  Emperor  Philip. —  Philippopolis. —  Shuhba  and  the  Shehab 
Emirs.  —  Nur  ed  Din  and  Saladin. — The  Crusaders. — The  Monguls.  —  The  Emir 
Beshir. — Muhammed  Aly. — Civil  Wars  and  the  Massacres  of  i860. — A  Long  Pedigree, 
from  “the  Beginning”  to  the  Present  Hour. — Temple  at  Suleim. — Neapolis. — Cav¬ 
ernous  Cistern. — Ruins  of  an  Old  Town. — The  Village  School  and  Native  Teacher. — 
Desire  for  Education. — Moments  lengthened  into  Hours. — Proverbial  Hospitality. — 
Graeco-Roman  Population  East  of  the  Jordan. — A  Succession  of  Temples  and  Public 
Buildings. — More  Greek  Inscriptions  than  in  all  Syria  and  Palestine. — Cities  of  the 
Decapolis. — “Jesus  went  through  the  Borders  of  the  Decapolis.” — Roman  Road. — 
Oak  Woods. — Approach  to  Kunawat. — River  of  Kunawat. — Theatre  in  Wady  Kuna¬ 
wat. —  Outlook  over  the  Plain  of  the  Hauran  to  distant  Hermon. — Nymphseum,  or 
Public  Bath. —  Round  Tower. —  Cyclopean  Walls. —  Oldest  Ruins  of  Kenath. —  Main 
Street. — Houses  with  Sculptured  Doors. — A  Natural  Fortification. — The  City  Wall. — 
Paved  Area. — Es  Serai,  or  Convent  of  Job. — Beautiful  Door-way. — Sculptured  Figures 
and  Clusters  of  Grapes. — Colonnades. — Heathen  Edifices  and  Christian  Churches. — 
Large  Vaulted  Cisterns. — Roman  Prostyle  Temple. — Colossal  Head  in  High- relief. 
— Heads  of  Baal  and  Ashtoreth. — American  Palestine  Exploration  Society. — Worship 
of  Ashtoreth. — Syria  Dea. — Ashtoreth  Karnaim. — Peripteral  Temple. — Dedicated  to 
Helios  or  the  Sun.  —  Biblical  History  of  Kenath. — Jair,  Nobah,  Gideon.  —  Josephus 
and  Herod  the  Great. — Ptolemy  and  Pliny. — Eusebius  and  the  Peutinger  Table. — 
Kunawat  the  Biblical  Kenath  or  Nobah.  —  M.  Waddington.  —  Greek  Inscriptions. — 
King  Agrippa. — Statue  of  Herod  the  Great. — Si’a. — Streams  at  Kunawat. — No  Water 


EL  MUSMEIH,  PH^ENO. — RUINED  TEMPLE. 


449' 


even  for  Money.  —  The  Population  of  tjie  Hauran  Increasing.  —  Primitive  School 
and  Venerable  School  -  master.  —  Boards  instead  of  Books.  —  Remarkable  Zeal  for 
Instruction. 

September  18  th. 

NOTHING  more  formidable  than  the  melancholy  howl  of  jackals 
and  the  barking  of  the  Bedawins’  dogs  disturbed  our  slumbers  last 
night,  and  while  the  servants  are  busy  packing  and  the  muleteers 
are  loading  their  animals  we  will  visit  the  ruins  of  this  remark¬ 
able  and  once  extensive  city. 

What  was  the  name  of  this  place  in  former  times? 

El  Musmeih  was  called  Phaeno  by  the  Greeks,  and  Phaena  in 
the  days  of  the  Romans,  and  an  inscription  on  the  main  entrance 
to  the  temple  determines  the  important  fact  that  the  Lejah  is  the 
Trachonitis  of  the  ancients.  Phaena  was,  indeed,  one  of  its  chief 
towns,  and  that  accounts  for  the  size  of  the  place  as  well  as  the 
character  of  its  ruins,  which  spread  over  a  space  nearly  three  miles 
in  circumference.  It  is  situated  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Lejah, 
and  just  within  its  rocky  border,  and  the  road  leading  to  it  from 
the  plain  was  excavated  in  the  hard  lava. 

Like  all  other  cities  in  the  Lejah,  Phaena  was  entirely  dependent 
on  its  cisterns  for  water,  hence  their  number  and  large  size.  It 
appears  to  have  been  an  important  place  in  the  time  of  the  Ro¬ 
mans,  for  we  learn  from  the  inscriptions  that  a  part  of  the  Third 
Gallic  and  of  the  Sixteenth  Legions  were  at  one  time  stationed 
here.  During  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  Phaena  was 
an  episcopal  city,  and  its  temple  was  converted  into  a  church, 
which  subsequently  was  transformed  into  a  mosk. 

This  temple  at  el  Musmeih  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  architecture 
of  that  Greco-Roman  period,  and  it  is  one  of  the  best  preserved 
ruins  in  this  ancient  “  region  of  Argob/’  It  stood  facing  the  east, 
and  in  front  of  it  was  a  large  paved  court,  which  appears  to  have 
had  a  colonnade  on  three  sides  of  it.  The  fragments  of  those  col¬ 
umns  are  scattered  about  in  confusion,  not  even  the  pedestals  being 
in  situ.  A  flight  of  six  stone  steps  lead  up  to  the  portico  of  the 
temple,  which  consisted  of  six  Doric  columns — three  on  either  side 
of  the  main  entrance;  those  on  the  right,  or  south,  are  the  only  ones 
still  standing.  The  large  and  lofty  central  door,  now  almost  en¬ 
tirely  walled  up,  was  without  decoration,  and  the  small  side  doors 


450 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


had  each  a  semicircular  niche,  finished  at  the  top  in  the  form  of  a 
shell,  with  four  columns  in  front  supporting  a  series  of  round  re¬ 
ceding  arches  and  a  projecting  triangular  roof. 

The  temple  was,  externally,  nearly  fifty  feet  wide,  over  seventy 
feet  in  length,  and  about  forty  feet  high,  and  the  walls  are  almost 
perfect,  though  they  have  been  cracked  and  shaken  by  earthquakes. 
Within  it  is  not  quite  forty-three  feet  square,  having  a  large  semi¬ 
circular  niche  in  the  west  wall  opposite  the  main  entrance,  which 
is  vaulted  over  by  a  shell-shaped  roof  of  unusual  size  and  beauty, 
and  cut  in  the  hard  basaltic  slabs.  The  roof,  which  has  fallen,  was 
made  of  the  same  kind  of  slabs,  resting  upon  four  arches  supported 
by  four  Corinthian  columns,  still  standing  in  the  middle  of  the 
edifice.  The  columns  are  about  thirty  feet  high,  with  correspond¬ 
ing  pilasters  in  the  side  walls ;  their  pedestals,  ornamented  with 
wreaths,  are  over  three  feet  high,  and  the  shafts  about  two  feet 
below  the  capitals  are  also  decorated  with  wreaths  or  bands. 

This  temple,  according  to  an  inscription  on  the  lintel  of  the 
main  entrance,  was  erected  by  a  commander  of  the  Third  Gallic 
Legion,  then  stationed  in  this  city,  and  during  the  reign  of  the  em¬ 
perors  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  and  Lucius  Aurelius  Verus,  or 
between  1 6 1  and  169  A.D.  This  Tong  inscription  of  forty  lines  on 
the  left  of  the  main  entrance  to  the  temple  is  addressed  to  the 
people  of  Phaena,  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  Trachon,  or  Tracho- 
nitis,  thus  establishing  the  identity  of  the  latter  with  the  Lejah. 
There  are  other  inscriptions  upon  the  bases  of  the  three  columns, 
on  the  architrave,  in  the  portico,  and  on  the  pedestals  within  the 
temple,  but  none  of  them  are  supposed  to  be  of  an  earlier  date  than 
the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era. 

About  forty  rods  east  of  the  temple  is  a  confused  mass  of  ruins 
belonging  to  a  group  of  buildings,  one  of  which  was  three  stories 
high,  and  it  may  have  been  the  governor’s  palace  and  afterwards 
the  residence  of  the  bishop  of  this  diocese.  Most  of  the  private 
houses  of  Phsena  are  now  in  ruins,  but  there  are  several  large 
structures  in  the  southern  part  of  the  city  which  are  still  in  a  tol¬ 
erable  state  of  preservation,  and  from  the  top  of  one  of  them  the 
outlook  over  this  dreary  wilderness  of  black  lava  is  wholly  unique 
and  dismal  in  the  extreme. 


INHABITANTS  OF  ARGOB.— OUTSKIRTS  OF  THE  LEJAH.  451 


If  external  nature  exercises  a  potent  influence  upon  human  char¬ 
acter,  no  wonder  that  the  inhabitants  of  Argob,  Trachonitis,  or  el 
Lejah  were  a  wild  and  lawless  set.  Certain  it  is  that  the  reputa¬ 
tion  which  the  people  of  this  region  have  always  borne  strikingly 
accords  with  its  physical  features. 

It  is  high  time  we  were  on  our  journey.  For  the  first  hour  and 
a  half  our  course  will  be  due  west  along  the  northern  border  of  the 
Lejah  to  the  site  of  an  ancient  place  now  called  Sha’arah,  where 
the  muleteers  are  to  wait  for  us. 

The  country  on  the  north  and  west  sides  of  the  Lejah,  accord¬ 
ing  to  your  account,  is  rather  desolate  and  uninteresting. 

My  remarks  applied  only  to  the  few  miles  immediately  after  we 
leave  el  Musmeih.  We  are  now  fairly  entering  upon  the  outskirts 
of  this  wonderful  basaltic  wilderness  of  the  Lejah,  and  the  border 
is  as  sharply  outlined  as  though  it  were  the  ragged  line  of  broken 
cliffs  extending  along  a  rocky  shore.  It  will  give  sufficient  occu- 


452 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


pation  to  even  a  practised  rider  to  guide  his  horse  safely  through 
•  these  rocky  labyrinths ;  conversation  might  even  prove  to  be  a 
distraction  dangerous  to  life  and  limb,  so  I  will  merely  say  that 
there  are  several  fountains  between  el  Musmeih  and  Sha’arah 
whose  streams  irrigate  the  fields  on  the  neighboring  plain  culti¬ 
vated  by  the  inhabitants  of  that  village. 

More  than  forty  years  ago  the  entire  Egyptian  army,  under  Ibra¬ 
him  Pasha,  was  driven  out  of  the  Lejah,  with  great  slaughter,  by 
the  Druses.  Their  boast  is  that  they  had  less  than  two  thousand 
fighting  men,  while  the  army  of  Ibrahim  Pasha  amounted  to  forty 
thousand.  The  reason  for  that  signal  defeat  is  sufficiently  obvious. 
Regular  troops  can  do  nothing  amongst  the  clefts  and  chasms  and 
intricate  labyrinths  of  this  volcanic  Lejah  against  an  enemy  they 
cannot  see,  and  where  they  are  shot  down  hopelessly  contending 
with  foes  they  cannot  dislodge. 

That  would  certainly  be  their  fate,  especially  if  regular  troops 
were  decoyed  into  such  a  rough  and  rocky  region  as  this  through 
which  we  have  been  passing  for  the  last  half  hour,  entangled  as  it 
is  with  these  impenetrable  thorny  thickets. 

We  are  approaching  Sha’arah,  which,  as  you  see,  is  built  on 
both  sides  of  the  valley  that  descends  into  the  western  plain. 
Burckhardt  spent  a  night  here,  and  his  description  of  the  place  will 
answer  very  well  for  the  village  of  to-day :  “  Sha’arah  is  inhabited,” 
he  says,  “  by  about  one  hundred  Druse  and  Christian  families.  It 
was  once  a  considerable  city,  half  an  hour  from  the  cultivated  plain, 
and  surrounded  by  a  most  dreary,  barren  w’ar.  It  has  several  sol¬ 
idly  built  structures,  now  in  ruins,  and  amongst  others  a  tower  that 
must  have  been  about  forty-five  feet  high.  In  the  upper  town  is 
an  ancient  edifice  [a  temple]  with  arches,  converted  into  a  mosque.”1 
Over  the  door  is  a  Greek  inscription,  which  he  copied,  and  from 
which  we  learn  that  the  temple  was  built  about  the  same  time  as 
the  one  at  Phaena,  or  el  Musmeih.  He  found  a  saltpetre  manufac¬ 
tory  in  the  town,  similar  to  those  we  passed  at  Sher’aya,  on  our  way 
here  from  el  Musmeih,  and  he  gives  a  detailed  description  of  the 
manufacture  of  saltpetre  from  the  earth  which  was  dug  up  from 
amongst  the  ruins  of  these  ancient  towns. 

1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  p.  114. 


MUSMEIH  TO  KHUBAB.— DECEITFUL  BROOKS. 


453 


From  Sha’arah  our  route  will  lead  southward  along  the  western 
margin  of  the  Lejah  ;  and  it  is  time  to  address  ourselves  to  the 
rough  road  over  its  jagged  and  rocky  spurs  towards  Khubab,  where 
we  take  our  lunch.  The  outer  Lejah,  however,  is  not  so  wild  and 
inaccessible  as  the  inner;  the  rocks  are  not  so  high,  nor  is  the  sur¬ 
face  so  uneven,  and  the  patches  of  soil  are  larger,  more  frequent,  and 
better  fitted  for  cultivation  and  pasture. 

I  am  continually  reminded  of  the  great  difference  between  my 
former  visit  to  this  region  and  our  present  experience  in  the  matter 
of  rain-water.  I  cannot  recall  a  more  disagreeable  ride  than  that 
from  el  Musmeih  to  Khubab.  We  kept  along  and  over  the  rocky 
margin  of  the  Lejah,  and  even  then  our  animals  frequently  floun¬ 
dered  in  oozy,  black  mud,  that  seemed  to  have  no  bottom ;  then 
we  encountered  a  little  stream  called  Nahr  ’Arram,  coming  from 
the  vicinity  of  the  village  of  Tibny,  and  flowing  in  a  southerly  di¬ 
rection,  which  is  now  quite  dry;  and  before  we  reached  Tell  Kus- 
weh  we  overtook  some  natives  whose  donkeys  had  actually  stuck 
fast  in  the  mud.  Now  the  only  trouble  is  to  obtain  water  enough 
for  ourselves  and  our  thirsty  animals. 

Such  dried-up  streams  suggested  to  Job,  I  suppose,  one  of  his 
bitter  rebukes  of  his  false-hearted  friends  and  “  miserable  comfort¬ 
ers.”  In  his  anguish  and  disappointment,  when  he  looked  for  sym¬ 
pathy  and  support  from  them  and  obtained  only  unkind  reproof,  he 
exclaimed,  “  My  brethren  have  dealt  deceitfully  as  a  brook,  and  as 
the  stream  of  brooks  they  pass  away;  which  are  blackish  by  rea¬ 
son  of  the  ice,  and  wherein  the  snow  is  hid :  what  time  they  wax 
warm,  they  vanish :  when  it  is  hot,  they  are  consumed  out  of  their 
place.  The  paths  of  their  way  are  turned  aside  ;  they  go  to  noth¬ 
ing,  and  perish.” 1 

We  shall  see  many  such  streams  on  our  farther  travels  in  this 
region,  and  may  sometimes  look  for  them  as  did  “  the  troops  [or 
caravans]  of  Tema,”  and  be  disappointed  as  were  “  the  companies 
of  Sheba”  who  “waited  for  them”  and  “were  confounded  because 
they  had  hoped”  for  water  and  “were  ashamed”  when  “they  came 
thither  ”  and  found  none.2  The  words  “  confounded  ”  and  “  ashamed  ” 
may  refer  to  the  feelings  of  the  over-confident  guides  of  those  an- 
1  Job  vi.  15-18.  2  Job  vi.  19,  20. 


454 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


cient  caravans  through  the  desert,  who  were  expected  to  know 
where  an  adequate  supply  of  water  could  be  obtained. 

When  passing,  many  years  ago,  “  through  that  great  and  terrible 
wilderness”  of  wandering,  north  of  en  Nukhl,  the  water-barrels  were 
exhausted,  but  our  Bedawin  sheikh  assured  us  that  we  would  find 
good  water  at  the  place  where  he  was  taking  us  to  encamp.1  On 
arriving  there  in  the  evening,  however,  there  was  very  little  water 
to  be  obtained,  and  that  so  brackish  that  we  could  not  drink  it. 
The  sheikh  was  “confounded,”  and  being  sharply  rebuked  appeared 
to  be  “ashamed,”  and  taking  one  of  the  barrels  on  his  shoulder  he 
set  off  in  search  of  better  water.  He  returned  long  after  midnight 
without  any,  and  he  seemed  to  feel  greatly  mortified  that  his  repu¬ 
tation  as  a  reliable  guide  had  been  seriously  impaired. 

Although  there  is  now  no  habitation  of  man  to  the  east  of  our 
road,  for  the  villages  are  all  deserted  and  desolate  between  el  Mus- 
meih  and  Khubab,  still  we  are  favored  with  prospects  of  great 
beauty  and  vast  extent  over  the  rich  and  partially  cultivated  plain 
of  the  Hauran  and  the  district  of  el  Jeidur  westward,  and  north¬ 
ward  as  far  as  to  the  majestic  heights  of  Mount  Hermon. 

Is  there  no  place  of  historical  importance  out  on  the  plain  ? 

South-west  of  el  Musmeih  and  about  ten  miles  distant  from  it  is 
the  large  Moslem  village  of  es  Sunamein,  or  the  Two  Idols.  It  is 
on  the  Haj  road  from  Damascus  to  Mecca,  and  there  the  pilgrims 
sometimes  spend  one  of  the  first  nights  of  their  arduous  journey. 
The  ruins  in  the  village  are  of  considerable  interest,  and  it  is  sup¬ 
posed  to  have  derived  its  present  name  from  two  figures  cut  on 
a  basaltic  stone  near  the  gate  ;  but  Muhammedan  iconoclasts  have 
rendered  them  almost  unrecognizable.  We  learn  from  a  Greek  in¬ 
scription  that  the  ancient  name  of  the  place  was  Aere,  probably 
identical  with  a  station  on  the  Roman  road  between  Damascus  and 
Nowa  or  Neve.  Some  of  the  houses  have  massive  stone  walls, 
stone  doors  and  window-shutters,  and  stone  roofs. 

In  and  about  that  village  there  are  also  several  square  towers, 
large  buildings,  and  the  remains  of  two  temples,  one  of  which,  built 
of  limestone  and  in  the  Corinthian  style  of  architecture,  was  once 
used  as  a  church.  The  same  Greek  inscription  informs  us  that  one 

1  Deut.  i.  19. 


KHUBAB.— MILLSTONES.— HABILA. 


455 


of  those  temples,  built  about  the  third  century  of  our  era,  was  dedi¬ 
cated  to  Fortuna,  or  Tyche,  the  goddess  of  luck  or  chance. 

Can  we  not  stop  and  lunch  here  just  as  well  as  anywhere  else  on 
this  treeless  plain,  for  I  am  becoming  both  weary  and  hungry? 

Just  as  you  please.  Our  thoughtful  cook  has  brought  a  bottle 
of  water  from  the  fountain  near  Tell  Kusweh,  which  is  much  better 
than  any  we  shall  find  in  the  village  of  Khubab. 

Edhra’,  where  we  are  to  spend  the  night,  is  about  four  hours 
from  Khubab,  and  as  we  are  to  pass  through  the  latter  place  and 
reach  the  former  in  time  to  examine  the  ruins  there  before  dark,  we 
must  not  linger  here  over  our  lunch. 

The  sheikh  of  Khubab  is  a  Druse,  although  it  is  a  Christian  vil¬ 
lage  and  inhabited  by  about  one  hundred  families  of  Greek  Cath¬ 
olics.  It  is  situated  on  a  rocky  spur  of  the  Lejah,  terminating  in 
two  low  tells,  and  access  to  it  from  the  plain  is  not  difficult.  Agri¬ 
culture  is  the  principal  occupation  of  the  people,  who  are  taxed  for 
two  hundred  feddan,  implying  that  they  possess  a  portion  of  the 
plain  around  and  west  of  them  which  it  would  require  two  hundred 
yoke  of  oxen  to  cultivate. 

There  is  also  a  special  industry  carried  on  at  this  place,  as  well 
as  in  some  other  villages  in  this  region.  Here  the  finishing  touches 
are  put  to  the  millstones  which  have  been  quarried  out  of  the 
basaltic  rock  of  the  Lejah  for  the  past  ages.  “  The  stones  are 
cut  horizontally  out  of  the  rocks,  leaving  holes  four  or  five  feet  in 
depth  and  as  many  in  circumference ;  fifty  or  sixty  of  these  exca¬ 
vations  are  often  met  with  in  the  circumference  of  a  mile,’"  and, 
as  Burckhardt  remarks,  “  the  stones  are  exported  over  the  greater 
part  of  Syria  as  far  as  Aleppo  and  Jerusalem.  They  vary  in  price 
according  to  their  size,  and  are  preferred  to  all  others  on  account 
of  the  hardness  of  the  stone.”1 

On  my  previous  visit  to  Khubab,  Sheikh  Diab,  the  head  of  the 
village,  told  me  that  his  people  came  there  from  Sulkhad  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  five  years  before,  at  which  time  the  place  was  deserted. 
Consequently  the  houses  are  almost  all  comparatively  modern, 
though  built  upon  and  out  of  ancient  edifices.  Its  original  name 
appears  to  have  been  Habila,  and  it  must  have  been  a  considerable 


H  2 


1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  pp.  57,  113. 


456 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


town,  though,  like  all  the  rest  in  the  Lejah,  having  no  permanent 
fountain,  it  is  sadly  destitute  of  good  water. 

The  people  are  rather  boisterous  and  rude  in  their  behavior,  but 
they  do  not  seem  to  be  ill-natured. 

There  is  a  boys’  school  in  the  village,  and  when  I  was  here  be¬ 
fore,  the  pupils  were  marched  down  to  our  camp  early  Monday, 
morning,  with  banners  flying  and  a  great  clapping  of  hands  for 
music.  Arranged  in  front  of  the  tent,  orie  of  the  boys  stepped  out 
of  the  ranks  and  made  a  speech,  all  flower  and  compliment,  which 
the  teacher  had  no  doubt  prepared  for  the  occasion.  That  over, 
they  burst  forth  into  vociferous  applause  and  then  marched  back  to 
their  school-room.  "  That  was  more  than  I  expected  to  see  in  the 
Lejah,  and  affords  reliable  evidence  that  a  desire  for  education  and 
improvement  is  slowly  penetrating  into  the  darkest  parts  of  this 
dark  region.  Many  of  the  people  were  eager  to  procure  books,  and 
a  colporteur,  I  was  told,  had  actually  sold  some  in  this  village. 

In  manners  and  customs,  dress  and  appearance,  very  little  prog¬ 
ress  has  yet  been  made  by  the  people  in  this  region  towards  a 
higher  civilization.  The  women  generally,  wear  the  long,  loose  shirt 
of  blue  cotton  cloth  almost  universal  in  the  Hauran  for  both  sexes; 
they  go  barefoot  to  the  stagnant  pool  and  bring  home  large  buckets- 
of  cream-colored  water,  which  is  the  only  kind  there  is  here.  No. 
doubt  it  will  lose  some  of  its  color  in  a  few  days,  but  none  of  its 
offensive  odor  and  other  deleterious  qualities. 

The  people  of  Khubab  treat  their  dead  in  a  most  shocking 
manner.  On  a  bare  lava  ridge,  a  short  distance  to  the  east  of  the 
village,  I  found  a  number  of  small  open  pens  about  three  feet 
high,  made  by  piling  up  loose  lava  fragments.  Within  those  pens 
the  corpse  is  placed,  without  any  interment  or  other  covering  what¬ 
ever.  There  is  not  a  handful  of  earth  in  the  immediate  neigh¬ 
borhood,  and  that  is  their  excuse  for  not  burying  the  bodies  of 
the  dead ;  but  surely  they  might  cover  them  with  stones.  I  was 
informed  that  within  a  year  the  bodies  become  perfectly  dry,  and 
the  bones  are  then  collected  and  placed  in  a  large  and  special  pen 
prepared  for  their  reception.  I  saw  two  of  those  pens  quite  full  of 
such  bones — a  most  revolting  spectacle — the  like  of  which  I  had 
never  seen  elsewhere  nor  even  heard  of  before. 


•  MELIHAT  HAZKIN.— MONK  AT  TIBNY.  457 

There  is  nothing  to  detain  us  here,  so,  leaving  Khubab,  we  will 
continue  our  journey  along  the  road  to  Edhra’,  which  at  this  season 
of  the  year  is  passably  good.  In  April  I  found  deep  mud  in  many 
places;  and  near  the  village  of  esh  Shukrah  the  road  led  through  a 
wide  pond  on  a  broken  causeway  made  of  loose  stones,  over  which 
our  horses  floundered  in  great  perplexity. 

The  last  time  I  was  at  Khubab  I  walked  out  in  the  evening  to 
examine  a  ruin  called  Melihat  Hazkin,  a  mass  of  ancient  buildings 
with  heavy  stone  doors  still  hanging  on  their  hinges,  Roman  arches, 
and  slab  roofs.  I  went  into  a  room  and  shut  the  door,  but  was 
rather  puzzled  to  open  it  again,  it  moved  so  heavily  on  its  stone 
hinges.  With  some  tribulation  I  copied  a  Greek  inscription,  sup¬ 
posing  that  M.  Waddington  had  missed  it,  but  upon  careful  exam¬ 
ination  of  his  learned  work  found  that  it  had  not  escaped  his 
thorough  and  indefatigable  search. 

Hazkin  is  quite  Within  the  Lejah,  and  the  outlook  from  the 
top  of  the  ruins  was  dreary  and  desolate  in  the  extreme.  A  num¬ 
ber  of  ruined  towers  long  since  deserted  were  visible  in  various  parts 
of  that  melancholy  volcanic  wilderness,  but  not  a  human  being  was 
anywhere  to  be  seen.  There  is  a  Muzar,  or  saints’  tomb,  a  little 
to  the  north-west  of  the  ruins,  which  is  still  frequented  by  the 
Bedawin.  Old  rags  and  tattered  flags  hung  about  it  and  fluttered 
sadly  in  the  evening  breeze,  and  the  only  living  creature  near  was 
a  large  gray  wolf,  who  fled  on  my  approach  and  soon  disappeared 
among  the  black  lava  rocks  of  the  surrounding  region. 

There  seems  to  be  a  great  gathering  .of  people  at  that  village 
which  we  see  yonder  on  our  right,  situated  on  that  low  hill  at  the 
very  margin  of  the  plain.  What  has  brought  them  there  ? 

They  come  from  the  surrounding  country,  probably  to  celebrate 
the  feast-day  of  one  of  their  numerous  saints.  The  village  is  called 
Tibny,  and  the  inhabitants  are  Greek  Catholics,  like  those  of  Khu¬ 
bab.  I  was  surprised  to  find  a  monk  stationed  there  who  spoke 
French  fluently.  He  was  ambitious  to  display  his  local  knowledge, 
and  gave  us  a  detailed  account  of  the  ancient  history  of  the  place. 
The  oldest  ruins  seen  there  are  on  the  south  of  the  village,  and 
consist  of  a  confused  mass  of  entirely  prostrate  buildings. 

In  one  place  a  number  of  the  villagers  were  drawing  up  wheat 


458 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


out  of  a  deep  cistern  which  they  had  uncovered  in  the  middle  of 
a  large  dunghill — the  last  place  where  a  stranger  would  expect  to 
find  such  “hid  treasure;”  but  Bedawin  robbers  sometimes  torture 
the  owners  until  they  reveal  the  cisterns  in  which  the  grain  is  con¬ 
cealed.  The  wheat  was  perfectly  free  from  mould  or  injury  of  any 
kind  resulting  from  its  long  confinement  in  that  subterranean  gran¬ 
ary.  The  monk  assured  me  that  if  those  cisterns  were  hermeti¬ 
cally  sealed,  the  grain  in  them  would  remain  for  many  years  without 
being  damaged.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  wheat  of  this 
country  can  thus  be  kept  from  year  to  year ;  and  some  such  custom 
must  have  prevailed  in  very  ancient  times,  for  we  know  that  Joseph 
preserved  his  stores  in  Egypt  during  “the  seven  years  of  famine” 
for  at  least  that  length  of  time.1 

We  are  just  extricating  ourselves  from  this  lava  labyrinth,  and 
for  most  of  the  way  we  shall  skirt  the  western  margin  of  the  Lejah 
southward  to  Edhra’.  The  surrounding  plain  is  called  Luhf  el 
Lejah.  Lihaf  is  the  singular  for  the  thick  cotton  quilt  under  which 
the  natives  sleep,  luhf  being  the  plural,  and  the  application  of  that 
term  to  the  narrow  border  of  the  Lejah  may  express  the  meaning 
that  the  great  plain  of  the  Hauran,  on  the  south  and  west,  spreads 
up  to  and  covers  the  feet  of  the  rocky  lava  spurs  which  stretch 
down  into  it  in  various  places  and  on  all  sides.  Just  within  the 
Lejah,  and  above  and  beyond  the  Luhf,  are  found  nearly  all  the 
ruins  of  ancient  cities ;  and  whatever  inhabitants  now  occupy  them 
cultivate  the  neighboring  parts  of  the  plain. 

I  suppose  that  the  selection  of  those  sites  was  originally  made 
for  the  purpose  of  protection  against  robbers,  who  appear  to  have 
infested  this  region  in  all  past  ages,  as  they  do  at  the  present  time. 
The  houses  were  all  roofed  with  lava  slabs,  and  probably  one  reason 
for  using  lava  instead  of  wooden  beams,  even  where  there  were  for¬ 
ests  at  no  great  distance,  may  have  been  to  render  the  dwellings 
fire-proof.  I  have  seen  the  houses  in  the  southern  half  of  Lebanon 
burned  down  at  least  three  times  within  the  last  forty  years.  As 
they  are  all  built  of  stone,  had  they  been  roofed  with  stone  slabs 
like  these  of  the  Lejah  instead  of  wood,  it  could  not  have  been  pos¬ 
sible  to  burn  them ;  and  since  this  district  of  old  Argob  has  always 

1  Gen.  xli.  46-48,  53-57. 


ANCIENT  SITES  IN  THE  HAURAN  AND  THE  LEJAH.  459 

been  exposed,  even  more  than  Lebanon,  to  sudden  invasions  and 
internal  convulsions,  habitations  that  could  not  be  set  on  fire  proved 
to  be  necessary  both  for  protection  and  defence.  Of  course  those 
stone -roofed  rooms  are  also  the  most  durable,  and  much  cooler 
during  the  summer  than  those  roofed  with  wood  —  an  important 
consideration  in  a  region  like  this  of  the  Lejah. 

Though  so  little  elevated  above  the  surrounding  country,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Lejah  are  evidently  favored  with  a  healthy 
climate,  and  they  certainly  enjoy  prospects  of  great  variety  and 
of  almost  boundless  extent. 

Below  them  is  the  famed  Hauran,  most  of  it  as  level  as  the  sea, 
and  in  the  spring  it  is  covered  with  golden  harvests  ripening  for 
the  sickle,  while  far  away  to  the  north-west  and  north  tower  the 
snow-clad  heights  of  Hermon  and  the  rugged  ridges  of  Ante-Leb- 
anon.  Dr.  Eli  Smith  says  that  the  province  of  el  Hauran  “  is  re¬ 
garded  by  the  natives  as  consisting  of  three  parts,  called  en  Nukrah, 
el  Lejah,  and  el  Jebel,”  and  he  gives  a  list  of  two  hundred  and 
thirty-nine  sites  of  towns  and  villages  in  it.  Many,  it  is  true,  are 
marked  as  deserted,  but  a  large  and  ever-increasing  number  are 
occupied  by  a  mixed  population  of  Moslems  and  Christians,  or 
Druses  and  Christians,  the  latter  chiefly  of  the  Greek  and  Greek 
Catholic  sects,  and  all  residing  together  in  peace. 

In  the  Luhf  which  surround  the  Lejah  on  the  north,  east, 
south,  and  west  there  are  thirty-seven  names  on  Dr.  Smith’s  list, 
and  there  were  many  others  whose  names  he  did  not  get ;  while 
within  the  Lejah  itself  he  gives  twenty-two  names  of  sites,  and 
recent  research  has  brought  to  light  not  a  few  others.  There  are, 
therefore,  within  and  around  the  Lejah,  more  than  seventy-five  vil¬ 
lages  and  sites  of  ancient  towns. 

I  suppose  that  much  of  the  Lejah,  the  ancient  “region  of  Ar- 
gob,”  and  all  the  country  west  of  it — “  the  kingdom  of  Og,  in  Ba- 
shan” — was  included  in  the  conquest  by  the  Hebrews,  and  that 
therefore  the  statement  that  they  “took  threescore  cities  fenced 
with  high  walls,  gates,  and  bars;  besides  unwalled  towns  a  great 
many”  is  neither  improbable  nor  exaggerated.1  Such  dry  lists  of 
names  like  those  given  by  Dr.  Smith  are  thus  found  to  add  impor- 

1  Deut.  iii.  4,  5. 


460  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

tant  confirmation  to  some  of  the  accounts  contained  in  the  oldest 
portions  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  regarding  this  land. 

We  may  at  least  conclude  that  if  modern  research  had  shown 
that  “the  kingdom  of  Og  in  Bashan”  was  a  mere  barren  waste,  in¬ 
capable  of  sustaining  any  considerable  population,  we  should  be 
not  a  little  perplexed  with  some  parts  of  Biblical  history;  but  no 
such  embarrassments  can  arise  in  regard  to  the  narratives,  for 
we  have  before  and  around  us  this  very  region  thickly  studded 
with  sites  apparently  as  old  as  the  history  requires,  and  certainly 
quite  as  numerous. 

Edhra’,  September  18th.  Evening. 

Our  ride  into  this  ancient  city  from  the  plain,  along  the  rock- 
cut  road  and  through  jagged  fissures,  was  not  a  little  nervous,  and 
quite  dangerous  to  both  horse  and  rider.  The  lava  seems  to  have 
run  and  spread  like  slag  from  a  furnace,  and  in  many  places  it  is  as 
hard  as  adamant  and  as  smooth  as  glass. 

Though  the  site  of  Edhra’  upon  its  rocky  promontory  is  not 
elevated  more  than  fifty  or  sixty  feet  above  the  plain  on  the  west 
and  south,  yet  it  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  for  nearly  two  miles  by 
a  wilderness  of  fractured  lava,  which  would  render  the  approach  of 
an  enemy  almost  impossible. 

Your  account  of  the  defeat  of  Ibrahim  Pasha’s  army  amongst 
the  rock  labyrinths  of  the  Lejah  brought  to  mind  the  exploits  of 
the  Hebrews  in  the  time  of  Moses,  and  I  seemed  to  get  an  entirely 
new  idea  of  the  valor  of  those  mighty  warriors  who  could  in  a  sin¬ 
gle  campaign  overrun  this  whole  region  and  take  “  all  the  cities  of 
the  plain,  and  all  Gilead  and  all  Bashan,  unto  Salchah  and  Edrei, 
cities  of  the  kingdom  of  Og  in  Bashan.”1 

Perhaps  you  are  not  aware  that  M.  Waddington  and  others  as¬ 
sert  that  this  is  not  the  Edrei  mentioned  by  Moses ;  and  from  an 
inscription  found  here  he  proves  to  his  entire  satisfaction  that  its 
Graeco- Roman  name  was  Zorava.  That  evidence,  however,  is  not 
decisive.  No  one  will  maintain,  I  suppose,  that  Zorava  was  the 
original  name  of  this  place ;  and  the  Greeks  might  have  changed 
Edrei,  the  ancient  Hebrew  name,  into  Zorava  to  distinguish  it  from 
another  town  with  a  similar  name,  supposed  to  be  identical  with 

1  Deut.  iii.  8-10. 


THE  HEBREW  CONQUEST.— THE  REGION  OF  ARGOB.  46 1 

Der’a,  about  twenty  miles  north-west  of  el  Busrah  or  Bozrah,  and 

which  M.Waddington  maintains  is  the  Biblical  Edrei.  A 

_  *  >»  » 

The  account  of  the  Hebrew  conquest  of  this  part  of  Og’s  do¬ 
minions  seems  to  imply  that  the  final  battle  took  place  near  the 
border  of  his  territory.  The  record  is  in  these  words:  “And  they 
turned  and  went  up  by  the  way  of  Bashan :  and  Og  the  king  of 
Bashan  went  out  against  them,  he,  and  all  his  people,  to  the  battle 
at  Edrei.”  1  As  the  Kingdom  of  Og  appears  to  have  extended  to 
the  Lejah,  and  probably  included  this  entire  district,  it  is  natural 
to  suppose  that  he  would  make  his  final  stand  somewhere  along  its 
almost  impregnable  frontier.  No  more  formidable  position  could 

~  r  c  '  o  o  v 

be  desired  than  this  at  Edhra’,  and  the  present  Arabic  name  is 
much  nearer  the  Hebrew  than  Der’a,  the  rival  claimant,  which  ap¬ 
pears  also  to  be  too  far  west  to  have  been  the  scene  of  the  com¬ 
plete  and  disastrous  overthrow  of  the  king  of  Bashan. 

The  Lejah  is  generally  admitted  to  be  the  Argob  of  the  Bible, 
and  the  term  Argob— stony — pre-eminently  applies  to  it,  while  it 

does  not  at  all  describe  the  region  round  about  Der’a.  I  am,  there- 
•  * 
fore,  inclined  to  adhere  to  the  opinion  that  the  conflict  between  Og, 

-  '  •  '  •*  r>  1  .,  k 

king  of  Bashan,  and  the  Hebrews  took  place  near  the  border  of 

“the  region  of  Argob,”  the  Trachonitis  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 

•* 

the  Lejah  of  the  Arabs ;  and,  accordingly,  here  at  Edhra’  we  find 
the  remains  of  an  ancient  city  in  a  locality  which  meets  the- require¬ 
ments  of  the  Biblical  narrative,  and  still  bearing  a  name  which  may 
be  regarded  as  identical  with  that  mentioned  by  Moses.2 

The  existing  ruins  are  nearly  four  miles  in  circumference,  and 
although  many  of  the  houses  and  other  edifices  in  their  present  con¬ 
dition  are  of  an  age  comparatively  modern,  yet  they  were  erected 
on  foundations  and  out  of  materials  far  more  ancient.  Most  of  the 
present  inhabitants  reside  in  the  vaults  of  old  structures  which  may 
fairly  be  said  to  be  underground,  so  great  is  the  accumulation  above 
them  of  the  debris  of  ruined  buildings.  To  reach  them  one  has  to 
descend  as  into  subterranean  courts  and  caverns. 

Sheikh  Ibrahim,  the  Christian  ruler  of  Edhra’,  has  been  specially 
polite,  and  under  his  guidance  we  have  been  able  to  examine  the 
principal  ruins,  and  also  to  enter  some  of  the  private  houses. 

1  Numb.  xxi.  33—35.  2  Deut.  iii.  1-7. 


462 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


And  more  wretched  human  habitations  we  have  rarely  seen  in 
this  country.  Descending  down  broken  steps  encumbered  with  rub¬ 
bish,  we  groped  our  way  into  rooms  black  as  midnight  and  without 
windows  for  either  light  or  air.  Waiting  until  our  optical  powers 
had  become  adjusted  to  the  glimmering  of  daylight  from  the  low 
door,  we  took  a  survey  of  those  subterranean  abodes.  In  almost 
every  instance  they  are  simply  ancient  vaults,  and  the  low  black  roof 
was  composed  of  volcanic  slabs,  one  end  of  which  rests  on  corbels,  or 
slight  projections  from  the  walls  on  either  side,  and  the  other  upon 
an  arch  which  divides  the  room  longitudinally  in  the  middle.  The 
slabs  have  been  trimmed  so  as  to  fit  closely,  and  are  about  six  inches 
thick,  eighteen  inches  broad,  and  from  six  to  eight  feet  long.  Al¬ 
lowing  one  foot  for  the  projections  from  each  wall,  and  two  feet  for 
the  thickness  of  the  central  supporting  arch,  the  width  of  the  apart¬ 
ment  would  be  nearly  twenty  feet.  Of  course  the  rooms  could  be 
made  of  any  desired  length  and  breadth  by  using  longer  slabs  and 
increasing  the  number  of  supporting  arches.  They  are,  however, 
generally  square,  and  the  stone  roof  is  very  low. 

That  description  applies,  with  very  little  modification,  to  all  the 
buildings  in  this  whole  region.  Those  ancient  architects  apparently 
had  but  one  model,  and,  whether  from  design  or  from  necessity,  they 
erected  edifices  that  were  absolutely  fire-proof.  There  was  nothing 
to  burn.  The  walls,  the  roofs,  and  the  very  window-shutters  and 
doors  were  made  of  slabs  of  lava,  and  whether  single  or  double 
leaved,  they  turned  on  pivots  and  in  sockets  cut  out  of  the  stones 
themselves.  Most  of  the  doors  were  low  and  rude,  though  I  have 
seen  some  that  are  skilfully  carved  with  elaborate  designs  in  panel- 
work,  and  high  enough  for  any  of  “  the  giants”  of  Bashan  to  enter 
without  unnecessary  abasement  and  humiliation. 

Amongst  the  ruins  the  most  remarkable  appear  to  be  those  of 
the  so-called  churches  in  the  south-eastern  and  north-western  part 
of  the  town.  But  the  structure  which  attracted  my  attention  the 
most  is  near  the  tower,  in  the  middle  of  the  present  village. 

The  roof  of  Mar  Elyas  as  it  is  called,  or  the  Church  of  St.  Elias, 
has  fallen,  and  only  the  walls  remain  standing.  The  Greek  priest 
took  us  down  about  ten  feet  into  the  court  of  that  roofless  sanctu¬ 
ary,  where  they  still  worship,  and  was  careful  to  point  out  the  Greek 


RUINED  TEMPLES,  CHURCHES,  AND  TOWERS  AT  EDHRA’.  463 

inscriptions  which  even  now  are  quite  legible.  From  the  one  over 
the  entrance  we  learn  that  the  church  was  erected  during  the  sixth 
century  of  the  Christian  era. 

Mar  Jirjis,  the  church  of  St.  George,  or  el  Khudr,  as  the  Mos¬ 
lems  call  that  renowned  saint  in  the  north-western  part  of  the  town, 
was  originally  a  temple,  and  subsequently  converted  into  a  church, 
but  apparently  never  used  as  a  mosk.  M.  Waddington  says  of  it 
that,  “like  the  cathedral  of  Bozrah,  which  was  built  at  the  same 
epoch  [about  A.D.  5 10-5 12],  it  has  the  form  of  an  octagon  inscribed 
in  a  square  plan.  Eight  columns  bound  by  arches  support  the  cu¬ 
pola,  which  is  surrounded  on  the  outside  by  an  open  gallery.  In 
the  four  corners  of  the  church  there  are  small  chapels,  and  on 
one  side  a  large  chapel  projected  on  the  square,  and  here  is  the 
tomb  of  St.  George,  an  object  of  veneration  to  both  Christians  and 
Mohammedans,  Druses  and  Bedawin.” 

The  quadrangular  structure  near  the  centre  of  the  village  was 
probably  a  public  building  converted  into  a  church  and  subse¬ 
quently  used  as  a  mosk,  “but  it  has  long  since  been  abandoned.” 
Burckhardt  correctly  describes  it  as  “  having  two  vaulted  colon¬ 
nades  at  the  northern  and  southern  ends,  each  consisting  of  a 
double  row  of  five  columns.  In  the  middle  of  the  area  stood  a 
parallel  double  range  of  columns  of  a  larger  size,  forming  a  colon¬ 
nade  across  the  middle  of  the  building;  the  columns  are  of  the 
Doric  order,  and  about  sixteen  feet  high.  Over  the  entrance  are 
three  inscribed  tablets,  only  one  of  which,  built  upside  down  in  the 
wall,  is  legible.  Adjoining  this  building  stands  a  square  tower, 
about  fifty  feet  high ;  its  base  is  somewhat  broader  than  its  top.  I 
frequently  saw  similar  structures  in  the  villages  [of  the  Lejah  and 
of  the  Hauran]  ;  they  all  have  windows  near  the  summit;  in  some 
there  is  one  window  on  each  side,  in  others  there  are  two,  as  in 
this  at  Edhra’.  They  have  generally  several  stories  of  vaulted 
chambers,  with  a  staircase  to  ascend  into  them.”1 

I  noticed  that  some  of  the  columns  in  that  quadrangular  struct¬ 
ure  were  of  a  green  micaceous  marble,  the  only  specimens  of  the 
kind  I  have  seen  in  this  region.  There  is  a  large  open  area  on  the 
east  of  that  edifice,  like  that  of  a  modern  khan,  with  prostrate  col- 

1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  pp.  61,  62. 


464 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


umns  in  the  middle  of  the  court-yard,  and  others  still  supporting 
the  vaulted  roofs  of  former  chambers.  It  appears  to  have  been 
repaired  at  one  time  by  the  Saracens. 

Our  day’s  work  has  left  me  thoroughly  wearied  with  ruins,  and 
as  we  contemplate  an  early  start  and  another  long  ride  to-morrow, 
we  had  better  retire  to  rest. 

<  Edhra’,  September  19th. 

To  extricate  our  caravan  from  the  rocky  wilderness  around 
Edhra’,  and  reach  Luhf  el  Lejah,  half  an  hour  to  the  south,  is  the 
first  thing  to  be  done  this  morning,  after  which  the  road  will  be 
comparatively  level  and  pleasant  to  travel  upon. 

At  what  place  do  we  expect  to  encamp  to-night  ? 

Kunawat,  near  the  north-western  base  of  Jebel  Hauran,  and  it 
will  take  seven  or  eight  hours  to  get  there. 

I  regret  that  we  have  not  penetrated  farther  into  a  region  so 
peculiar  and  so  celebrated  from  remote  antiquity  as  the  Lejah. 

Some  years  ago  our  party,  while  in  Edhra’,  had  a  strong  desire 
to  explore  it,  and  finding  a  Bedawin  in  the  place  who  offered  to 
guide  us  through  the  Lejah  to  Harran,  a  village  about  eight  miles 
to  the  north-east  of  Edhra’,  we  gladly  availed  ourselves  of  his  ser¬ 
vices  and  of  the  opportunity  to  see  more  of  the  interior  of  that 
wonderful  district.  As  there  is  nothing  along  our  present  route  to 
require  special  notice,  I  will  give  you  an  account  of  that  ride.  But 
how  am  I  to  describe  a  region  totally  unlike  any  other  with  which 
to  compare  it  ?  I  could  not  follow  that  winding  way  again,  for  our 
caravan  made  no  impression  upon  the  hard  lava  rock,  and  we  left 
no  trace  of  our  passage  behind  us.  And  though  the  distance  be¬ 
tween  the  two  places  is  not  very  great,  it  took  us  four  and  a  half 
hours  to  reach  Harran.  You  know  that  the  Lejah  is  entirely  vol¬ 
canic,  and  that  it  nowhere  rises  higher  than  a  hundred  feet  above 
the  surrounding  plain  of  the  Hauran.  But  that  gives  no  idea  of  the 
real  nature  of  that  extraordinary  district. 

Soon  after  leaving  Edhra’  I  noticed  that  we  were  riding  over 
smooth  lava  rock  resembling  an  unbroken  floor,  considerably  ele¬ 
vated  in  the  middle,  as  though  the  molten  mass  beneath  the  outer 
crust  had  swelled  it  up  like  an  air-bubble,  but  without  cracking  or 
bursting  the  surface.  Those  swellings  or  protuberances  were  of 


INTERIOR  OF  THE  LEJAH. — BEDAWIN  SHEPHERDS.  465 

frequent  occurrence,  extending  for  considerable  distances,  and  form¬ 
ing  a  surface  as  hard  as  iron,  and  giving  forth  a  sharp  metallic 
sound  when  struck.  Then  there  were  places  where  those  air-bub¬ 
bles  had  apparently  burst  open,  and  ragged  masses  of  lava  were 
scattered  about  in  utter  confusion.  In  some  parts  the  hard  crust 
had  been  elevated  into  long  rolling  waves,  extending  at  a  right 
'angle  to  our  course.  Some  of  those  petrified  waves  had  not  burst; 
others  were  broken  and  shattered  and  tossed  about  in  a  manner 
wholly  indescribable.  Over  and  amongst  those  adamantine  air-bub¬ 
bles  and  confused  masses  of  broken  lava  our  horses  had  to  pick 
their  way  as  best  they  could. 

Burckhardt  penetrated  farther  into  the  interior  of  the  Lejah,  and 
he  says  that  “  the  rocks  are  in  many  places  cleft  asunder,  so  that 
the  whole  hill  appears  shivered  and  in  the  act  of  falling  down ;  the 
layers  are  generally  horizontal,  from  six  to  eight  feet  or  more  in 
thickness,  sometimes  covering  the  hills,  and  inclining  to  their  curve, 
as  appears  from  the  fissures,  which  often  traverse  the  rock  from  top 
to  bottom.”1  We  also  passed  during  our  ride  that  day  numerous 
funnel-shaped  pits,  suggesting  the  idea  that  they  were  probably  air¬ 
holes  for  the  mass  of  molten  lava  once  seething  below.  Some  of 
those  pits  are  now  walled  around  with  loose  fragments  of  lava,  evi¬ 
dently  to  prevent  the  flocks  from  falling  into  them,  and  others  have 
been  partially  filled  up,  apparently  for  the  same  reason.  Strange 
as  it  may  seem,  yet  it  is  a  fact  that  the  Bedawin  of  the  Lejah  have 
numerous  flocks  of  both  sheep  and  goats  in  that  dreary  volcanic 
region,  apparently  destitute  of  both  water  and  pasture. 

As  we  advanced  into  the  interior,  shepherds  started  up  in  the 
most  unexpected  places  and  rebuked  our  guide  roughly  for  bring¬ 
ing  “Franks”  through  their  country.  They,  however,  did  not  mo¬ 
lest  us,  though  it  was  evident  that  without  our  guide  we  would  have 
been  surrounded  and  plundered,  if  nothing  worse.  The  number  of 
those  shepherds  was  quite  surprising,  and  the  sudden  manner  in 
which  they  appeared  and  again  disappeared  amongst  the  clefts  of 
lava  seemed  incomprehensible.  Our  guide,  however,  led  the  way 
at  the  head  of  the  caravan,  singing  with  stentorian  voice  some  war¬ 
like  ditty  quite  unintelligible  to  us;  but  I  suspect  that  he  adopted 

1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  p.  112. 


4  66 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


that  method  to  inform  the  people  of  his  tribe  that  we  were  persons 
whom  they  must  not  molest.  However  that  may  be,  I  noticed  that 
some  sinister-looking  Bedawin  who  seemed  to  be  approaching  us 
with  hostile  intent  turned  aside  and  disappeared  as  soon  as  they 
came  within  hearing  of  the  words  of  his  song. 

How  do  those  Bedawin  live,  and  where  do  they  find  pasture  for 
their  numerous  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats? 

An  incident  in  the  visit  of  Dr.  Porter  to  Kunawat  will  sufficiently 
answer  your  first  question.  “  In  the  evening,”  he  says,  “  all  went 
away  except  one,  whom  I  recognized  as  having  been  amongst  those 
who  were  lurking  around  us  at  Deir  es  Sumeid.  ‘What  brought 
you  to  the  Deir  when  you  saw  us  there?’  I  asked  him.  ‘To  strip 
you,’  he  coolly  replied.  ‘And  why  did  you  not  do  it?’  ‘Because 
Mahmud  [the  Druse  guide]  was  with  you.’  ‘  But  why  would  you 
plunder  us? — we  are  strangers  and  not  your  enemies.’  ‘It  is  our 
custom.’  ‘And  do  you  strip  all  strangers?’  ‘Yes,  all  we  can  get 
hold  of.’  ‘And  if  they  resist,  or  are  too  strong  for  you?’  ‘  In  the 
former  case  we  shoot  them  from  behind  trees,  and  in  the  latter  we 
run.’  ‘  How  do  the  people  of  your  tribe  live  ? — do  they  sow  or  feed 
flocks?’  ‘We  are  not  fellahin  [farmers],  thank  God!’  he  said,  with 
dignity.  ‘We  keep  goats  and  sheep,  hunt  partridges  and  gazelles, 
and  steal !’  ‘Are  you  all  thieves?’  ‘Yes,  all !’  These  answers  were 
given  with  the  greatest  composure  and  quite  as  a  matter  of  course.”1 

As  to  where  their  flocks  find  pasture,  that  is  a  question  easier 
asked  than  answered.  For  many  miles  along  the  road  there  was 
neither  grass,  bush,  nor  tree:  nothing  but  lava  —  bare,  hard,  black 
lava ;  but  there  must  have  been  places  where  bushes  and  herb¬ 
age  grew,  though  at  some  distance  from  our  track.  Even  as  we 
approached  Harran  I  saw  but  little  which  either  man  or  beast 
could  eat.  I  think  the  Lejah  has  deteriorated  in  some  respects 
since  Burckhardt  saw  it.  He  mentions  five  small  tribes  of  Bedawin 
who  then  wandered  about  in  it,  and  had  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty  tents  each.  They  also  possessed  large  flocks  of  goats, 
“  which  easily  find  pasture  amongst  the  rocks,”  some  sheep  and 
cows,  a  few  horses,  and  many  camels.2 

1  Five  Years  in  Damascus,  pp.  207,  208. 

2  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  pp.  111,  112. 


ROBBERS'  CAVES  IN  TRACHONITIS 


467 


We  saw  no  goats  or  camels,  though  there  were  many  sheep;  nor 
did  we  see  any  wild  animals  and  but  few  birds.  Near  Harran  there 
were  some  partridges,  but  so  wild  and  wary  that  we  could  not  get 
within  shot  of  them.  The  flocks,  their  owners,  and  their  families 
must  be  supplied  with  water,  without  which  they  could  not  live,  and 
hence  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  there  are  reservoirs  in  caverns 
well  known  to  the  shepherds.  But  we  need  not  credit  some  of  the 
traditions  and  marvels  related  by  the  surrounding  villagers.  One 
man  assured  me  that  the  Bedawin  could  pass  quite  through  under 
the  Lejah  from  end  to  end  along  subterraneous  passages  without 
coming  to  the  surface  or  being  seen  at  all. 

I  made  frequent  inquiries  both  of  our  guide  and  the  people  of 
Harran  in  regard  to  those  caverns  of  which  Josephus  and  some  an¬ 
cient  writers  about  this  region  give  such  strange  accounts.  From 
the  guide  I  could  learn  nothing,  but  the  sheikh  at  Harran  said  there 
were  vast  caverns  known  to  the  Bedawin,  in  some  of  which  there 
were  large  reservoirs  of  water.  That  is  at  least  probable,  for  in  all 
our  ride  there  was  not  a  drop  of  water  to  be  found,  and  it  is  said 
that  there  are  but  few  springs  and  no  never-failing  fountains  in  the 
inner  Lejah.  The  description  which  Josephus  gives  of  the  “doings 
of  the  Trachonites”  and  their  mode  of  life  is  quite  interesting. 

He  says  that  “it  was  not  an  easy  thing  to  restrain  them,  since  this 
way  of  robbery  had  been  their  usual  practice,  and  they  had  no  other 
way  to  get  their  living,  because  they  had  neither  any  city  of  their 
own  nor  lands  in  their  possession,  but  only  some  receptacles  and 
dens  in  the  earth,  and  there  they  and  their  cattle  lived  in  common 
together.  However,  they  had  made  contrivances  to  get  pools  of 
water,  and  laid  up  corn  in  granaries  for  themselves,  and  were  able 
to  make  great  resistance  by  issuing  out  on  the  sudden  against  any 
that  attacked  them  ;  for  the  entrances  of  their  caves  were  narrow,  in 
which  but  one  could  come  in  at  a  time,  and  the  places  within  incred¬ 
ibly  large  and  made  very  wide ;  but  the  ground  over  their  habita¬ 
tions  was  not  very  high,  but  rather  on  a  plain,  while  the  rocks  are 
altogether  hard  and  difficult  to  be  entered  upon  unless  any  one  gets 
into  the  plain  road  by  the  guidance  of  another,  for  these  roads  are 
not  straight,  but  have  several  revolutions.  But  when  Herod  [the 
Great]  had  received  this  grant  from  Caesar,  and  was  come  into  this 


468 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


country,  he  procured  skilful  guides,  and  put  a  stop  to  their  wicked 
robberies,  and  procured  peace  and  quietness  to  the  neighboring 
people,”  including  those  of  Damascus.1 

According  to  that  description  both  the  Lejah  and  its  present 
Bedawin  inhabitants  correspond  almost  exactly  with  the  oldest  tra¬ 
ditions  regarding  this  region  and  the  character  of  its  people. 

Our  object  in  going  to  Harran  was  to  see  the  Lejah  itself  rather 
than  the  ruins  of  old  cities  with  which  it  abounds.  Yet  some  in¬ 
scriptions  in  Harran  are  regarded  with  interest,  and  M.  Waddington 
has  an  extended  critique  concerning  them.  There  are  several  in; 
Greek  and  one  in  Cufic,  the  latter  M.  Waddington  considers  the 
oldest  Arabic  inscription  he  found  in  this  country.  A  Nabathean 
inscription  is  also  said  to  be  there  which,  however,  I  did  not  see,' 
and  have  some  doubts  as  to  its  existence. 

Harran  occupies  a  conspicuous  position  on  the  summit  of  a 
ridge  not  far  from  the  south-eastern  boundary  of  the  Lejah,  and 
when  we  came  in  sight  of  it  our  Bedawin  guide  refused  to  go  any 
farther,  because  there  was  a  blood  feud  between  his  tribe  and  the 
Druses  of  that  village;  and  though  he  himself  was  not  the  cause  of 
the  feud,  yet,  he  said,  they  would  kill  him  if  they  could  catch  him. 
The  ancient  law  of  revenge  is  still  in  full  force  amongst  these  poor 
fragments  of  by-gone  races.  We  gave  him  his  wages,  and  he  quick¬ 
ly  disappeared  in  the  lava  wilderness  through  which  he  had  safely 
guided  us  for  the  last  four  hours  from  Edhra’. 

The  people  of  Harran  told  us  that  in  order  to  see  the  real  Lejah 
we  should  visit  the  region  around  Dama,  a  place  a  few  miles  north 
of  their  village.  Burckhardt  passed  that  way.  He  travelled  as  a 
native,  with  natives  for  his  guides,  lived  with  them,  and  did  as  they 
did;  and  hence  he  could  penetrate  into  places  where  such  cara¬ 
vans  as  ours  could  not  venture.  He  procured  two  Druse  guides  at 
Khubab,  and  went  from  there  to  Dama,  and  thence  through  the 
centre  of  the  Lejah  to  el  Musmeih.  The  distance  from  Khubab 
to  Dama  was  nearly  four  hours — about  the  same  as  from  Edhra’ — 
the  road  becoming  more  difficult  as  he  approached  Dama,  the  coun¬ 
try  more  barren  and  dismal,  the  rocks  higher,  and  the  pasturing 
places  less  frequent. 


1  Ant.  xv.  io,  I. 


DAMA  IN  THE  LEJAH.— CONCEALED  TENTS.  469 

“It  appears  strange,”  he  says,  “that  a  city  should  have  been 
built  by  any  people  in  a  spot  where  there  is  neither  water  nor  ara¬ 
ble  ground,  and  nothing  but  a  little  grass  amidst  the  stones.”  And 
yet  he  estimated  the  number  of  houses  at  three  hundred,  and  most 
of  them  were  still  in  good  preservation.  He  mentions  one  large 
building  whose  gate  was  ornamented  with  sculptured  vine-leaves 
and  grapes,  like  those  we  shall  see  this  evening  at  Kunawat.  “  Ev¬ 
ery  house  appears  to  have  had  its  cistern ;  there  are  many  also  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  town  ;  they  are  formed  by  excava¬ 
tions  in  the  rock,  the  surface  of  which  is  supported  by  props  of 
loose  stones.  Some  of  them  are  arched  and  have  narrow  canals 
to  conduct  the  water  into  them  from  the  higher  ground.”1  When 
Dr.  Eli  Smith  travelled  through  the  Hauran  in  1834,  Dama  “was 
considered  the  capital  of  the  entire  Lejah.” 

•_  r  Passing  on  from  Dama,  Burckhardt  and  his  guides  saw  “  another 
ruined  place,  smaller  than  the  former,  and  situated  in  a  most  dreary 
part  of  the  Lejah,  near  which  we  found,  after  a  good  deal  of  search, 
an  encampment  of  Bedawin  Arabs  of  the  Medlej  tribe,  where  we 
passed  the  night.  These  Arabs  being  of  a  doubtful  character,  and 
rendered  independent  by  the  very  difficult  access  of  their  rocky 
abode,  we  did  not  think  it  prudent  to  tell  them  that  I  had  come  to 
look  at  their  country;  they  were  told,  therefore,  that  I  was  a  man¬ 
ufacturer  of  gunpowder  in  search  of  saltpetre.  The  tent  in  which 
we  slept  was  remarkably  large,  although  it  could  not  easily  be  per¬ 
ceived  amidst  the  labyrinth  oTrocks  where  it  was  pitched.”2 

That  accords  well  with  the  description  given  to  me  by  a  Druse 
sheikh  of  Beit  Tulhuk,  on  Lebanon,  of  their  hiding-place  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Dama,  when  the  Egyptian  army  made  that  disas¬ 
trous  attempt  to  penetrate  into  the  Lejah.  The  fissures  and  crev¬ 
ices  in  the  rocks  were  so  narrow,  deep,  and  winding  that  their  en¬ 
campment  could  not  be  seen  until  one  was  directly  above  it ;  and 
in  many  places  the  bushes  clinging  to  the  sides  of  the  crevices  so 
concealed  their  tents  that  they  could  not  be  seen  at  all  from  above. 
Though  that  sheikh  was  there  for  several  weeks,  he  never  ventured 
outside  of  the  camp  without  a  guide,  and  never  dared  wander  out 
of  sight  for  fear  that  he  would  not  be  able  to  find  his  way  back. 

1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  pp.  no,  hi.  2  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  p.  in. 


470 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Burckhardt  says  that  he  and  his  guides  found  their  “way  with  great 
difficulty  out  of  the  labyrinth  of  rocks  which  form  the  inner  Lejah, 
and  through  which  the  Arabs  alone  have  the  clue.”1 

We  have  passed  within  sight  of  several  villages  which  appear  to 
occupy  the  sites  of  ancient  cities. 

The  most  conspicuous  of  those  along  our  route  have  been  Busr 
el  Hariry,  Ta’arah,  and  Kiratah,  which  we  have  just  passed,  half 
concealed  among  the  rocks  within  the  Lejah,  and  several  others 
situated  on  the  plain  of  el  Hauran,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  ed  Dur,  some  distance  to  the  south.  But  the  whole  region 
east  and  south  of  us  is  dotted  with  old  sites,  and  the  former  names 
of  many  ancient  places  have  been  recovered  by  the  aid  of  Greek 
inscriptions  found  among  their  ruins. 

The  remarkable  preservation  of  the  remains  of  such  towns  and 
cities  is  certainly  very  surprising.  The  houses  are  not  buried  under 
mounds  and  hills  of  volcanic  ashes,  like  those  which  concealed  and 
saved  from  destruction  the  private  dwellings  and  public  edifices  of 
Pompeii,  but  they  have  been  exposed  during  long  centuries  to  the 
rain  and  frost  and  snows  of  winter,  and  the  blazing  sun  in  summer, 
and  yet  they  are  still  in  such  a  condition  that  but  few  repairs  are 
necessary  to  render  them  habitable. 

The  explanation  is,  that  all  the  dwellings  and  larger  edifices  in 
this  region  were  constructed  entirely  of  stone  —  gate-ways,  walls, 
doors,  windows,  stairs,  and  roofs  were  all  made  of  the  imperish¬ 
able  doleritic  lava,  hard  as  adamant.  They  have  never  been  over¬ 
whelmed  by  volcanic  eruption,  and  only  partially  demolished  by 
the  shock  of  destructive  earthquakes. 

I  suppose  that  the  temples,  theatres,  and  other  public  buildings 
in  those  towns  and  cities  of  the  Lejah  must  have  been  erected  dur¬ 
ing  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and  before  Christianity  had  obtained 
any  controlling  influence  in  this  part  of  the  country? 

No  doubt;  and  some  of  them  may  date  back  farther  than  the 
commencement  of  our  era.  As  to  the  sites  which  they  now  occupy, 
many  of  them  may  be  essentially  the  same  as  those  upon  which  the 
threescore  cities  mentioned  in  Deuteronomy  were  built.  But  let  us 
return  to  our  interrupted  description.  We  went  from  Harran  to 

1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,p.  112. 


NEJRAn.  — BLOOD  FEUDS.— THE  BUTM. 


471 


Nejran,  a  place  about  two  and  a  half  hours  to  the  south-east  of  it. 
Nejran  is  a  much  larger  village  than  Harran,  and  it  is  inhabited  by 
Druses  and  Christians  of  the  Greek  Catholic  sect.  Much  of  the  sur¬ 
rounding  country  is  cultivated,  and  it  may  be  regarded  as  near  the 
extreme  southern  border  of  the  Lejah. 

Nejran  presents  an  imposing  appearance,  due  to  its  position  on 
the  crest  of  the  rocky  ridge  upon  which  it  is  built,  but  there  is  nei¬ 
ther  temple,  theatre,  nor  other  public  edifice  of  importance  in  it, 
and  its  ancient  name  has  not  yet  been  ascertained.  The  ruins 
spread  over  a  rocky  surface  nearly  two  miles  in  circumference,  and 
some  of  the  old  houses  are  large  and  in  a  fair  state  of  preservation. 
One  of  them  has  two  stories,  with  wings  on  either  side  of  the  court, 
and  there  are  numerous  rooms  on  both  stories.  It  is  occupied  by 
one  of  the  leading  Druse  families  in  the  Lejah.  There  are  also  the 
remains  of  a  church,  which  appears  to  have  been  subsequently  used 
as  a  mosk.  It  had  two  towers,  and  upon  the  walls  of  the  church 
are  some  Greek  inscriptions,  one  of  which  bears  the  Bostrian  date 
458,  equivalent  to  the  year  564  of  our  era. 

Although  the  people  of  Harran  were  profuse  in  their  offers  of 
service,  we  found  it  difficult  to  procure  a  guide  to  Nejran.  At  last 
a  young  sheikh  declared  he  would  go  himself,  and  arming  to  the 
teeth,  he  mounted  his  horse  and  we  set  off ;  but  he  was  evidently 
not  at  his  ease,  and  as  soon  as  we  came  in  sight  of  Nejran  he  told 
us  he  could  go  no  farther.  “Why?”  “Because  there  is  a  blood 
feud  between  that  village  and  ours,  and  if  I  entered  Nejran  not  even 
you  could  save  my  life.  One  of  our  people  unfortunately  killed  a 
man  of  Harran,  and  we  have  not  yet  been  able  to  settle  the  matter 
by  paying  the  exorbitant  sum  deman'ded  from  us  as  blood-money, 
and  until  that  is  paid  any  one  of  our  village  may  be  murdered  in 
retaliation  and  turning  his  horse  homeward,  he  was  soon  out  of 
sight.  That  was  another  striking  illustration  of  the  disorganized 
state  of  society  in  this  region,  and  the  stringency  of  the  law  of 
blood  revenge,  even  down  to  the  present  time. 

The  Lejah  appears  to  have  had  more  trees  at  the  time  of  Burck- 
hardt’s  visit  than  at  present — different  varieties  of  oak,  hawthorn, 
and  other  trees.  He  mentions  the  Butm,  which,  he  says,  “is  the  bit¬ 
ter-almond,  from  the  fruit  of  which  an  oil  is  extracted  used  by  the 
I  2 


472 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


people  of  the  country  to  anoint  their  temples  and  forehead  as  a  cure 
for  colds  ;  its  branches  are  in  great  demand  for  pipe-stems.”  1  The 
Butm  is  the  terebinth,  and  near  Harran  there  are  many  of  those 
trees,  but  of  a  stunted  growth.  I  examined  an  ancient  rock-cut  oil- 
press  below  the  village,  where  the  berries  were  ground  to  a  pulp  in 
a  stone  trough  or  basin,  and  the  oil  expressed  by  a  beam-press. 

Butm-oil  is  used  in  that  part  of  the  country  for  lighting  lamps 
instead  of  olive-oil,  but  ere  long  both  will  be  superseded  throughout 
this  land  by  the  cheaper  and  more  brilliant  petroleum  imported 
from  America,  and  the  old  earthen  lamp,  with  its  dripping  wick  and 
greasy  stand,  will  be  banished  even  from  the  homes  of  the  poor. 
Thus  another  very  Biblical  household  article  will  disappear  forever 
from  the  Holy  Land,  and  the  humble  habitations  of  the  fellahin  in 
the  Lejah  and  on  Jebel  Hauran,  in  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Bashan, 
will  be  illuminated  by  “oil  out  of  the  flinty  rock,”  procured  from 
the  modern  wells  of  Pennsylvania. 

If  your  forecast  of  the  near  future  in  regard  to  that  matter  be 
correct,  then  the  traveller  in  this  country  will  no  longer  see  “the 
smoking  flax”  mentioned  by  the  prophet  Isaiah  which  the  Servant 
of  the  Lord  would  not  quench.2 

Not  if  by  “the  flax”  the  wick  in  the  seraj  or  common  earthen 
lamp  of  the  East  was  intended.  That,  of  course,  will  disappear 
along  with  the  lamp  itself. 

Have  you  ever  noticed  the  conditions  which  appear  to  be  re¬ 
quired  by  the  language  of  the  prophet  ? 

When  I  first  travelled  about  in  Palestine  and  mingled  freely  with 
the  people,  I  witnessed  them  every  night.  The  ancient  clay  lamp 
was  then  universally  used  by  the  peasants.  The  wick  was  generally 
made  of  a  twisted  strand  of  flax  or  cotton  thread,  and  was  immersed 
in  olive-oil  in  the  shallow  cup  of  the  lamp.  When  the  oil  was  nearly 
consumed,  the  lamp  burned  dimly,  and  instead  of  giving  out  a  cheer¬ 
ful  light  it  emitted  a  very  offensive  smoke.  If  the  oil  in  the  lamp 
was  not  replenished,  “the  smoking  flax”  would  soon  be  quenched 
and  the  room  left  in  utter  darkness. 

Isaiah  seems  to  imply  that  this  was  sometimes  done  purposely. 

And  so  it  is  now.  I  have  seen  the  housewife  thus  “quench”  the 

1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  p.  112.  2  Isa.  xlii.  3. 


“THE  SMOKING  FLAX”  AND  “THE  BRUISED  REED.”  473 

spent  “  flax,”  throw  it  away  as  no  longer  worth  anything,  and  put  a 
new  wick  in  the  lamp.  The  “Servant”  of  the  Lord  would  not  act 
thus.  He  would  replenish  the  lamp  with  oil,  trim  the  wick,  and 
cause  “the  dimly  burning”  flame  to  spring  up  with  fresh  life  and 
brightness.  That  too  I  have  often  seen  done  in  the  habitations  of 
the  fellahin.  The  moral  significance  of  that  act  is  perfectly  obvious, 
and  it  was  intended  to  carry  comfort  and  encouragement  to  the 
poor,  the  weak,  and  the  despairing,  whose  light  and  hope  were  ready 
to  die — a  beautiful  prophecy  of  Him  who  came  into  our  world  of 
sin  and  sorrow  to  help  the  helpless,  to  lift  up  the  fallen,  and  save 
the  lost.  Though  the  earthen  lamp,  with  its  “dimly  burning  smok¬ 
ing  flax,”  may  be  quenched  and  disappear  from  this  land  forever,  the 
lesson  taught  by  it  will  remain  unchanged  for  all  time. 

The  same  comforting  prophecy  and  promise  are  also  taught  by 
the  “  bruised  reed,”  and  there  appears  to  be  no  danger  that  it  will 
ever  cease  to  exist  in  this  country.1  The  banks  of  every  brook  and 
irrigating  canal  are  fringed  with  them,  and  we  have  seen  thousands 
of  bruised  reeds  trampled  underfoot  and  broken  by  man  and  beast, 
cattle  and  heedless  flocks ;  nor  does  any  one  think  it  worth  while 
apparently  to  lift  them  from  the  ground  and  help  them  to  regain 
and  maintain  their  upright  position. 

Even  that  is  sometimes  done,  although  the  bruised  reeds  are 
generally  left  by  man  to  be  utterly  broken  and  to  fall  away  and  per-  , 
ish.  Not  so,  however,  does  the  compassionate  Servant  of  the  Lord ; 
and  the  broken  reed  was  well  chosen  by  the  prophet  to  illustrate  the 
infinite  condescension  and  kindness  of  Him  who  healed  the  sick, 
cleansed  the  leper,  and  befriended  the  fallen  and  the  outcast.  But 
these  are  only  a  few  of  the  changes  in  the  near  future  of  this  coun¬ 
try  that  will  obliterate  many  things  familiar  to  the  readers  of  the 
Bible.  Schools,  books,  newspapers,  manufactures  and  machinery, 
steam  and  the  telegraph,  are  slowly  yet  certainly  penetrating  every 
part  of  this  land,  and  diffusing  new  ideas  and  customs  amongst  the 
people.  The  younger  generation  even  now  make  merry  over  the 
simplicity  and  ignorance  of  their  parents,  which  half  a  century  ago 
sometimes  manifested  itself  in  a  most  laughable  manner. 

I  was  once  travelling  north  of  Tripoli,  and  having  occasion  to 

1  Isa.  xlii.  3. 


474 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


light  a  match,  struck  it  against  the  heel  of  my  boot.  At  sight  of 
the  blaze  the  crowd  around  me  set  up  a  loud  shout,  calling  their 
friends  to  come  and  see  a  man  who  could  draw  fire  out  of  his  heel ! 
On  another  occasion  Dr.  De  Forest,  while  writing  in  his  note-book, 
frequently  applied  the  pencil  to  his  tongue.  The  crowd,  after 
watching  the  operation  for  some  time,  exclaimed,  “  See  !  see  !  This 
Frank  carries  his  inkstand  in  his  mouth  !”  You  will  not  meet  with 
similar  examples  of  ignorance  at  present.  All  now  know  the  use  of 
percussion-caps,  which  used  to  astonish  them  when  I  came  to  this 
country,  and  you  will  now  rarely  find  the  old  matchlock  even  in  the 
hands  of  the  Bedawin.  Nor  in  this  very  region  of  Jebel  Hauran — 
the  stronghold  of  the  Druses  —  does  one  see  nowadays  a  horned 
princess  or  a  grandly  beturbaned  sheikh. 

It  is  quite  evident  that  many  things  ancient  and  Biblical,  once  so 
common  in  this  country,  are  fast  passing  away,  and  this  renders  it 
the  more  interesting  to  traverse  the  land  before  they  fade  entirely 
out  of  sight  and  vanish  forever. 

No  doubt  that  is  true,  and  yet  all  that  is  of  real  importance  will 
always  remain  stable  as  the  everlasting  hills  or  the  ordinances  of 
heaven  and  earth  which  cannot  be  changed.  But  this  is  a  subject 
which  we  can  better  discuss  on  some  future  occasion  and  under 
more  convenient  circumstances.  Let  us  now  give  some  attention 
to  the  region  immediately  around  us. 

Instead  of  passing  up  the  hill  ahead  of  us  to  Nejran,  the  ap¬ 
proach  to  which  is  by  a  winding  path,  rough  and  rocky,  we  will  de¬ 
scend  into  Wady  Kunawat.  The  stream  which  comes  down  that 
valley  in  winter  from  Kunawat  passes  out  on  to  the  plain  of  el  Hau¬ 
ran  west  of  Edhra’,  and  forms  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  river  Jar- 
muk,  which  unites  with  the  Jordan  near  Jisr  el  Mejamia’  and  about 
ten  miles  south  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias.  When  our  party  descended 
into  this  wady  on  our  way  from  Nejran,  the  stream  whose  dry  bed 
we  have  just  crossed  was  then  so  swollen  by  the  great  rains  and 
melting  snow  on  Jebel  Hauran  that  we  could  not  ford  it,  and  had  to 
follow  up  its  course  for  several  miles  to  find  a  place  where  it  could 
be  safely  crossed.  Now  there  is  not  a  drop  of  water  in  it,  and  we 
can  take  the  direct  course  south-east  to  Suleim,  which  is  the  next 
place  to  be  visited  on  our  way  to  Kunawat. 


RUINS  AT  SHUHBA. — A  ROMAN  CITY. 


475 


A  few  miles  east  of  Nejran  and  north  of  Suleim,  on  the  crest  of 
a  rocky  ridge  in  Wady  Nimreh,  is  a  place  called  Shuhba,  once  a  large 
city.  It  was,  says  Dr.  Porter,  “almost  entirely  Roman  —  the  ram¬ 
parts  are  Roman,  the  streets  have  the  old  Roman  pavement,  Roman 
temples  appear  in  every  quarter,  a  Roman  theatre  remains  nearly 
perfect,  a  Roman  aqueduct  brought  water  from  the  distant  moun¬ 
tains,  inscriptions  of  the  Roman  age,  though  in  Greek,  are  found  on 
every  public  building.  A  few  of  the  ancient  massive  houses,  with 
their  stone  doors  and  stone  roofs,  yet  exist,  but  they  are  in  a  great 
measure  concealed  or  built  over  with  the  later  and  more  graceful 
structures  of  Greek  and  Roman  origin.  Though  the  city  was  nearly 
three  miles  in  circuit,  and  abounded  in  splendid  buildings,  its  ancient 
name  is  lost,  and  its  ancient  history  unknown.  Its  modern  name  is 
derived  from  a  princely  Mohammedan  family  [Beit  Shehab],  which 
settled  here  in  the  seventh  century.”1 

Shuhba  had  two  main  streets  running  from  east  to  west  and 
from  north  to  south,  which  crossed  each  other  in  the  middle  of  the 
town.  The  streets  are  about  twenty  feet  wide,  and  were  well  paved 
with  long  slabs,  which  in  many  places  remain  in  an  almost  perfect 
condition.  The  gates  at  the  end  of  the  streets  were  formed  of  two 
arches,  with  a  pillar  in  the  centre,  and  those  on  the  east  and  south 
are  nearly  entire.  At  the  intersection  of  the  streets  there  are  the 
remains  of  four  massive  pedestals  of  solid  masonry,  each  about  fif¬ 
teen  feet  square  and  ten  feet  high.  About  two  hundred  yards  to 
the  west  of  those  pedestals,  on  the  right  of  the  street,  are  the  ruins 
of  a  temple,  and  five  of  the  six  Corinthian  columns  that  once  formed 
the  portico  are  still  standing. 

There  are  also  the  remains  of  other  temples,  baths,  and  public 
buildings  in  that  neighborhood.  The  entrance  to  the  baths  was 
lofty,  the  walls  containing  the  water-pipes  were  very  massive,  and 
the  various  vaulted  chambers  were  high  and  of  different  sizes.  But 
the  theatre  at  Shuhba  is  the  most  perfect  of  all  the  public  edifices. 
It  was  built  on  a  sloping  site  overlooking  the  plain,  and  the  enclos¬ 
ing  walls,  which  were  nearly  ten  feet  thick,  are  still  in  a  good  state 
of  preservation.  There  were  three  doors  in  front,  and  nine  vaulted 
entrances  on  the  sides  leading  into  the  interior.  The  arena  was 

1  Bashan  and  its  Giant  Cities,  p.  37. 


4/6 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


about  fifty  feet  square,  and  there  were  seven  tiers  of  seats  and  sev¬ 
en  rows  of  benches,  divided  by  a  broad  passage-way,  which  ap¬ 
parently  extended  quite  round  the  building. 

From  Greek  inscriptions  found  there  it  appears  that  Shuhba 
must  have  been  a  place  of  importance  during  the  second  and  third 
centuries  of  our  era,  and  both  M.  Waddington  and  the  Count  de 
Vogue  are  of  the  opinion  that  it  occupies  the  site  of  Philippopolis, 
the  birthplace  of  the  Emperor  Philip.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
son  of  a  celebrated  Arab  chief  of  Trachonitis,  and  was  chosen  em¬ 
peror  by  the  Roman  army  which  he  commanded  in  the  East  about 
the  middle  of  the  third  century;  and  one  of  his  first  acts  was  the 
founding  of  a  city  in  this  region  which  he  dignified  with  the  name 
of  Philippopolis  in  honor  of  himself. 

To  those  of  us  who  have  been  familiar  for  nearly  half  a  century 
with  the  fortunes  and  misfortunes  of  the  Shehab  Emirs  on  Lebanon 
and  elsewhere,  Shuhba  is  invested  with  peculiar  interest.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  one  tradition  the  ancestors  of  that  family  left  Arabia  about 
the  time  of  Muhammed,  with  whose  tribe  of  Kureish  they  claimed 
relationship,  and  settled  in  Shuhba,  to  which  place  they  gave  their 
own  name.  The  tradition  may  be  true,  but  Tannus  esh  Shidiak, 
the  native  historian  and  unlimited  panegyrist  of  the  family,  makes 
Edhra’  their  adopted  home,  adding  that  they  were  called  Edhra’ites 
from  the  place  of  their  abode,  and  says  nothing  about  Shuhba. 
The  Shehabs,  however,  may  have  removed  from  Shuhba  to  Edhra’. 

Their  migration  still  farther  westward  in  the  twelfth  century 
was  occasioned  by  the  wars  between  Nur  ed  Din  and  Salah  ed  Din, 
the  great  Saladin.  The  historian  informs  us  that,  owing  to  their 
fear  of  Nur  ed  Din  in  Damascus,  the  entire  Shehab  family,  with  fif¬ 
teen  thousand  followers,  set  out  for  Egypt  to  seek  the  protection 
of  Saladin.  But  when  they  reached  Jisr  Benat  Ya’kob,  over  the 
Jordan,  they  were  overtaken  by  messengers  from  Nur  ed  Din,  urg¬ 
ing  them  to  remain  in  the  country  and  granting  them  permission 
to  reside  wherever  they  desired.  They  acceded  to  his  request,  and 
chose  the  valley  of  the  upper  Jordan  as  their  abode;  and  after  many 
conflicts  with  the  Crusaders,  whose  head-quarters  in  that  region 
were  then  at  the  castle  of  esh  Shukif,  they  succeeded  in  establish¬ 
ing  themselves  at  Hasbeiya  and  Rasheiyet  el  Wady,  where  they 


FORTUNES  AND  MISFORTUNES  OF  THE  SHEHAB  EMiRS.  477 

continued  to  reside  and  misgovern  the  country  down  to  the  pres¬ 
ent  century  in  and  around  the  valley  of  the  upper  Jordan. 

When  the  Mongols  under  Hulagu  Khan,  the  grandson  of  the 
great  Genghis  Khan,  invaded  Syria  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
f  Shehabs,  according  to  their  historian,  sent  their  families  for  safety 
from  the  districts  of  Wady  et  Teim  to  that  of  esh  Shuf,  and  thence¬ 
forth  they  began  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  Leb¬ 
anon.  The  celebrated  Emir  Beshir,  after  the  defeat  and  death  of 
his  Druse  rival,  Sheikh  Beshir  Jumblat,  of  el  Mukhtarah,  in  the  early 
part  of  this  century,  became  sole  Prince  of  Lebanon.  He,  from 
necessity  rather  than  choice,  sided  with  Muhammed  ’Aly  of  Egypt 
in  his  rebellion  against  the  Sultan,  and  when  the  combined  fleets 
of  Europe  came,  in  1840,  to  restore  Syria  to  the  Turks,  the  Emir 
Beshir  surrendered  to  the  English  at  Sidon  and  was  taken  to 
Malta,  whence  he  was  allowed  to  go  to  Constantinople  to  intercede 
with  the  Sultan  for  his  restoration,  and  there  he  died. 

The  Shehab  emirs  who  remained  on  Lebanon  attempted  to  re¬ 
gain  their  lost  power  by  exciting  those  civil  wars  which  have  con¬ 
vulsed  that  whole  mountain  more  than  once  and  covered  Lebanon 
with  many  burned  villages.  The  terrible  massacres  of  i860  com¬ 
pleted  the  overthrow  of  the  Shehabs  both  in  Wady  et  Teim  and 
in  Lebanon.  They  have  now  sunk  into  ruin  more  utter  and  hope¬ 
less  than  that  which  overwhelmed  Shuhba,  their  traditional  abode 
in  the  Hauran,  and  the  later  catastrophies  in  their  disastrous  his¬ 
tory  I  have  myself  witnessed.  But  we  must  not  forget  that  they 
claimed  the  longest  pedigree  of  any  “house”  on  earth.  By  the  aid 
of  their  kinship  to  Muhammed,  Abraham,  and  Noah,  they  override 
the  Deluge  and  sail  triumphantly  down  the  stream  of  Time  from 
“the  beginning”  to  the  present  hour. 

Had  our  arrangements  permitted  I  should  have  liked  to  visit 
Shuhba,  for  it  seems  to  abound  with  ancient  remains  of  many  kinds, 
and  of  special  interest  to  the  traveller  and  the  archaeologist. 

The  road  to  it  leads  through  a  wild  and  rocky  region,  and  we 
shall  have  repeated  opportunities  in  the  near  future  to  examine 
temples,  theatres,  and  colonnades  far  greater  and  grander  than  those 
of  Shuhba.  Let  us,  therefore,  rest  contented  for  this  day  with  the 
temple  at  Suleim  and  those  at  Kunawat. 


478 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


We  have  fallen  temples  and  prostrate  churches  on  either  hand. 
Nearly  every  hamlet  has  some  of  those  monuments  to  show,  and  I 
feel  as  though  we  were  travelling  through  wonderland  with  the  fos¬ 
silized  antiquities  of  by-gone  ages  and  untold  generations  crumbling 
to  ruin  all  around  and  about  us. 

There  is  nothing  to  suggest  such  melancholy  thoughts  in  the  ap¬ 
pearance  of  this  temple  at  Suleim  which  we  are  now  approaching. 

It  is  indeed  a  beautiful  edifice,  though  the  cornice  is,  perhaps, 
too  lofty  and  quite  overburdened  with  architectural  ornamenta¬ 
tion.  One  is  surprised  to  find  it  in  such  an  isolated  position. 

The  walls  of  the  temple  are  still  standing  and  nearly  perfect, 
with  the  exception  of  the  central  portion  and  the  portico  on  the 
east  side,  where  there  has  been  a  perfect  avalanche  of  large  stones, 
occasioned  by  the  falling  in  of  the  roof  and  the  upper  parts  of  the 
walls.  The  temple  appears  to  have  been  profusely  decorated,  judg¬ 
ing  from  the  number  of  these  large  blocks  covered  with  scroll-work, 
and  garlands  and  wreaths  of  fruits,  flowers,  and  leaves  in  bass-relief. 
On  one  of  the  stones  found  in  front  of  the  temple  there  is  a  well- 
preserved  Greek  inscription  of  six  lines,  the  last  of  which  is  to  the 
effect  that  this  temple  was  erected  by  Sadus  of  Neapolis.  From 
which  it  has  been  supposed  that  Suleim  occupies  the  site  of  the 
Episcopal  city  of  that  name,  whose  bishop  was  present  at  the  coun¬ 
cils  of  Chalcedon  and  Constantinople.  M.  Waddington,  however,  is 
of  the  opinion  that  it  was  called  Selaema  during  the  Graeco -Roman 
period — only  another  form  of  its  present  Arabic  name. 

This  cavernous  cistern  in  front  of  the  temple  is  one  of  the  larg¬ 
est  we  have  seen  in  this  region. 

It  is  about  twenty-five  feet  square  and  nearly  thirty  feet  deep. 
The  stone  slabs  forming  the  roof  rested  on  corbels  and  were  sup¬ 
ported  by  three  arches.  The  interior  appears  to  have  been  covered 
with  cement,  and  the  cistern  was  probably  a  large  reservoir  for  the 
supply  of  the  temple,  though  it  might  have  been  used  for  the  stor- 
age  of  grain.  The  ruins  of  the  old  town  around  the  modern  village 
of  Suleim,  situated  on  that  low  tell  a  short  distance  south  of  this 
temple,  are  almost  two  miles  in  circumference  ;  but,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  the  foundations  of  another  temple  and  the  remains  of  a  bath, 
we  shall  see  nothing  there  to  attract  our  special  attention. 


TEMPLE  AT  SULEIM. 


479 


TEMPLE  AT  SULEIM, 


Here  come  charging  down  upon  us  the  pupils  of  the  village 
school,  I  suppose,  a  noisy  band  of  thirty  or  forty  boys,  with  their 
native  teacher  bringing  up  the  rear.  He  can  speak  a  little  Eng¬ 
lish,  it  seems — and  both  are  a  most  unexpected  sight  and  sound  in 
this  wild  “  mountain  of  the  Druses.” 

Both  are  easily  explained.  A  benevolent  English  gentleman  has 
sent  the  teacher  here  to  open  a  school  amongst  his  own  people,  and 
he  acquired  his  knowledge  of  English,  such  as  it  is,  in  the  mission¬ 
ary  institutions  on  Lebanon.  He  says  the  people  are  anxious  to 
have  their  children  educated,  and  the  number  of  scholars  certainly 


480  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

confirms  his  statement.  We  must  decline  the  invitation  to  rest  and 
partake  of  a  cup  of  coffee  and  other  refreshments  which  the  gather¬ 
ing  company  press  upon  us  with  such  persistency.  I  am  sorry  to 
disappoint  them,  but  I  know  by  experience  that  their  “  two  mo¬ 
ments”  would  lengthen  into  as  many  hours,  and  we  cannot  spare 
the  time  even  to  enjoy  the  proverbial  hospitality  of  the  Druses  of 
the  Hauran.  So,  with  the  usual  profusion  of  regrets  and  salams,  we 
will  bid  good-bye  to  Suleim  and  follow  our  caravan. 

We  shall  take  the  most  direct  road  to  our  destination,  which 
leads  up  through  the  open  country  in  a  direction  nearly  south-east, 
and  most  of  the  way  through  a  well-wooded  region.  Kunawat,  situ¬ 
ated  upon  the  western  slope  of  Jebel  ed  Druse,  is  about  two  hours 
distant,  and  we  must  quicken  our  pace  that  we  may  have  time  be¬ 
fore  dark  to  inspect  the  extensive  remains  of  that  ancient  city. 

These  numerous  temples  and  public  buildings  in  this  region  are 
apparently  of  Greek  or  Roman  origin,  and  the  question  continually 
arises,  not  so  much  in  reference  to  the  architects  who  erected  them, 
but  as  to  the  character  of  the  people  who  required  such  edifices 
for  their  religious  worship  and  secular  entertainment. 

The  population  is  now  and  has  been  for  many  centuries  Arabic, 
and  nothing  but  that  language  has  been  spoken  here  for  unnum¬ 
bered  generations.  The  inference  is,  therefore,  inevitable  that  even 
before  the  time  when  those  structures  were  erected,  and  during  the 
first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  there  was  a  large  Graeco-Roman 
population  in  this  region.  In  all  directions,  from  el  Musmeih  on 
the  north  to  ’Amman  on  the  south,  there  was  a  continuous  succes¬ 
sion  of  such  temples  and  public  buildings.  There  are  more  Greek 
inscriptions  in  this  general  region  east  of  the  Jordan  than  in  all 
Syria  and  Palestine  together.  But  that  foreign  population  has  en¬ 
tirely  disappeared.  There  is  not,  I  suppose,  one  drop  of  Greek  or 
Roman  blood  in  any  of  the  present  inhabitants,  nor  a  trace  of  their 
language  either.  These  facts  may  corroborate  and  explain  the  pe¬ 
culiar  linguistic  condition  that  prevailed  amongst  the  people  who 
dwelt  east  of  the  Jordan  and  the  Lake  of  Tiberias. 

That  “great  and  wide”  region  at  and  before  the  commencement 
of  our  era  was  called  “the  Decapolis,”  from  a  group  of  ten  of  the 
principal  cities  within  it,  which  appear  to  have  been  endowed  with 


THE  DECAPOLIS.— ROMAN  ROAD.— OAK  FOREST. 


481 


certain  privileges  by  the  Romans.  Of  those  cities  Damascus  was 
the  one  farthest  to  the  north,  Canatha  or  Kunawat  to  the  east,  and 
Gerasa,  or  Jerash,  the  most  southern. 

Those  ten  important  cities  must  have  exerted  a  controlling  in¬ 
fluence  upon  the  commerce,  the  civilization,  and  the  language  of 
this  part  of  the  country  for  several  centuries. 

The  region  of  the  Decapolis  is  mentioned  more  than  once  in  the 
New  Testament.  When  “Jesus  went  about  all  Galilee,  teaching 
and  preaching  and  healing  all  manner  of  sickness  among  the  people, 
his  fame  went  throughout  all  Syria:  and  they  brought  unto  him  all 
that  were  taken  with  divers  diseases,  and  he  healed  them.  And 
there  followed  him  great  multitudes  of  people  from  Galilee,  and 
from  Decapolis,  and  from  beyond  Jordan.”1 

ATter  the  drowning  of  the  swine  by  the  entering  into  them  of 
the  devils  which  Jesus  had  cast  out  of  the  demoniac  whose  name 
was  Legion,  “and  when  Jesus  was  come  into  the  ship,  he  that  had 
been  possessed  with  the  devil  prayed  him  that  he  might  be  with 
him.  Howbeit  Jesus  suffered  him  not,  but  said  unto  him,  Go  home 
to  thy  friends,  and  tell  them  how  the  Lord  hath  had  compassion  on 
thee.  And  he  departed,  and  began  to  publish  in  Decapolis  how 
great  things  Jesus  had  done  for  him:  and  all  men  did  marvel.”2 
Our  Lord  himself  visited  parts  of  that  region,  and  upon  one  occasion 
“  he  went  out  from  the  borders  of  Tyre,  and  came  through  Sidon 
unto  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  through  the  midst  of  the  borders  of  Decap¬ 
olis.”  3  That  is,  he  went  northward,  then  eastward,  and  probably 
crossed  the  Jordan  at  Dan  and  came  down  through  the  region  east 
of  that  river  until  he  reached  the  shores  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias. 

We  have  been  following  along  the  remains  of  a  Roman  road, 
and  now  we  are  entering  a  beautiful  forest  of  evergreen  oaks  which 
seems  to  extend  a  great  distance  over  the  range  of  Jebel  Hauran. 

Kunawat  itself  is  surrounded  by  it,  and  many  of  the  ruins  are 
embowered  beneath  wide-spreading  sindian  trees,  as  these  scrub- 
oaks  are  called  by  the  natives,  and  here  and  there  some  of  the  col¬ 
umns  are  seen  rising  above  the  dense  foliage.  How  different  is  our 
present  approach  from  that  on  my  former  visit.  In  half  an  hour 
after  leaving  Suleim  we  came  to  this  rattling  brook,  then  not  easy 
1  Matt.  iv.  23-25.  2  Mark  v.  1-20.  3  Mark  vii.  31,  R.  V. 


482 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


to  cross.  Now  there  is  not  a  drop  of  water  in  its  rocky  bed.  Ten 
minutes  farther  there  was  another  stream  equally  boisterous,  and  in 
fifteen  minutes  more  we  came  to  the  main  stream  of  the  Kunawaty. 
It  had  overflowed  its  banks,  and  we  floundered  into  and  out  of  deep 
pools  and  rocky  channels  through  which  the  river  made  its  way 
northward  amongst  these  oak-trees.  Now  we  shall  find  no  water  in 
the  deepest  of  those  pools  to  refresh  our  tired  and  thirsty  animals. 

Our  day’s  journey,  after  crossing  this  modern  bridge,  is  nearly 
over,  for  we  are  entering  the  narrow  lanes  that  lead  up  into  the 
town,  having  high  -walled  gardens  on  either  side.  We  will  hand  our 
horses  to  the  servants  and  walk,  for  the  road,  though  broad  and 
well  paved,  is  worn  and  slippery,  and  there  are  some  important  ruins 
to  claim  attention  before  we  enter  the  town. 

You  notice  that  the  general  direction  of  Wady  Kunawat,  in  this 
part  of  its  course,  is  northward,  and  that  the  city  proper  was  on  the 
western  side  of  it.  Before  passing  to  the  tents,  therefore,  we  may 
as  well  cross  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  wady  and  examine  two 
structures  there  that  well  merit  our  attention. 

This  edifice  in  Wady  Kunawat  above  the  bridge  and  the  river  is 
a  pretty  little  theatre  partly  hewn  out  of  the  surrounding  rock. 
It  was  about  sixty  feet  in  diameter,  and  had  nine  tiers  of  seats, 
which  are  still  in  a  good  state  of  preservation  ;  and  there  was  a  cis¬ 
tern  in  the  middle  of  the  arena.  From  a  long  Greek  inscription,  in 
very  large  letters,  which  runs  round  the  entire  wall  back  of  the 
arena,  we  learn  that  this  theatre  was  constructed  at  the  expense 
of  a  Roman  officer  named  Marcus  Oulpius  Lusias,  and  presented  by 
him  to  the  citizens  of  Canatha. 

The  view  to  the  north  -west  over  the  oak  woods  and  the  plain 
of  the  Hauran  to  the  distant  mountains  and  to  the  snowy  summit 
of  Hermon  beyond  them  is  superb;  and  those  seated  on  these  bench¬ 
es  could  not  only  witness  the  spectacle  in  the  arena  of  the  theatre, 
but  they  could  also  gaze  upon  a  varied  and  beautiful  prospect  of 
great  extent  and  special  interest. 

This  other  building  a  few  rods  higher  up  the  wady  was  construct¬ 
ed  with  large,  well-cut  stone,  and  it  had  a  fountain  within  the  court 
which  was  supplied  with  water  from  a  small  stream  flowing  under¬ 
ground  behind  it,  and  which  formerly  supplied  the  theatre  also. 


NYMPHiEUM. — ROUND  TOWERS— CONVENT  OF  JOB.  483 

The  water  from  this  fountain  so  overflowed  the  court  when  I  was 
here  in  April  that  I  could  not  examine  this  singular  structure.  It 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  small  temple  or  Nymphaeum,  but  it  was 
probably  designed  for  a  public  bath. 

On  the  mountain  ridge  east  of  it  is  a  conspicuous  and  massive 
round  tower,  which  is  reached  from  this  bath  by  a  long  and  winding 
stair-way  cut  in  the  rock.  It  is  about  one  hundred  feet  in  circum¬ 
ference,  and  in  its  present  condition  not  over  twenty  feet  high. 
Within  it  are  heavy  stone  doors,  some  of  them  having  well -cut 
mouldings  and  panels,  and  ornamented  with  sculptured  wreaths  of 
flowers  and  fruits.  There  are  similar  towers  occupying  command¬ 
ing  positions  upon  the  surrounding  hills,  and  which  were  evidently 
constructed  for  purposes  of  defence.  The  large  rough  stones  with 
which  they  were  built  are  bevelled,  and  the  walls  were  very  thick, 
suggesting  the  name  cyclopean.  The  remains  of  some  of  those 
towers  are  probably  among  the  oldest  ruins  of  ancient  Kenath. 
We  will  now  return  to  the  west  side  of  the  wady  and  rest  awhile  in 
our  tents,  pitched  in  the  oak  woods  north-west  of  the  town. 

Refreshed  and  invigorated,  let  us  resume  our  examination  of  the 
extensive  remains  of  Canatha. 

A  walk  of  five  minutes  will  bring  us  to  the  northern  entrance  of 
the  main  street,  which  rises  gradually  southward,  leading  towards 
the  principal  group  of  ancient  buildings  in  Kunawat.  The  street  is 
quite  wide  and  is  paved  with  large  slabs  of  lava,  which  in  some 
places  are  still  well  preserved. 

Some  of  the  houses  on  the  west  side  of  this  street,  with  their 
sculptured  stone  doors  ornamented  with  panels  and  floral  designs, 
were  evidently  very  substantial  edifices. 

Below  us  on  the  east  is  the  deep  wady,  with  almost  perpendicu¬ 
lar  banks,  which  must  have  served  as  a  natural  fortification,  and 
they  appear  to  have  been  farther  strengthened  by  the  city  wall 
which  ran  along  the  top  of  the  cliffs  in  that  direction. 

Continuing  the  ascent  southwards,  we  come  to  where  the  street 
ends  abruptly  at  a  large  paved  area  in  front  of  an  imposing  group 
of  buildings  called  by  the  natives  es  Serai,  or  the  palace,  and  also 
Deir  Eyub,  the  convent  of  Job.  It  is  now  almost  impossible  to  de¬ 
cide  what  this  group  of  buildings  was  originally  intended  to  repre- 


4§4 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


sent,  since  only  three  of  them  are  still  in  a  tolerable  state  of  preser¬ 
vation,  and  the  remains  of  others  must  be  buried  under  these  con¬ 
fused  masses  of  ruins.  The  exterior  walls  appear  to  have  enclosed 
an  area  nearly  square,  and  the  space  within  was  evidently  occupied 
by  three  edifices  whose  external  walls,  running  north  and  south, 
were  almost  parallel  to  each  other. 

The  one  we  will  first  enter,  through  this  beautiful  door-way  on 
the  eastern  side  so  richly  ornamented  with  wreaths  of  flowers  and 
fruit,  is  almost  one  hundred  feet  long  and  seventy  feet  wide.  It 
stood  upon  a  raised  basement,  and  had  a  portico  on  the  north  con¬ 
sisting  of  eight  Corinthian  columns  about  thirty  feet  high,  with 
brackets  on  the  shafts  for  statues.  This  edifice  had  few  architectu¬ 
ral  ornaments  except  those  on  the  door-way,  and  it  appears  to  have 
been  converted  at  one  time  into  a  church. 

The  second  and  middle  structure  is  about  eighty  feet  long  and 
seventy  feet  wide,  and  it  had  a  receding  portico  of  six  Corinthian 
columns.  Curious  sculptured  figures  surrounded  by  wreaths  of  vine- 
leaves  and  clusters  of  grapes  are  seen  upon  portions  of  the  frieze 
and  cornice  of  the  portico  now  lying  among  the  ruins  of  the  fallen 
pediment.  A  colonnade  of  eighteen  columns  having  plain  square 
capitals  ran  round  the  four  sides  of  this  edifice  at  a  distance  of  about 
twelve  feet  from  the  interior  walls. 

The  third  edifice  is  larger  than  either  of  the  others,  and  was  en¬ 
tered  through  an  elaborately  ornamented  and  beautiful  gate-way  in 
the  south  wall  of  the  middle  structure.  A  double  colonnade  of 
seven  columns,  with  plain  square  capitals,  ran  down  the  eastern  and 
western  sides  of  this  edifice,  and  at  its  southern  end  there  was  a 
semicircular  apse  about  fifteen  feet  in  depth.  But  the  interior  is 
filled  with  confused  heaps  of  fallen  masonry,  and  much  of  it  is  so 
overgrown  with  bramble  -  bushes  and  scrub-oaks  that  it  cannot  be 
examined.  From  Greek  inscriptions  found  among  the  rtiins,  but 
which  are  now  difficult  to  decipher,  it  would  appear  that  some  of 
these  edifices  were  dedicated  to  heathen  gods  and  subsequently  con¬ 
verted  into  Christian  churches ;  and  here  we  see  the  emblem  of  the 
cross  placed  over  the  entrance  of  ancient  idol  temples. 

Leaving  this  impressive  group  of  ruined  edifices,  with  their  pros¬ 
trate  walls  and  standing  columns,  their  fallen  pediments  and  ancient 


ES  SERAI  OR  DEIR  EYUB— PALACE  OR  CONVENT  OF  JOB 


•  '• 


. 


ANCIENT  CISTERNS.— TEMPLE  AT  KUNAWAT. 


485 


portals  so  curiously  and  beautifully  sculptured,  we  will  proceed  a 
short  distance  to  the  south-west  and  examine  the  remains  of  what 
must  once  have  been  a  splendid  temple.  In  front  of  the  so-called 
Convent  of  Job,  and  also  between  it  and  this  temple,  there  are  large 
cisterns,  once  entirely  vaulted  over  by  long  slabs  of  lava  resting 
upon  parallel  lines  of  arches.  There  are  at  least  ten  of  these  lines, 
and  in  many  places  the  slabs  are  still  quite  perfect.  These  cisterns 
were  probably  intended  to  supply  the  temples  and  other  edifices 
in  that  neighborhood  with  water  during  the  autumn. 


TEMPLE  AT  KUNAWAT. 


Like  most  of  the  other  public  buildings  at  Kunawat,  this  temple 

faced  the  north;  and  it  is  considered  a  fine  specimen  of  the  Roman 

prostyle — that  is,  a  temple  whose  portico  extended  along  the  entire 
K  2 


486  the  land  and  the  book. 

front  of  the  edifice.  Four  Corinthian  columns,  over  fifteen  feet  in 
circumference  and  more  than  thirty-five  feet  high,  supporting  a  ped¬ 
iment,  formed  the  portico,  and  back  of  them,  between  the  extended 
side-walls  or  wings  of  the  temple,  was  the  pronaos  or  vestibule,  with 
two  smaller  columns  in  front.  In  the  east  and  west  walls  of  the 
vestibule  there  were  two  niches,  one  above  the  other,  and  in  the 
south  wall  of  the  temple,  opposite  the  entrance  to  the  naos  or  body 
of  the  edifice,  there  were  two  similar  and  larger  niches.  The  walls 
of  this  temple  are  mostly  in  ruins,  and  of  the  six  columns  in  front 
of  it  only  four  still  remain  standing. 

Among  some  fragments  of  sculptured  figures  lying  about  in  front 
of  the  temple,  Dr.  Porter  discovered  a  colossal  head  in  high -relief: 
“  The  face  is  broad  and  the  cheeks  large.  The  eyes  are  well  formed, 
but  the  forehead  is  low,  and  the  brows  prominent  and  contracted. 
On  the  forehead  is  a  crescent,  with  rays  shooting  upwards ;  the  face 
is  encircled  with  thick  tresses.  The  mouth  and  chin  are  broken 
away.  It  struck  me  at  the  time,”  he  says,  “that  this  was  probably 
intended  to  represent  Ashtoreth,”  perhaps  once  the  chief  idol  of  this 
temple.1  More  recently  Mr.  Charles  F.  Tyrwhitt  Drake  obtained 
here  a  fragment  of  an  altar,  with  the  supposed  heads  of  Baal  and 
Ashtoreth  “  boldly  cut  in  high-relief  upon  the  closest  basalt,  with 
foliage  showing  the  artistic  hand.”2  Since  then  the  members  of  the 
American  Palestine  Exploration  Society  passed  through  this  region 
during  a  reconnoissance  of  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  in  the 
autumn  of  1875,  and  they  found  a  fine  antique  head  here,  apparent¬ 
ly  the  same  as  that  seen  and  described  by  Dr.  Porter,  and  they  ob¬ 
tained  an  excellent  photograph  of  it. 

Regarding  the  worship  of  Ashtoreth,  Dr.  Porter  remarks  that 
she  “was  the  goddess  of  the  Phoenicians,  the  Philistines,  and,  in¬ 
deed,  the  whole  inhabitants  of  Syria.3  Her  worship  was  introduced 
among  the  Israelites  during  the  rule  of  the  Judges,  was  practised 
by  Solomon,  and  was  abolished  by  Josiah.4  She  was  the  repre¬ 
sentative  of  the  moon,  hence  the  crescent  and  the  rays  seen  upon 
figures  on  early  Phoenician  and  Roman  coins;  hence,  too,  Jeremiah’s 

1  Five  Years  in  Damascus,  pp.  212,  213  ;  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan,  p.  43. 

2  Unexplored  Syria,  vol.  ii.  p.  166.  3  1  Kings  xi.  5,  33;  1  Sam.  xxxi.  10. 

4  Judg.  ii-  x3 !  1  Sam.  vii.  4  ;  2  Kings  xxiii.  13. 


WORSHIP  OF  ASIITORETH.—  PERIPTERAL  TEMPLE.  487 

reference  to  her  as  ‘queen  of  heaven.’1  In  classic  authors  she  is 
called  Astarte,  Aphrodite,  and  Syria  Dea.2  In  the  country  east  of 
the  Jordan,  and  especially  in  Bashan,  Ashtoreth  was  worshipped 
from  a  very  early  age.  One  of  its  principal  cities  was  called  Ashto¬ 
reth  Karnaim,  ‘  Ashtoreth  of  the  two  horns’  or  crescent,  and  this 
city  was  one  of  the  cap¬ 
itals  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Bashan  at  the  Exodus. 

It  is,  consequently,  high¬ 
ly  interesting  to  find  in 
Kenath  [or  Kunawat], 
one  of  the  most  ancient 
cities  of  Bashan,  monu¬ 
mental  evidence  of  the 
worship  of  Ashtoreth.”3 

Continuing  our  walk 
north  along  the  city  wall 
and  down  these  terraced 
fields  for  about  twenty 
minutes,  we  will  come  to 
the  remains  of  one  of  the 
most  striking  and  pictu¬ 
resque  peripteral  temples 
in  this  part  of  the  coun¬ 
try.  It  stands  facing  the 
east,  on  a  slight  eminence  in  this  thickly  wooded  valley,  a  short 
distance  beyond  the  western  gate  of  the  ancient  city;  and  it  was 
built  upon  a  stylobate  or  raised  platform  eighty  feet  by  fifty  and 
about  twelve  feet  high,  beneath  which  are  massive  vaults  and  at 
least  one  cistern,  which  still  holds  water. 

A  broad  flight  of  steps  led  up  to  the  portico,  which  consisted  of 
two  rows  of  columns,  six  in  each  row;  and  the  temple  itself  was 
surrounded  —  hence  its  name  —  on  the  east,  south,  and  west  by  a 
range  of  sixteen  columns,  six  on  each  side  counting  the  corner  col¬ 
umns  twice.  These,  with  those  of  the  portico,  made  twenty-eight 

1  Jer.  vii.  18  ;  2  Kings  xxiii.  4. 

3  Five  Years  in  Damascus,  p.  213. 


2  Lucian  :  De  Syria  Dea  ;  Paus.  i.  14 


488  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

columns  in  all,  and  they  stood  upon  pedestals  five  feet  high,  were 
six  feet  in  circumference,  had  Corinthian  capitals,  and  a  total  height 
of  more  than  thirty-five  feet.  Of  all  those  columns  only  seven,  and 
the  bases  and  pedestals  of  a  few  others,  remain  standing. 


This  temple  was  about  forty-five  feet  long  and  thirty  feet  broad, 
and  there  were  eight  pilasters  along  the  exterior  walls  correspond¬ 
ing  to  the  same  number  of  columns  opposite  to  them.  From  in¬ 
scriptions  found  here  it  is  supposed  that  this  temple  was  dedicated 
to  Helios,  or  the  sun,  but  most  of  those  seen  upon  the  pedestals 
of  the  columns  are  quite  illegible.  We  will  now  return  through  the 
open  fields  to  our  tents. 

September  19th.  Evening. 

Kunawat  has  been  generally  regarded  as  the  modern  representa¬ 
tive  of  the  ancient  Kenath  and  the  Hebrew  Nobah.  Is  there  any 
valid  objection  to  that  identification? 


PERIPTERAL  TEMPLE  AT  KUNAWAT. 


THE  BIBLICAL  KENATH  AND  THE  ROMAN  KANATHA.  489 

Under  that  name  Kenath  is  mentioned  but  twice  in  the  Bible. 
We  read  in  Numbers  that  during  the  conquest  of  the  land  of  Ca¬ 
naan,  “Jair  took  the  small  towns”  of  Gilead  “and  called  them  Ha- 
voth-jair;”  and  that  Nobah  also  “went  and  took  Kenath  and  the 
villages  thereof  and  called  it  Nobah,  after  his  own  name.”1  Also 
that  “Jair  took  all  the  country  of  Argob  and  called  them  [the  towns] 
after  his  own  name— Bashan-havoth-jair,”  the  towns  of  Jair  in  Ba- 
shan ;  and  in  1  Chronicles,  ii.  23,  Kenath  is  mentioned  in  connection 
with  those  towns  of  Jair.2  Two  hundred  years  later  we  learn  that 
Gideon,  in  pursuit  of  the  two  kings  of  Midian,  “  went  up  by  the  way 
of  them  that  dwell  in  tents  on  the  east  of  Nobah” — by  which,  of 
course,  Kenath  is  meant — “and  smote  the  host.”3 

Though  Nobah  probably  was  not  so  called  by  the  people  who 
then  inhabited  it,  the  name  of  its  Hebrew  conqueror  was  still  fa¬ 
miliar  to  the  Israelites;  but,  like  so  many  others  imposed  by  foreign 
rulers,  it  soon  fell  into  disuse,  and  the  place  appears  ever  after  to 
have  retained  its  original  name — Kenath.  From  those  incidental 
notices  it  would  appear  that  Nobah  or  Kenath  was  between  Gilead 
and  Argob,  and  within  the  territory  of  Bashan.  This  is  all  its  Bibli¬ 
cal  history,  and  we  hear  nothing  more  about  it  until  the  time  of  the 
Romans,  about  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era. 

Josephus  relates  that  Herod  the  Great,  through  the  machina¬ 
tions  of  “Athenio,  one  of  Cleopatra’s  generals,”  was  defeated  “at 
Kanatha,  a  city  of  Coelesyria,”  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  place,  as¬ 
sisted  by  the  Arabians,  who  had  assembled  there  “in  vast  multi¬ 
tudes.”4  Ptolemy  also  locates  Kanatha  in  Coelesyria,  and  Pliny 
mentions  it  among  the  cities  of  the  Decapolis.  But  we  get  more 
definite  information  regarding  its  actual  position  from  Eusebius  and 
the  Peutinger  Table.  In  the  latter  it  is  the  third  station  on  the 
Roman  road  from  Damascus  to  Bostra ;  and  the  former  speaks  of  it 
as  “situated  in  the  province  of  Trachonitis,  near  to  Bostra.” 

It  therefore  seems  to  be  fairly  established  that  Kunawat  occu¬ 
pies  the  site  of  the  Biblical  Kenath  or  Nobah,  and  that  the  ancient 
name  has  remained  almost  unchanged  during  a  period  of  more  than 
three  thousand  years.  M.  Waddington,  however,  is  inclined  to  ques- 

2  Deut.  iii.  14;  Josh.  xiii.  30. 

4  B.  J.  i.  19,  2. 


1  Numb,  xxxii.  41,  42. 
3  Judg.  viii.  4,  5,  11. 


490 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


tion  the  identification  mainly  on  the  ground  that  its  location  is  too 
far  east  for  it  to  have  ever  been  in  the  possession  of  the  Hebrews. 
That  objection  can  have  but  little  weight,  since  even  he  admits  that 
Sulkhad,  which  is  still  farther  east  than  Kunawat,  is  the  Salcah,  or 
Salchah,  of  the  Bible  mentioned  by  Moses. 

M.  Waddington  found  more  than  thirty  Greek  inscriptions  on 
various  parts  of  the  ruins  in  this  place ;  most  of  them,  however,  are 
brief,  and  do  not  throw  much  light  on  the  history  of  either  the 
Biblical  Kenath  or  the  Graeco-Roman  Kanatha.  One  of  them  seems 
to  connect  the  name  of  King  Agrippa  with  Kunawat,  and  this  is 
confirmed  by  inscriptions  which  M.  Waddington  discovered  at  Si’a, 
where  the  names  of  both  Herod  the  Great  and  of  Agrippa  are  found 
in  Greek  and  Aramaic  upon  the  ruins  of  a  remarkable  temple  at  that 
place,  a  discovery  of  special  interest  and  importance. 

The  Herodian  inscription  was  found  upon  the  base  of  a  broken 
statue  in  front  of  the  temple,  and  M.  Waddington  interprets  it  thus: 
I,  Obaesatus,  son  of  Saodus,  have  set  up  this  statue  of  King  Herod, 
our  ruler,  at  my  own  expense.  “  This  monument,”  says  M.  Wad¬ 
dington,  “is  the  earliest  in  which  Herod  is  mentioned,  and  the 
[Greek]  word  Kurio  shows  that  it  was  erected  during  his  life,”  more 
than  nineteen  hundred  years  ago.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  all 
this  region  was  granted  to  Herod  the  Great  by  Caesar,  as  Josephus 
informs  us  in  the  fifteenth  book  of  his  Antiquities.1 

Si’a  may  have  been  regarded  as  a  suburb  of  Kunawat,  for  it  is 
not  more  than  half  an  hour’s  walk  from  it  towards  the  south-east. 
When  I  was  here  in  the  spring  we  did  not  go  to  Si’a,  because  that 
place  was  buried  under  the  snow:  and  not  only  was  the  river  of 
Kunawat  a  foaming  torrent,  but  much  of  the  country  was  flooded 
by  the  melting  snow  on  the  Hauran  mountains,  and  banks  of  snow 
were  still  seen  in  these  streets.  Three  different  streams,  quite  for¬ 
midable  to  cross,  then  descended  through  the  woods  north  of  Kuna¬ 
wat  and  united  with  the  river  in  the  wady  below,  which  thus  became 
altogether  unfordable.  It  then  seemed  incredible  that  in  the  late 
autumn  one  could  scarcely  procure  sufficient  water  for  himself  and 
his  horse  even  for  money,  and  yet  such  had  been  the  experience  of 
one  of  our  party  in  this  region. 

1  Ant.  xv.  io,  I.  2. 


PRIMITIVE  SCHOOL.— BOARDS  FOR  BOOKS.  491 

Kunawat  is  a  fair  illustration  of  the  fact  that  the  population  of 
this  part  of  the  Hauran  has  steadily  increased  during  the  last  half 
century.  Burckhardt,  in  1812,  found  here  “only  two  Druse  fam¬ 
ilies,  who  were  occupied  in  cultivating  a  few  tobacco-fields.”  Forty 
years  later  Dr.  Porter  was  “  favored  with  a  visit  from  the  village 
school-master” — the  first  he  had  heard  of  in  the  Hauran — “a  vener¬ 
able  old  man,  with  sparkling  eyes  and  a  flowing  beard. 

“His  school  consisted  of  some  twenty  children;  and  I  had  seen 
them  bawling  over  their  lessons  on  a  house-top.  The  scholars  had 
no  books,  and  [their  ‘master’]  was  obliged  to  teach  them  by  writ¬ 
ing  letters  and  words  on  little  boards,  which  they  carried  about  and 
rhymed  over  till  form  and  sound  became  familiar.  I  afterwards  saw 
the  little  urchins  walking  through  the  city,  proud  of  their  boards,, 
which  were  strung  round  their  necks. 

“  Here  there  was  a  zeal  for  instruction  altogether  remarkable.  I 
could  not  but  sympathize  with  these  poor  children,  forced  to  learn 
the  first  principles  of  their  language  from  rude  letters  scratched 
upon  rough  boards ;  and  I  could  not  but  look  with  a  feeling  of  re¬ 
spect  and  admiration  on  the  man  who,  without  remuneration,  gave 
himself  up  to  the  self-imposed  task  of  instructing  youth.  I  learned 
that  most  of  the  boys  and  young  men  in  the  village  could  read,  and 
not  a  few  of  them  write.”1 

But  it  grows  late,  and 

“The  deep  night  is  crept  upon  our  talk, 

And  nature  must  obey  necessity.” 


1  Five  Years  in  Damascus,  pp.  206,  207. 


49  2 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


XIII. 

KUNAWAT  TO  EL  BUSRAH. 

The  Druses  in  the  Hauran. — Bedawin  Incursions. — Moslem  and  Christian  Villages. — 
Desire  for  Education. — Local  Feuds. — Oak  Woods. — ’Atil. — Temple. — Bilingual  In¬ 
scription. — Athila.  —  Greek  Inscription.  —  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius. — Zenodorus. — 
Equestrian  Statue.  —  Head  of  Baal.  —  Astarte. —  Iconoclastic  Vandalism. — El  Kusr, 
Ruined  Temple. — Impure  Water. — Ague. — Column  at  ’Atil. — Roman  Road. — Oak 
Grove.  —  Mud  and  Dust. — Palmyrene  Inscription. — Tomb  of  Chamrate.  —  Ode- 
nathus. — Count  de  Vogue.  —  M.  Waddington.  —  Roman  Bridge. — Flour-mills. — Es 
Suweideh. — Large  Reservoirs. — Mecca  Pilgrims. — Temple. — Triumphal  Arch. — Nym- 
phasum. — Emperor  Trajan. — Aqueduct. — Mosk  and  Temple. — Greek  Inscriptions. — 
Ancient  Trading  Companies. — A  Temple  of  Minerva. — Church  and  Monastery. — 
Donkeys  Floundering  in  the  Mud. — Theatre. — William  of  Tyre.  —  Bildad  the 
Shuhite.  —  Job. —  Greek  Inscriptions.  —  M.  Waddington.  —  Soada. — Dionysias. — The 
Capital  of  Jebel  ed  Druse. — Square  Tower. — Roman  Road. — An  Agricultural  Region. 
— Megeidel  and  er  Resas.  —  Nahr ’Ary.  —  Flour -mills. — Kuleib  Hauran. —  Extinct 
Volcano. — Burckhardt. — El  ’Afineh. — Hebran. — Ancient  Aqueduct. — Roman  Road. 
— Heavy  Rains  and  Lively  Streams. — El  Ivureiyeh. — Kerioth. — ’Ary,  Ariath. — Isma’il 
el  Atrash. — Burckhardt  and  Shibly  Ibn  Hamdan. — Druse  Hospitality. — Mujeimir  and 
Wetr. — Deir  Zubeir. — Roman  Road. — Roman  Bridge. — Mosk  of  el  Mebruk. — El 
Koran. — The  Instinct  of  the  Camel. — Incident  in  the  Career  of  Muhammed. — Ruins 
at  Um  el  Jemal  Described  by  Dr.  Merrill. — Bedawin  Encampment. — Hundreds  of 
Camels.  —  Heavy  Robbery. — The  Perpetual  Desert. — Scores  of  Ruined  Towns. — 
Swallows  and  Gazelles. — Ruins  at  Um  el  Jemal. — City  Gate. — Streets  and  Avenues. 
— Private  Houses. — Churches  and  Crosses. — Greek,  Latin,  and  Nabathean  Inscrip¬ 
tions. — Ninth  Dalmatian  Horse. — Vexillarii. — Square  Tower.  —  Uriel,  Gabriel,  and 
Emmanuel. — Genii  of  the  Cardinal  Points. — The  God  Dusares. — Camels  laden  with 
Stones  from  the  Ruins  at  Um  el  Jemal. — Deserted  for  Centuries. — Fragments  of 
Black  Pottery. — Beth-gamul. — Plan  of  the  City  of  Bozrah. — The  Castle. — Cisterns. — 
Subterranean  Vaults. — Theatre  within  the  Castle. — Outlook  from  the  Seats  in  the 
Theatre. — Dr.  Porter’s  Description  of  the  View  from  the  Keep  of  the  Castle. — Roman 
Highways. — Towns  and  Villages  on  the  Plain. — “Without  Inhabitant  and  without 
Man.” — Corinthian  Columns  near  the  Centre  of  the  City. — Colonnade  or  Temple. — 
Ruins  of  a  Bath. — Triumphal  Arch. — Julius,  Prefect  of  the  Parthian  Legion. — 
Deserted  Bazaar. — The  Ivhalif  ’Omar. — Mosk  at  el  Busrah. — House  of  the  Jew. — Col¬ 
umns  of  Green  Micaceous  Marble. — Cufic  and  Arabic  Inscriptions. — Convent  and 


THE  DRUSES  IN  THE  HAURAN— BEDAWIN  INCURSIONS.  493 

House  of  Boheira. — Burckhardt’s  Account  of  the  Monk  Boheira. — The  Instructor  of 
Muhammed. — Stifling  Sirocco. — Bedawin  Shepherds  and  their  Flocks. — Cathedral  at 
Busrah. — Sergius,  Bacchus,  and  Leontius. — Archbishop  Julianus. — Job. — Leper  Hos¬ 
pital. — The  Emperor  Justinian.  —  Beautiful  Cufic  Inscription. — Triumphal  Arch. — 
Palace  of  the  Yellow  King. — Bab  el  Hawa. — Roman  Guard-house.  —  ’Aiyun  el  Merj. 
— Temple. — Antonia  Fortuna,  Wife  of  Caesar.  —  Springs  and  Fountains.  —  Large 
Resei'voirs. — Mercantile  Caravans. — Masons’  Marks. — Aramaic  Letters. — History  of 
el  Busrah. — Bozrah  of  Edom. — El  Busaireh. — Tophel. — The  Judgments  of  Jeremiah. 
— “The  Line  of  Confusion  and  the  Stones  of  Emptiness.” — Judas  Maccabeus  slew 
all  the  Males  of  Bosora. — The  City  Burned. — Carnaim. — A.  Cornelius  Palma. — Nova 
Trajana  Bostra. — A  Military  Colony. — Roman  Highways. — The  Euphrates  and  the 
Persian  Gulf. — The  Bostrian  Era. — Philip  the  Arabian. — Roman  Emperor. — Early 
Introduction  of  Christianity  into  Bozrah. — Origen. — Bishop  Beryllus. — Ecclesiastical 
Councils  held  at  Bozrah. — Trading  Caravans. — Visits  of  Muhammed  to  el  Busrah. — 
Abu  Talib. — The  Monk  Boheira. — Khadija. — Capture  of  el  Busrah  by  the  Moslems. 
— Khalid,  the  Sword  of  God. — Treachery  of  Romanus. — Baneful  Rule  of  Islam. — 
Sulkhad. — Salcah. — Moses,  Joshua. — Og  reigned  in  Salcah. — The  Castle  at  Siilkhad 
Described  by  Dr.  Merrill. — The  Crater. — Interior  of  the  Castle. — Inscriptions. — 
Masons’  Marks. — Busts  of  Animals. — Lions  and  Palm-tree. — A  Frontier  Fortress. — 
The  Ancient  Town  at  Siilkhad,. — Druses  from  the  Lebanon. — Sulkhad  Visited  by  Dr. 
Porter.  —  Deserted  Houses  and  Streets. — View  from  the  Castle.  —  Bashan,  Moab, 
Arabia.  —  Thirty  Deserted  Towns.  —  “Judgment  upon  the  Plain  and  the  Cities  of 
Moab,  far  and  near.”  —  El  Kureiyeh,  Kerioth.  —  Biblical  and  Secular  History  of 
Kerioth. — Ruins  at  el  Kureiyeh.  —  Triple  Colonnade.  —  Greek  Inscriptions. — Seat 
of  a  Bishop. — Burckhardt. — Dr.  Porter. — Isma’il  el  Atrash. — Druse  Families. 

September  20th. 

We  have  held  quite  a  levee  this  morning,  and  I  have  been  at  a 
loss  to  discover  the  motive  of  such  friendly  demonstrations  on  the 
part  of  these  polite  and  courteous  Druses. 

They  are  always  anticipating  trouble  with  the  government,  and 
they  hope  that  we  may  be  able  to  speak  a  good  word  in  their  behalf 
to  those  who  have  influence  with  the  Turkish  authorities  in  this 
country.  The  Druses,  from  their  warlike  character  and  almost  im¬ 
pregnable  position  upon  and  around  the  mountains  of  the  Hauran, 
may  be  regarded  as  exerting  a  favorable  influence  over  this  entire 
region.  The  Bedawin  tribes  north,  east,  and  south  are  more  afraid 
of  them  than  of  the  Turkish  Government,  and  hence  their  destructive 
incursions  are  held  in  check.  Were  it  not  for  that,  there  would  be 
but  few  inhabited  villages  in  this  part  of  the  country.  And  as  the 
number  of  the  Druses  is  steadily  increasing  by  emigration  from  the 
Lebanon  and  Ante- Lebanon,  their  influence  is  constantly  increas- 


494 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


in g  also,  and  places  not  long  since  deserted  are  now  reoccupied. 
It  is  also  largely  owing  to  this  growing  power  of  the  Druses  that 
Moslem  and  even  Christian  villages  are  multiplying. 

The  Druses,  in  fact,  constitute  the  nucleus  of  a  power  which, 
rightly  directed,  might  ultimately  redeem  this  beautiful  region  from 
the  devastations  of  the  Bedawin.  But  they  are  themselves  a  fierce 
and  lawless  generation,  and  are  sadly  in  need  of  the  higher  civilizing 
influence  of  Christianity  and  of  Christian  schools.  There  is,  how¬ 
ever,  some  reason  for  hope  in  regard  to  them,  for  they  are  not 
Moslems  nor  fanatical,  and  in  several  places  they  are  beginning  to 
appreciate  the  benefits  of  education  and  to  ask  earnestly  for  schools. 
That  was  one  of  the  subjects  broached  this  morning  by  the  sheikhs 
of  Kunawat,  and  I  promised  to  submit  their  request  to  those  to 
whom  that  work  naturally  belongs. 

It  seems  to  me  that  Kunawat  presents  a  fair  field  for  such  be¬ 
nevolent  and  philanthropic  work. 

It  is  quite  central,  and  certainly  high  enough  to  be  cool  and 
healthy,  and  from  it  a  large  number  of  villages  could  be  reached. 
But  those  who  would  undertake  such  an  enterprise  should  be  pre¬ 
pared  to  deal  with  a  rude  and  lawless  population,  and  to  overcome 
many  obstacles.  Some  of  the  most  formidable  will  arise  from  local 
feuds  between  neighboring  villages,  and  also  from  quarrels  among 
the  inhabitants  of  the  same  village.  The  people  of  Kunawat  are 
famous  for  such  quarrels,  and  not  long  since  the  rival  parties  had  a 
desperate  encounter  in  which  several  persons  are  said  to  have  been 
killed  and  many  more  were  wounded. 

And  now,  as  those  courteous  Druses  have  bidden  us  farewell  and 
godspeed  in  their  characteristic  fashion  and  in  a  style  eminently 
Oriental,  we  will  mount  our  horses  and  proceed  on  our  way. 

It  is  pleasant  to  ride  through  these  oak  woods,  which  appear  to 
extend  far  up  the  mountains  to  the  east  and  north  of  Kunawat. 

An  easy  descent  westward  of  nearly  three-quarters  of  an  hour 
will  bring  us  to  ’Atil,  where  we  shall  find  the  remains  of  an  equestri¬ 
an  statue,  fragments  of  statuary  in  bass-relief,  two  ancient  temples, 
and  several  inscriptions  well  worthy  of  examination. 

The  village  appears  to  be  quite  small,  but  it  is  prettily  situated 
on  the  western  border  of  these  evergreen  woods. 


TEMPLE  AT  ’ATIL. 


495 


’Atil  is  occupied  at  present  by  a  few  Druse  families,  and  a  portion 
of  this  temple,  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  village,  has  been  con¬ 
verted  into  a  dwelling,  and  is  now  the  residence  of  the  sheikh  of 
the  place.  The  temple,  constructed  of  hard  basalt,  stood  upon  a 
platform  or  stylobate  about  ten  feet  high.  It  was  small  but  well- 
proportioned,  and  the  shell-work  and  other  ornamental  carving 


TEMPLE  AT  ’ATIL. 


about  the  front  was  rich  and  beautifully  executed.  The  order  of 
architecture  is  Corinthian,  and  the  walls  of  the  temple  projected 
on  either  side  of  the  portico,  which  consisted  of  two  fluted  col¬ 
umns,  with  two  plain  ones  in  front  and  square  pilasters  or  antae  at 
the  corners  of  the  edifice.  There  are  brackets  nearly  half-way  up 
the  pillars  and  columns,  apparently  placed  there  for  statues. 


496 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


From  a  curious  bilingual  inscription,  discovered  at  Trevoux  in 
France,  it  appears  that  the  Greek  name  of  this  place  was  Athila. 
M.  Waddington  found  here  eight  inscriptions,  some  of  them  re¬ 
markably  well  preserved  and  others  mere  fragments.  This  inscrip¬ 
tion  on  the  base  of  the  pilaster  at  the  southern  corner  of  the  temple 
is  quite  perfect,  and  from  it  we  learn  that  the  edifice  was  built  about 
the  fourteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius, 
corresponding  to  A.D.  151.  Inscriptions  have  also  been  found  here 
in  honor  of  heathen  deities,  Roman  emperors  and  centurions,  and 
one  which  contains  the  name  of  Zenodorus,  a  famous  person  who, 
according  to  Josephus,  figured  largely  in  the  history  of  this  region 
about  the  commencement  of  our  era. 

Here,  in  this  field,  just  south  of  the  temple,  are  the  remains  of 
the  equestrian  statue  and  of  the  bass-relief  representing  a  female 
figure  with  wings.  A  third  fragment,  quite  large,  is  supposed  to  be 
the  head  of  Baal ;  and  a  fourth,  with  the  crescent  moon  rising  from 
the  shoulders,  may  have  represented  Astarte.  Similar  fragments 
are  built  into  the  walls  of  the  gardens  and  dwellings  in  the  neigh¬ 
borhood.  All  the  statues  have  been  broken  by  fanatical  Moslems, 
and  the  sight  of  these  fragments  excites  one’s  indignation  against 
the  iconoclastic  vandalism  that  has  so  wantonly  destroyed  them. 

The  other  temple,  at  the  northern  end  of  the  village,  is  a  com¬ 
plete  ruin,  and  as  these  noisy  lads  are  anxious  to  show  us  the  way 
to  el  Kusr,  or  the  palace,  as  they  call  it,  we  will  gratify  them,  and 
thereby  furnish  occasion  to  distribute  bakhshish.  Some  of  these 
Druses  are  from  the  Lebanon,  and  claim  to  be  old  acquaintances. 

This  temple  appears  to  have  been  inferior  in  every  respect  to 
the  one  in  the  southern  part  of  ’Atil ;  and  nothing  now  remains 
standing  except  a  part  of  the  main  entrance.  There  are  no  inscrip¬ 
tions,  but  if  the  large  blocks  that  lie  about  were  turned  over,  some 
might  be  found;  and  if  the  debris  was  cleared  away,  the  side  portals, 
now  buried  under  the  rubbish,  and  the  foundations  of  the  temple 
would  then  be  fully  exposed  to  view. 

We  will  now  go  to  see  the  fragments  of  a  very  curious  column 
just  east  of  the  village.  Portions  of  it  are  built  into  a  garden-wall 
near  this  birkeh,  or  stagnant  pool,  the  drainage  of  the  surrounding 
terraces,  that  supplies  the  inhabitants  of  ’Atil  with  water. 


COLUMN  AT  ’ATIL.— ROMAN  ROAD.— TOMB  OF  CHAMRATE.  497 

If  the  people  drink  this  yellowish- green  fluid,  no  wonder  that 
half  of  them  have  the  ague,  and  all  look  pale  and  cadaverous. 

They  can  procure  better  water  by  going  for  it  only  a  short 
distance,  but  most  of  them  are  too  lazy  and  shiftless  to  do  so. 
There  are  the  fragments  of  the  column  which,  as  you  perceive,  are 
carved  in  imitation  of  the  bole,  or  stem,  of  the  palm-tree.  It  is 
wholly  unique,  and  when  erected  must  have  been  quite  high,  as 
appears  from  the  different  portions,  if,  indeed,  they  all  belonged  to 
one  single  column.  And  now  we  must  bid  these  polite  attendants 
a  formal  farewell  and  pursue  our  ride  southward  to  es  Suweideh, 
about  an  hour  and  a  half  distant  from  ’Atil. 

We  are  again  on  a  well-defined  Roman  road,  and  it  is  bringing 
us  into  a  beautiful  grove  of  oak  and  other  evergreen  trees. 

It  will  take  us  an  hour  to  ride  through  this  grove,  and  after  we 
pass  out  of  its  grateful  shade,  the  country  becomes  quite  bare  and 
loses  much  of  its  picturesqueness.  During  the  time  of  the  Romans 
that  ancient  road  led  to  es  Suweideh,  then  one  of  the  principal 
cities  in  this  region,  though  now  reduced  to  a  mere  village  and 
almost  buried  under  the  remains  of  its  former  greatness. 

In  the  spring,  the  road  was  impassable  in  many  places,  owing 
to  deep  mud,  and  we  often  had  to  pick  our  way  through  the  fields 
on  either  side  in  order  to  afford  a  sure  footing  to  our  perplexed 
horses.  Now  it  is  dry  and  dusty,  and  far  from  being  either  smooth 
or  agreeable.  Like  nearly  all  the  Roman  roads  in  this  country, 
the  pavement  of  this  one  has  been  broken  up  by  the  heavy  rains 
in  winter,  and  has  almost  entirely  disappeared. 

The  massive  ruins  of  es  Suweideh  begin  to  appear  ahead  of  us 
in  the  distance,  and  before  entering  their  bewildering  labyrinths 
we  will  turn  to  the  left  and  ascend  the  northern  side  of  the  wady 
to  examine  one  of  the  most  singular  monuments  in  this  region.  It 
is  called  ed  Debusiyeh  by  the  natives,  and  was  built  of  solid  masonry 
upon  a  base  approached  by  two  steps.  In  shape  it  was  a  cube  of 
about  thirty -three  feet  side,  and  finished  above  in  the  form  of  a 
pyramid,  and  when  perfect  it  must  have  been  nearly  forty  feet 
high.  There  are  six  pilasters,  or  semi -columns,  of  the  Doric  order 
on  each  side,  supporting  a  plain  cornice ;  and  upon  the  walls  be¬ 
tween  them  are  sculptured  emblems  and  ancient  armor  represent- 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


498 

in g  coats  of  mail,  helmets,  and  shields  in  bass-relief.  The  pyramid 
has  fallen,  but  the  sides  of  this  monument  are  nearly  perfect,  and  it 
appears  never  to  have  had  an  entrance  of  any  kind. 

There  is  a  Greek  inscription  on  the  northern  side,  and  one  in 
Palmyrene  on  the  eastern  side.  Both  are  to  the  same  effect,  and 
briefly  state  that  “  Odenathus,  son  of  Annelos,  built  this  tomb  to 
Chamrate  his  wife.”  That  Odenathus  was  a  different  person  from 
the  husband  of  Zenobia,  who  ruled  in  Palmyra  more  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years  after  the  time  of  Herod  the  Great.  Count 
de  Vogue  supposes  that  he  was  an  Arabian  chief  whose  tribe  had 
possession  of  this  region  before  the  reign  of  Herod  ;  and  M.  Wad- 
dington  thinks  that  this  monument  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
structures  in  the  Hauran,  though  he  does  not  believe  that  it  dates 
much  further  back  than  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era. 

We  will  now  cross  over  to  the  other  side  of  this  deep  wady  of 
Suweideh,  and  examine  the  ruins  of  that  ancient  town. 

The  river  in  the  wady  is  now  dry,  yet  it  is  spanned  by  a  well-built 
Roman  bridge  of  a  single  arch,  whose  height  implies  that  the  stream 
is  sometimes  quite  a  formidable  torrent. 

It  is  so  during  the  winter  and  early  spring,  and  then  the  volume 
of  water  is  more  than  sufficient  to  drive  the  flour-mills  of  the  village 
in  the  valley  below  the  bridge.  Suweideh  was  built,  as  you  see, 
entirely  on  the  south  bank  of  the  wady  and  upon  a  low,  rocky 
ridge,  which  extends  westward  to  the  plain  of  el  Hauran.  The 
first  object  that  attracts  attention  in  advance  of  that  wilderness  of 
ruins  is  this  large  reservoir  on  our  right,  from  which  the  present 
inhabitants  of  es  Suweideh  are  supplied  with  water,  there  being 
no  springs  or  permanent  fountain  in  the  village.  This  reservoir  is 
nearly  a  thousand  feet  in  circuit  and  at  least  thirty  feet  deep.  It 
was  full  when  I  was  here  in  the  spring,  but  now  it  is  almost  empty, 
and  has  by  no  means  an  inviting  appearance. 

There  is  a  larger  reservoir  south-west  of  the  village,  called  Birket 
el  Haj  because  formerly  it  was  one  of  the  watering-places  of  the 
Mecca  pilgrims.  Both  reservoirs  were  lined  with  stone,  and  stone 
steps  led  down  to  the  bottom  of  them.  Above  us  on  the  left,  at 
the  east  end  of  the  town,  are  the  remains  of  a  temple,  once  sur¬ 
rounded  by  a  colonnade  of  twenty- two  Corinthian  columns,  only 


TEMPLE,  ARCH,  AND  NYMPH^UM  AT  ES  SUWEIDEH.  499 

about  half  of  which  now  remain  standing.  From  the  disposition 
of  the  columns,  their  various  styles  of  workmanship,  and  different 
dimensions,  the  entire  edifice  was  apparently  constructed  out  of 
materials  which  belonged  to  other  and  more  ancient  structures. 


TEMPLE  AT  ES  SUWEIDEH. 


When  I  was  here,  several  years  ago,  the  interior  was  a  mass  of 
ruins,  but  it  has  recently  been  transformed  into  the  divan  of  the 
sheikh,  whose  humble  dwelling  is  just  east  of  it. 

The  main  street  commences  near  this  temple,  at  a  large  gate¬ 
way  probably  intended  for  a  triumphal  arch,  and  leads  down  towards 
the  south-west  through  the  midst  of  the  town,  with  fallen  houses 
on  either  side,  and  the  ruins  of  several  public  edifices  that  merit 
attention  in  passing.  This  semicircular  structure,  with  niches  and 
Corinthian  pilasters,  a  short  distance  below  the  gate-way,  was  prob¬ 
ably  a  nymphaeum,  or  a  public  bath,  and  upon  it  is  an  inscription 
from  which  we  learn  that  it  was  erected  during  the  reign  of  the 


500 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Emperor  Trajan,  about  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  of  our 
era.  The  aqueduct  with  which  it  was  connected,  and  which  sup¬ 
plied  it  with  water,  may  have  been  constructed  at  the  same  time. 

This  building,  with  arches  and  short  columns  which  once  sup¬ 
ported  the  roof,  is  supposed  to  be  a  mosk,  and  it  probably  occupies 
the  site  of  a  temple  or  other  public  edifice.  It  is  said  to  contain 
two  Greek  inscriptions,  mentioning  the  names  of  certain  trading 
companies  of  merchants  who  flourished  in  this  region  during  the 
Graeco -Roman  period.  According  to  another  inscription  found  in 
that  low  building  a  short  distance  east  of  the  mosk,  there  was 
erected  here  a  temple  dedicated  to  Minerva.  And  here,  near  the 
centre  of  the  ancient  city,  is  a  large  structure  which  appears  to 
have  been  a  church,  probably  erected  during  the  fourth  century, 
with  perhaps  a  monastery  attached  to  it.  The  street  on  the  right, 
below  this  edifice,  is  a  mere  quagmire  in  the  spring,  and  I  saw  sev¬ 
eral  donkeys  loaded  with  wheat  floundering  in  it ;  nor  could  they 
be  extricated  until  the  ropes  that  bound  the  sacks  upon  their  pack- 
saddles  were  cut  loose  and  their  loads  removed. 

A  short  distance  farther  down  the  street  are  the  remains  of  a 
theatre.  The  walls  are  broken  down,  the  seats  all  gone,  and  the 
entire  edifice  is  too  dilapidated  to  be  described. 

Has  es  Suweideh  no  ancient  historic  record? 

It  is  nowhere  alluded  to  in  the  Bible,  at  least  not  under  any  of 
the  names  by  which  it  is  now  known  or  has  been  in  times  past.  A 
tradition  mentioned  by  William  of  Tyre,  in  the  twelfth  century, 
connects  this  place  with  Bildad  the  Shuhite,  and  the  natives  of 
Suweideh  believe  that  Job  himself  was  the  first  prince  of  their 
town.  The  remains  of  temples,  churches,  and  other  monuments 
prove  that  it  must  have  been  a  flourishing  city  of  the  Graeco-Roman 
period,  having  a  mixed  population  of  heathens  and  Christians  dwell¬ 
ing  together  for  a  long  time  in  comparative  peace  and  quietness. 
M.  Waddington  found  here  twenty-five  Greek  inscriptions,  most  of 
which  are,  however,  mere  fragments;  but  from  an  extended  analysis 
of  them  he  throws  much  light  upon  the  age  of  these  remains  and 
the  probable  history  of  the  city  itself. 

Some  of  the  inscriptions  date  back  to  the  time  of  Herod  the 
Great,  and  the  Greek  name  of  the  place  appears  formerly  to  have 


SOADA.— AGRICULTURAL  REGION.— KULEIB  HAURAN.  501 

been  Soada ;  but  M.  Waddington  identifies  it  with  the  Dionysias 
mentioned  in  the  Notitiae  of  various  ecclesiastical  councils,  from 
which  it  would  seem  that  Soada  was  an  episcopal  city  belonging  to 
this  part  of  Arabia.  Hid  away  amongst  these  ruins  of  the  ancient 
town,  there  is  a  mixed  population  said  to  number  about  five  hundred 
Dru  ses  and  a  few  Christians.  Suweideh  has  long  been  regarded  as 
the  capital  of  Jebel  ed  Druse,  as  this  portion  of  the  Hauran  is 
called,  and  the  ruling  sheikh  still  resides  here. 

The  main  street,  through  which  we  are  passing,  is  not  only  very 
dry  at  present,  but  also  quite  dusty  and  disagreeable. 

There  is  nothing  of  much  interest  in  this  wilderness  of  prostrate 
houses  at  the  lower  end  of  it,  not  even  that  tower  which  was  about 
twenty  feet  square  and  thirty  feet  high.  Beyond  it  the  Roman 
road  from  Damascus  to  el  Busrah  or  Bozrah  passes  southward 
through  the  country  in  almost  a  straight  line. 

We  will  now  resume  our  ride.  It  is  six  hours  from  Suweideh 
to  Bozrah,  and  the  country  between  the  two  places  is  neither  level 
nor  mountainous,  but  agreeably  diversified  with  hills,  valleys,  and 
plains.  This  is,  in  fact,  a  fine  agricultural  region  and,  during  the 
winter  season  at  least,  abundantly  supplied  with  water.  But  the 
greater  part  of  it  is  destitute  of  trees  and  uncultivated.  There  are 
but  few  villages,  and  none  of  them  are  of  much  importance.  Ere 
long  we  shall  pass  through  the  small  village  of  Megeidel,and  a  short 
distance  beyond  it,  to  the  left,  is  the  hamlet  of  er  Resas,  situated 
on  the  western  slope  of  the  Hauran  mountain. 

I  remember  er  Resas  chiefly  from  the  fact  that  on  a  former  tour 
through  this  region  we  there  left  the  direct  road  to  Bozrah  and 
turned  eastward  towards  the  lower  declivities  of  Jebel  Hauran,  on 
our  way  to  Sulkhad.  In  less  than  an  hour  we  crossed  what  was 
then  a  considerable  stream  called  Nahr  ’Ary.  Keeping  up  the 
southern  side  of  it,  we  passed  a  succession  of  small  flour-mills,  all 
busily  improving  the  unusual  flow  of  water  from  the  eastern  moun¬ 
tains.  From  the  higher  ridges  over  which  the  path  led  we  had 
distinct  views  of  the  great  conical  peak  called  Kuleib  Hauran. 

We  have  seen  that  high  mountain  from  many  places  along  our 
route  during  the  past  few  days,  and  it  has  all  the  appearance  of  a 

volcanic  cone  of  great  size  and  height. 

L  2 


502 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


It  dominates  this  entire  region,  and  was  once,  no  doubt,  in  the 
distant  past  an  active  volcano,  and  from  it  a  great  part  of  the  lava 
and  volcanic  debris  which  cover  the  surrounding  country  were  prob¬ 
ably  discharged.  The  entire  eastern  side  of  the  mountain  is  quite 
bare,  but  it  is  covered  with  a  straggling  forest  of  oak,  terebinth,  and 
other  evergreen  trees  and  bushes  on  the  south,  west,  and  north,  and 
the  interior  of  the  crater  itself  is  said  to  be  well -wooded.  The 
south-western  side  of  the  crater  appears  to  have  been  broken  away, 
probably  during  a  violent  eruption  in  pre- historic  times,  leaving  a 
wide  and  deep  cavity  in  that  part  of  the  cone. 

Kuleib  Hauran  rises  more  than  five  thousand  five  hundred  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  though  the  ascent  is  not  difficult,  only  a  few 
travellers  have  made  the  attempt,  owing  principally  to  the  lack  of 
time  and  its  isolated  position.  Burckhardt  spent  a  night  in  a  Bed- 
awin  camp  at  its  base,  but  he  became  too  ill  to  ascend  to  the  sum¬ 
mit.  He  was  told  that  the  Mediterranean  could  be  seen  from  the 
top  on  a  clear  day,  probably  through  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and 
out  upon  the  Bay  of  Acre  beyond  the  cape  of  Mount  Carmel. 
The  prospect  eastward  over  the  Arabian  desert  was  said  to  be 
boundless  and  exceedingly  impressive. 

Owing  to  deep  mud  our  progress  towards  Sulkhad  was  slow, 
and  as  it  began  to  rain  we  stopped  at  el  Afineh,  a  small  village 
situated  on  a  projecting  ridge  of  the  mountain,  and  only  partly  in¬ 
habited  by  Druses.  Hebran,  a  much  larger  place  on  the  top  of  the 
ridge,  is  just  above  it  to  the  north-east,  and  there  are  other  ancient 
sites  in  all  directions.  We  busied  ourselves  in  copying  some  Greek 
inscriptions  among  the  ruins,  supposing  that  M.  Waddington  had 
not  visited  ’Afineh,  but  subsequently  I  found  them  printed  in  full 
in  his  great  work.  From  one  of  them  we  learn  that  the  Emperor 
Trajan  caused  the  water  from  Kunawat  to  be  conducted  to  Afineh  ; 
and  some  of  the  arches  supporting  that  ancient  aqueduct  are  still 
to  be  seen  east  of  the  village,  and  not  far  from  the  Roman  road 
that  led  straight  from  Bozrali  towards  el  Kufr. 

As  the  night  came  on  dark  and  stormy,  the  Druse  sheikh  of 
Afineh  urged  us  to  share  with  him  his  gloomy  and  smoky  habita¬ 
tion,  but  we  chose  rather  to  trust  to  our  tents.  The  rain  continued 
through  the  night,  and  by  morning  the  tents  were  thoroughly  satu- 


IMPASSABLE  ROADS.— SULKHAD  AND  EL  KUREIYEH.  503 

rated,  and  in  no  condition  to  be  folded  up  until  they  were  partially 
dried  by  kindling  small  fires  within  them. 

The  people  of  the  village  assured  us  that  the  road  to  Sulkhad 
was  quite  impassable,  and  we  were  reluctantly  obliged  to  abandon 
the  idea  of  going  there.  Obtaining  a  guide  we  struck  across  the 
country,  along  an  unfrequented  pathway,  directly  southward  towards 
el  Kureiyeh,  the  site  of  an  ancient  city  midway  between  el  Busrah 
and  Sulkhad.  The  path  was  at  first  very  spongy,  and  fatiguing  to 
our  horses,  but  when  we  reached  the  level  plain,  the  marshy  nature 
of  the  soil  ceased,  and  the  road  became  more  firm  and  solid.  We 
had  noticed  the  fact  in  other  places  that  during  great  rains  the 
ground  became  so  saturated  on  the  hill -sides  that  travelling  was 
very  disagreeable  to  both  the  horse  and  his  rider. 

It  is  less  than  two  hours  from  ’Afineh  to  Kureiyeh,  yet  in  that 
short  distance  we  crossed  several  lively  little  streams  descending 
from  the  declivities  of  Kuleib  Hauran  and  the  eastern  mountains 
in  deep  and  tumultuous  torrents.  Our  guide,  however,  assured  us 
that  in  a  few  weeks  they  would  all  be  quite  dry.  In  most  of  that 
region  the  land  is  thickly  strewn  with  volcanic  bowlders,  but  the  soil 
is  naturally  fertile  though  treeless  and  uncultivated,  nor  is  there  a 
single  village  between  ’Afineh  and  Kureiyeh. 

From  many  points  along  the  road  the  great  mound  of  Sulkhad 
was  clearly  seen  from  summit  to  base  and  appeared  surprisingly 
near.  It  was  in  reality  not  more  than  four  miles  south-east  of  us, 
and  with  the  glass  we  could  distinguish  the  broken  walls  of  the 
castle  that  occupies  the  entire  summit  of  the  mound. 

Did  you  find  anything  of  special  interest  at  Kureiyeh? 

It  was  once  a  large  city,  and  some  of  the  remains  appear  to  be 
ancient.  The  streets  and  lanes  were  quite  impassable,  owing  to 
bottomless  mud,  and  the  few  inhabitants  we  found  there  seemed  to 
be  miserably  poor  and  shiftless.  They  were  engaged  mainly  in 
sunning  themselves  on  the  walls  of  a  large  reservoir,  to  dry  their 
tattered  garments  after  the  great  rain  of  the  previous  night.  Ku- 
reiveh  has  been  identified  with  Kerioth,  one  of  “the  cities  of  the 
land  of  Moab but  there  are  some  grave  objections  which  require 
to  be  removed  before  the  identification  can  be  accepted.  Similar 
difficulties,  however,  attach  to  el  Busrah,  and  while  there  we  can 


504 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


examine  the  two  questions  together,  and  discuss  other  matters  of 
interest  connected  with  the  Biblical  history  of  that  region. 

What  is  the  name  of  the  village  which  we  are  now  approaching, 
situated  upon  the  low  hill  to  the  left  of  our  road? 

’Ary,  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  Ariath,  an  episcopal  city 
during  the  fourth  century  mentioned  in  the  Notitiae  or  old  ecclesias¬ 
tical  records.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  are  extensive  but  quite 
insignificant,  and  the  modern  village  is  now  an  inconsiderable  place, 
the  residence  of  a  Druse  family  of  recent  origin,  but  formerly  of 
great  power  and  influence.  It  was  the  home  of  Isma’il  el  Atrash,  a 
Druse  warrior  very  celebrated  in  this  region  about  thirty  years  ago. 
He  was  summoned  to  Beirut  by  the  Governor-general  of  Syria, 
and  astonished  the  natives  with  his  wild  band  of  Hauran  Druses. 
Small  of  stature,  the  personal  appearance  of  Sheikh  Isma’il  gave 
no  indication  of  the  daring  chieftain,  yet  he  was  the  terror  of  the 
Bedawin  all  over  this  region  ;  and  his  three  sons  are  still  leading 
sheikhs  in  Jebel  ed  Druse.  Isma’il  el  Atrash  died  more  than  ten 
years  ago,  and  his  tomb  is  just  without  the  village. 

Long  before  his  day  Burckhardt  visited  ’Ary  on  two  separate 
occasions,  and  the  Druse  sheikh  of  the  place  appeared  to  be  greatly 
pleased  to  see  him.  “  Sheikh  Shibly  Ibn  Hamdan,”  he  says,  “  is  the 
kindest  and  most  generous  Druse  I  have  known  in  Syria ;  and  his 
reputation  for  these  qualities  has  become  so  general  that  peasants 
from  all  parts  of  the  Hauran  settle  in  his  village.  The  whole  of 
the  Christian  community  of  Suweideh,  with  the  Greek  priest  at  their 
head,  had  lately  arrived,  so  that  ’Ary  has  now  become  one  of  the 
most  populous  villages  in  this  district.  The  high  estimation  in 
which  the  sheikh  is  held  arises  from  his  great  hospitality,  and  the 
justice  and  mildness  with  which  he  treats  the  peasants,  upward  of 
forty  of  whom  he  feeds  daily,  besides  strangers,  who  are  continually 
passing  here  on  their  way  to  the  Bedawin  encampments ;  the  coffee¬ 
pot  is  always  boiling  in  the  menzul,  or  strangers’  room.  He  may 
now,  in  fact,  be  called  the  Druse  chief  of  the  Hauran,  though  that 
title  belongs  in  strictness  to  his  father-in-law,  Hussein  Ibn  Hamdan, 
the  sheikh  of  Suweideh.”  1  Times  and  persons  have  greatly  changed 
since  Burckhardt  visited  ’Ary,  and  though  the  family  of  Hamdan 

1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  p.  225. 


MUJEIMIR  AND  WETR.— DEIR  ZUBEIR.— FIRST  MOSK  IN  SYRIA.  505 

still  exists  in  this  region,  its  present  sheikhs  have  lost  most  of  their 
property,  their  ancient  renown,  and  their  former  pre-eminence. 

We  have  passed  during  the  last  hour  the  villages  of  Mujeimir 
and  Wetr,  situated  on  their  tells  a  short  distance  to  the  left  of  our 
road,  and  for  another  hour  we  shall  have  the  shattered  walls  and 
dark,  massive  towers  and  battlements  of  the  celebrated  city  of  el 
Busrah,  upon  the  wide-spreading  plain  of  Bashan,  constantly  in  view. 
To  the  right  of  our  road  are  the  ruins  of  Deir  Zubeir,  a  large  square 
edifice  with  thick  walls,  and  which,  as  its  name  implies,  was  probably 
once  a  monastery.  And  here  we  come  upon  the  remains  of  the 
Roman  road  that  led  from  Bozrah,  or  el  Busrah,  northward  to  Da¬ 
mascus.  Traces  of  it,  extending  in  a  straight  line  across  the  plain, 
are  distinctly  visible,  and  in  some  places  the  solid  pavement,  com¬ 
posed  of  well-squared  slabs  of  stone,  is  still  almost  perfect. 

After  crossing  the  small  stream  in  Wady  Zeidy,  on  the  old  Roman 
bridge  of  three  arches,  below  Jemurrin,  we  will  turn  aside  and  in¬ 
spect  the  famous  mosk  called  el  Mebruk,  the  kneeling- place. 
Burckhardt  gives  the  following  account  of  its  origin  :  “  Ibn  ’Affan, 
who  first  collected  the  scattered  leaves  of  the  Koran  into  a  book, 
relates  that  when  Othman,  in  coming  from  the  Hedjaz,  approached 
the  neighborhood  of  Boszra  with  his  army,  he  ordered  his  people 
to  build  a  mosque  on  the  spot  where  the  camel  which  bore  the 
Koran  should  kneel  down.”  And  he  adds:  “It  is  of  no  great  size; 
its  interior  was  embellished,  like  that  of  the  great  mosque  [at  el 
Medina],  with  Cufic  inscriptions,  of  which  a  few  specimens  yet 
remain  over  the  mehrab,  or  niche  towards  which  the  face  of  the 
imam  is  turned  in  praying.  The  dome  or  kubbeh  which  covered 
its  summit  has  been  recently  destroyed  by  the  Wahabi.”1 

If  the  tradition  be  reliable,  this  edifice  occupies  the  site  of  the 
very  first  mosk  which  the  Muhammedans  erected  in  Syria.  The 
method  of  being  guided  by  the  instinct  of  the  camel  was  a  favorite 
device  of  the  early  Moslem  leaders,  copied  from  the  example  of 
their  Prophet.  He  thus  pretended  to  ascertain  at  whose  house  he 
should  alight  in  Medina  when  he  fled  thither  from  Mecca,  in  the 
first  month  of  the  first  year  of  the  Muhammedan  era.  Mr.  William 
Muir  has  given  an  amusing  description  of  that  singular  incident 

1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  p.  235. 


506  the  land  and  the  book. 

which  decided  as  well  the  location  of  the  first  mosk  that  was  ever 
built  in  the  Muhammedan  world.1  And  now  we  may  alight  at  our 
tents,  pitched  under  the  shadow  of  the  castle  at  el  Busrah,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  town,  where  we  can  rest  in  quietness  and  safety 
during  the  coming  Sabbath. 

Sunday,  September  21st. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  low  hills  in  the  distance,  el  Busrah 
stands  out  alone  in  the  centre  of  this  great  plain  of  Bashan.  The 
castle  of  Sulkhad  is  clearly  seen  crowning  the  summit  of  its  lofty 
volcanic  cone,  about  twelve  or  fourteen  miles  nearly  due  east,  and 
the  shattered  walls  of  Um  el  Jemal,  though  five  hours’  ride  across 
the  southern  desert,  are  said  to  be  visible  on  a  clear  day  from  the 
top  of  the  highest  tower  in  the  castle. 

Um  el  Jemal,  which  many  travellers  have  longed  to  visit,  but 
failed  in  the  attempt  to  do  so,  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  the 
Beth-gamul  mentioned  by  Jeremiah,  is  it  not? 

There  appears  to  be  some  doubt  in  regard  to  the  claim  of  that 
place  to  Biblical  notice.  It  has  been  visited  by  Mr.  Cyril  C.  Graham, 
M.  Waddington,  and  the  gentlemen  of  the  American  Palestine  Ex¬ 
ploration  Society.  Dr.  Selah  Merrill,  the  archaeologist  of  the  party, 
gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  ride  through  the  desert  to  Um 
el  Jemal,  and  a  detailed  description  of  the  ruins  at  that  place. 
They  were  encamped  here  at  el  Busrah,  and,  as  an  early  start  was 
necessary,  Dr.  Merrill  says,  “  We  left  our  camp  at  five  o’clock,  and, 
guided  by  a  man  with  a  lantern,  made  our  way  over  the  ruins  and 
among  the  walls  and  columns  of  ancient  palaces  and  temples  to  the 
castle  here;  for  the  officer  in  command,  Ibrahim  Effendi,  proposed, 
as  he  had  never  visited  the  place,  and  was  ‘  very  much  interested  in 
antiquities,’  to  accompany  us  with  some  soldiers.  Fortunately  the 
morning,  and  the  whole  day,  as  it  proved,  was  quite  cool,  so  that 
our  ten  hours  and  forty  minutes  in  the  saddle  were  less  tedious 
than  they  might  otherwise  have  been.  We  were  in  all  twenty  men, 
well  mounted  and  well  armed.  Besides  the  animals  we  rode  we 
had  three  extra  ones  for  photographic  apparatus  and  water. 

“About  two  miles  outside  of  Bozrah  we  came  upon  a  large  en¬ 
campment  of  Bedawin,  numbering  over  one  hundred  long  black 

1  Life  of  Mahomet,  vol.  iii.  p.  9. 


BEDAWIN  ENCAMPMENT.— THE  PERPETUAL  DESERT.  507 

tents,  and  judging  from  the  deafening  howl,  there  were  three  or 
four  dogs  to  every  tent.  Several  hundred  camels  were  scattered 
about  in  groups,  and  there  was  evidently  excitement  of  some  kind, 
for  men  were  shouting  and  running  about  in  all  directions.  Some 
of  them  ran  up  to  our  soldiers  and  told  of  a  heavy  robbery  that 
had  been  committed  during  the  night,  and  of  the  great  loss 
they  had  suffered  in  cattle  and  camels.  Our  soldiers  gave  chase 
in  the  direction  indicated  by  these  men,  and  it  was  a  fine  sight  to 
see  them,  with  such  of  the  Bedawin  as  ^vere  mounted,  dashing  over 
the  plain  in  their  efforts  to  discover  the  robbers.  These,  however, 
had  done  their  work  too  near  morning,  or  else  had  taken  more  than 
they  could  manage,  and  had  fled,  leaving  the  camels,  or  most  of 
them,  to  return  at  leisure  to  their  masters.  I  counted,  in  a  single 
string,  one  hundred  and  fifty  camels  thus  making  their  way  back. 
During  the  next  hour  or  two  we  saw  as  many  as  half  a  dozen  groups 
of  camels  at  different  places  on  the  plain,  that  had  passed  through 
the  experience  of  being  stolen  the  night  previous. 

“  Three  miles  south  of  Bozrah  we  struck  the  perpetual  desert, 
the  region  of  desolation.  Not  that  the  soil  is  barren,  but  in  all 
this  wide  and  naturally  fertile  district  no  man  dare  plough,  plant, 
or  build.  Yet  this  desert  shows  signs  of  former  cultivation,  for  the 
stones  in  many  parts  have  at  some  time  been  gathered  into  long 
rows,  evidently  to  serve  as  boundaries  for  fields.  The  plain  is 
covered  with  a  small  alkali  shrub,  which  resembles  the  sage -bush 
so  common  on  the  plains  of  the  far  West.  The  crocus  also  ap¬ 
peared  in  many  places,  and  the  contrast  between  the  barren,  burnt 
surface  of  the  plain  and  these  beautiful  flowers  was  very  striking. 
On  the  way  we  passed  several  ruins,  the  names  of  which  we  could 
not  learn ;  and  the  same  was  true  on  our  return,  as  we  came  the 
most  of  the  way  by  a  different  route.  There  are  scores  of  these 
ruined  towns  scattered  about  this  plain  awaiting  the  careful  ex¬ 
plorer.  Far  in  the  north-east  the  fortress  of  Sulkhad  loomed  up,  a 
magnificent  object  on  the  horizon,  commanding  a  view  of  all  this 
wide  plain  to  the  north,  east,  south,  and  west.  I  noticed  that  the 
common  barn-swallows  were  very  abundant ;  and  we  also  saw  dur¬ 
ing  the  day  ten  or  more  gazelles,  to  some  of  which  our  men  gave 
chase,  but  without  success. 


5°S 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


“  We  reached  Um  el  Jemal  after  a  ride  of  about  five  hours.  The 
ruins  do  not  abound  in  columns  and  temples,  like  those  of  Kunawat 
and  Gerash;  still  they  are  imposing  and  make  a  peculiar  impression 
upon  one,  because  they  stand  alone  in  the  desert.  They  are  remark¬ 
able,  in  the  first  place,  from  the  fact  that  they  present  only  two 
prominent  styles  of  architecture — namely,  Roman  and  Christian,  or 
Byzantine  —  and  not  half  a  dozen,  as  is  so  often  the  case  in  other 
places.  They  are  remarkable,  again,  because  they  afford  a  good 
example  of  an  unwalled  town.  But  the  walls  of  the  houses  in  many 
cases  join  each  other,  and  this  would  give  the  appearance  of  a  city 
wall  separate  from  the  houses.  If  there  was  no  wall,  there  was  at 
least  a  gate  to  the  city.  This  was  broad,  and  composed  of  four 
arches.  When  perfect  it  was  one  of  the  principal  ornaments  of  the 
place.  The  dwellings  and  edifices  were  not  huddled  together. 
There  has  been  no  building  and  rebuilding  on  the  ruins  of  former 
buildings,  according  to  later  Oriental  style. 

“The  open  spaces  about  the  houses  were  large,  and  the  streets 
were  broad,  and  at  least  two  avenues  ran  through  the  city  from 
north  to  south,  one  of  which  was  one  hundred  feet  wide,  and  the 
other  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  Nothing  appears  crowded  ; 
everywhere  there  is  a  sense  of  roominess.  It  must  have  been  a  city 
noted  for  broad  streets,  spacious  avenues,  large  courts,  fine  gardens 
and  promenades.  Again  the  houses,  which  were  built  of  stone, 
were  not  only  the  finest,  but  the  best  preserved,  of  any  in  the 
Hauran.  Some  of  them  were  three  or  even  four  stories  high. 
Eleven  or  twelve  feet  was  a  common  height  for  the  ceiling  in  the 
first  story,  ten  feet  in  the  second,  and  in  two  or  more  cases  the 
height  in  the  third  story  was  also  ten  feet.  The  doors  of  the  rooms 
on  the  second  floor,  as  well  as  on  the  first,  were,  as  a  rule,  seven  and 
a  half  or  eight  feet  high.  The  rooms  were  not  small,  but  spacious, 
— that  is,  spacious  for  private  houses.  A  number  of  those  that  I 
measured  were  ten  by  twenty- five  feet  or  twelve  by  twenty- four. 
There  were,  of  course,  both  larger  and  smaller  rooms  than  these. 
The  roofs  were  supported  by  arches,  and  by  increasing  the  number 
of  these  a  long  hall  could  be  covered  as  well  as  a  small  apartment. 

“A  common  style  of  building  seems  to  have  been  a  group  of 
houses  with  a  wide  space  around  the  outside  and  a  large  open 


RUINS  AT  UM  EL  JEMAL. 


509 


CHURCH  AND  CONVENT  AT  UM  EL  JEMAL. 


court  on  the  inside.  These  courts  were  fifty  feet  by  seventy- five, 
and  sometimes  larger.  Stone  stairs  on  the  outside  of  the  houses, 
facing  the  court,  led  up  to  the  second  and  third  stories.  Many 
of  these  are  in  as  good  condition  as  if  they  had  been  built  but 
a  year  ago.  There  are  no  decided  marks  of  great  antiquity.  In 
the  large  reservoir  before  mentioned  there  are  some  bevelled  stones, 
with  the  fullest  rough  face.  Very  many  of  the  stones  of  which  the 
houses  are  built  are  simply  split,  and  not  faced  at  all;  yet  it  should 
be  observed  that  the  splitting  was  remarkably  regular.  It  was  . 
evidently  at  one  time,  and  I  should  judge  for  a  long  time,  a  prom¬ 
inent  Christian  city.  I  found  the  remains  of  what  I  consider  to 
have  been  three  Christian  churches.  One  of  these  at  least  had  a 
portico,  and  columns  were  lying  about  the  front  of  it.  In  no  other 


5Jo 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


city  east  of  the  Jordan  that  I  have  visited  do  so  many  crosses  ap¬ 
pear  on  the  lintels  of  the  doors  of  private  houses  as  here. 

“Then,  again,  the  inscriptions  are  by  no  means  the  least  im¬ 
portant  fact  connected  with  these  ruins.  M.  Waddington  has  pub¬ 
lished  several  Greek  and  Latin  inscriptions  from  this  place,  and 
during  my  visit  I  found  seven  others,  which  he  has  not  given,  be¬ 
sides  several  in  the  Nabathean  language.  Among  those  which  M. 
Waddington  has  given  I  find  that  one  is  in  honor  of  M.  Aurelius 
Antoninus.  Another  shows  that  the  troops  or  garrison  stationed 
here  were  cavalry,  belonging  to  the  Ninth  Dalmatian  Horse,  who 
were  under  the  command  of  one  Julius,  an  officer  attached  to  the 
court  of  the  prince.  They  formed  a  section  of  the  body  of  troops 
known  as  Vexillarii  —  veterans  upon  whom  was  conferred  special 
honor.  Possibly  a  hint  may  be  obtained  as  to  the  character  of  the 
place  by  the  kind  and  rank  of  the  soldiers  that  were  assigned  to  it. 
This  inscription  belongs  probably  to  A.D.  371. 

“On  the  four  faces  of  a  square  tower,  belonging  to  a  large  build¬ 
ing  which  may  have  been  a  monastery,  are  several  inscriptions  in 
Greek,  chiefly  of  a  religious  nature.  One  is  a  fragment  taken  from 
the  Twenty-first  Psalm  ;  others  contain  the  names  of  Uriel,  Gabriel, 
and  Emmanuel.  M.  Waddington  refers  to  the  use  of  the  names 
Uriel,  Gabriel,  Raphael,  and  Michael  in  the  early  Jewish  writings. 
Four  angels  were  placed  at  the  corners  of  the  throne  of  God,  who 
were  the  genii  of  the  four  cardinal  points.  Uriel  was  the  angel  of 
the  north,  consequently  his  name  appears  on  the  north  face  of  this 
tower.  Gabriel  is  the  name  on  the  east  face,  and  the  edifice  is  put 
under  the  protection  of  these  two  angels.  Among  the  Nabathean 
inscriptions  is  one  from  a  monument  dedicated  to  the  god  Dusares, 
who  was  extensively  worshipped  in  these  regions. 

“The  Arabs  are  every  year  carrying  off  the  stones  of  this  city 
to  other  places.  As  many  as  six  men  were  at  work  while  we  were 
there,  throwing  down  the  walls  and  getting  the  long  roof- stones, 
which  were  to  be  taken  away  on  camels.  Just  before  we  reached 
the  place  we  met  thirty  or  forty  camels  that  had  started  with  loads 
of  stone  from  these  ruins.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  important  inscrip¬ 
tions  may  be  carried  off,  and  thus  valuable  historical  material  forever 
lost.  This  practice  of  removing  stones  from  one  place  to  another 


RED  AND  BLACK  POTTERY.— UM  EL  JEMAL,  BETH-GAMUL.  51 1 

has  gone  on  for  centuries.  Indeed,  it  prevailed  in  Bible  times ;  and 
we  may  be  justified  in  concluding  that  the  citizens  of  the  Hauran 
possessed,  in  their  day,  much  finer  private  houses  than  any  which 
now  appear  among  the  ruins. 

“The  place  appears  to  have  been  deserted  for  centuries.  I  should 
judge  that  the  desertion  was  sudden  and  complete.  There  are  no 
traces  of  there  having  been  any  lingering  deteriorating  remnant  of 
people,  or  of  any  wretched  subsequent  inhabitants,  to  mutilate  it, 
as  is  frequently  the  case  in  these  large  ruined  cities.  I  noticed  an 
interesting  fact  in  regard  to  the  pieces  of  pottery  with  which  the 
surface  of  the  ground  here,  as  in  all  ruined  towns,  is  covered.  In 
most  cases  one  sees  only  the  red  pottery,  but  in  Um  el  Jemal  the 
black  was  the  prevailing  kind,  and  the  red  decidedly  the  exception. 
There  are  but  few  places  in  Syria  where  the  black  pottery  is  made. 
In  the  first  century,  according  to  the  Talmud,  the  black  kind  was 
considered  superior  to  the  red,  and  brought  a  much  higher  price 
in  the  markets ;  and  what  is  also  interesting  in  this  connection,  a 
certain  town  in  Galilee  had  the  monopoly  of  its  manufacture. 

“  So  far  as  I  am  at  present  aware,  there  are  no  means  of  knowing 
what  the  ancient  name  of  this  place  was,  or  whether  it  corresponds 
to  the  ‘Beth-gamul’  of  Jeremiah  xlviii.  21-24.  In  the  passage 
referred  to,  it  is  stated  that  ‘judgment  is  come  upon  the  plain 
country,’  and  in  the  list  of  eleven  cities  there  specified,  Beth-gamul, 
Beth-meon,  Kerioth,  and  Bozrah  are  mentioned.  ‘Judgment  is  come,’ 
it  is  said,  ‘  upon  all  the  cities  of  the  land  of  Moab,  far  or  near.’  But 
it  is  not  known  how  far  the  country  designated  extended.  If 
Bozrah,  in  the  passage  in  question,  corresponds  to  the  place  where 
we  now  are  [that  is  here  at  el  Busrah],  which  is  doubtful  or  at  least 
has  not  yet  been  proved,  then  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  making 
Um  el  Jemal,  or  ‘Mother  of  the  Camel,’  correspond  to  Beth-gamul, 
or  ‘  House  of  the  Camel,’  of  Jeremiah. 

“  On  our  way  back,  as  we  had  no  guide,  and  paths  do  not  exist, 
we  took  the  wrong  direction,  and  when  we  had  ridden  five  hours  we 
did  not  find  our  camp.  We  ascended  a  slight  elevation,  which 
commanded  a  view  of  a  wide  region.  We  had  a  choice  of  seven 
ruined  cities,  which  were  in  sight  from  where  we  stood  ;  but  as 
night  was  rapidly  approaching,  even  our  effendi  could  not  tell 


512 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


I 

which  was  el  Busrah.  We  made  a  guess,  which  proved  a  lucky 
one,  and  after  one  hour  and  a  half  hard  riding  in  the  dark  we 
reached  our  tents  in  safety.  The  color  of  the  basalt  rock  of  which 
these  Hauran  towns  are  constructed  gives  one  at  first  the  impression 
that  they  have  been  blackened  by  fire,”  and  as  they  approached 
the  ruins  of  el  Busrah  on  that  dark  night,  the  black  and  broken 
walls  of  these  deserted  houses  reminded  Dr.  Merrill  of  the  burned 
portion  of  a  large  city  after  a  great  conflagration.1 

As  very  few  travellers  have  ever  been  to  Um  el  Jemal,  that 
account  of  Dr.  Merrill’s  visit  is  invested  with  special  interest,  and 
I  fully  agree  with  him  when  he  says  that,  if  Bozrah  corresponds 
to  this  el  Busrah,  “then  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  making 
Um  el  Jemal  correspond  to  the  Beth-gamul  of  Jeremiah;”  but  that 
has  not  yet  been  fully  established. 

September  22d. 

We  find  ourselves  this  morning  surrounded  by  a  wilderness  of 
ruins  that  sets  all  description  at  defiance.  There  seems  to  be 
neither  beginning,  middle,  nor  end  to  them,  and  one  is  at  a  loss 
to  know  where  to  commence  his  explorations. 

That  question  is  easily  settled  when  you  become  acquainted 
with  the  plan  of  the  city  of  Bozrah,  the  direction  of  the  main  streets, 
and  the  location  of  the  principal  buildings.  The  walls  surrounding 
the  ancient  city  were  very  thick,  and  their  greatest  length  was  from 
east  to  west.  The  space  enclosed  by  them  was  more  than  a  mile 
square,  divided  into  four  unequal  parts  by  two  main  streets  running 
north  and  south  and  east  and  west,  which  crossed  each  other  near 
the  middle  of  the  southern  part  of  the  city.  Other  streets  ran 
parallel  to  them,  and  the  most  important  ruins  are  now  found  on 
the  eastern  side  and  towards  the  middle  of  the  town.  The  black 
ruins  of  private  houses  are  to  be  seen  in  all  directions,  mostly 
towards  the  south-east  and  south,  their  walls  still  standing,  but 
the  roofs  have  fallen  in  long  ago. 

There  were  extensive  suburbs  beyond  the  walls  on  the  east, 
north,  and  west ;  but  the  most  imposing,  and  in  some  respects  the 
most  interesting,  structure  now  seen  at  Busrah  is  this  great  castle 
near  which  our  tents  are  pitched.  It  occupies  a  commanding  posi- 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  pp.  79-S7. 


ROMAN  THEATRE  WITHIN  A  SARACENIC  CASTLE.  513 

tion  outside  of  the  south  wall  of  the  city,  and  directly  opposite  to 
the  principal  street  leading  northward  through  the  town.  The 
commander  of  the  Turkish  garrison  in  the  castle,  who  called  upon 
us  last  night,  has  sent  one  of  his  soldiers  to  accompany  us  over 
the  fortress,  and  we  may  as  well  commence  our  examination  of  the 
ruins  at  el  Busrah  by  first  visiting  the  castle  and  the  remains  of  a 
Roman  theatre  within  its  walls. 

The  only  entrance  to  this  strong  fortress  is  through  a  large 
gate -way  with  an  iron -plated  door  studded  with  nails.  It  is  in  a 
deep  recess  in  a  retired  angle  near  the  east  end,  and  is  reached  by 
a  causeway  or  bridge  of  six  arches  across  the  moat  that  surrounds 
the  castle,  and  which  could  formerly  be  filled  with  water  from  the 
reservoir  near  by,  with  which  it  was  connected  by  an  aqueduct. 

Look  well  to  your  footsteps  as  we  grope  our  way  up  this  dark 
and  crooked  staircase  to  the  upper  platform ;  and  now  we  can  ex¬ 
plore  the  narrow  passage-ways,  mouldy,  subterranean  vaults,  numer¬ 
ous  chambers  of  different  sizes,  once  used  for  various  purposes,  the 
courts,  and  the  massive  towers.  The  whole  interior  of  the  castle  is 
in  a  ruinous  condition,  everywhere  encumbered  with  heaps  of  rub¬ 
bish,  and  beneath  the  vaults  are  large  cisterns  capable  of  containing 
a  supply  of  water  sufficient  to  last  the  garrison  for  many  months. 
Some  of  these  subterranean  vaults,  I  suppose,  were  connected  with 
the  theatre.  Others  were  made  by  the  builders  of  the  castle  for 
store-rooms  and  stables,  and  the  chambers  in  the  upper  stories  were 
probably  for  the  use  of  the  garrison. 

This  was  one  of  the  largest  and  best-built  castles  in  Syria,  and 
its  massive  external  walls  are  nearly  perfect  and  evidently  Saracenic. 
Its  construction  probably  dates  from  early  Muhammedan  times,  and 
in  its  present  form  it  differs  from  all  other  castles  in  this  country. 
Here,  near  the  central  part,  it  contains  a  large  and  well-preserved 
Roman  theatre,  certainly  far  more  ancient  than  the  castle  which 
now  includes  it.  I  suppose  the  theatre  was  erected  upon  a  tell  or 
mound  elevated  about  sixty  feet  above  the  surrounding  country. 
When  the  Moslem  conquerors  wanted  a  castle  at  this  central  and 
important  city  of  el  Busrah,  they  availed  themselves  of  this  theatre 
as  a  nucleus,  added  strong  towers  at  both  the  east  and  west  ends, 
and  walled  in  the  front  of  the  theatre,  as  we  now  see  it.  The 


5H 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


wonder  is  that  the  Muhammedans,  who  hold  in  utter  abomination 
all  such  edifices,  allowed  this  theatre  to  remain  almost  perfect, 
without  attempting  to  remove  or  destroy  it. 

The  theatre  occupies  a  space  upon  this  platform  about  two  hun¬ 
dred  and  fifty  feet  long  and  two  hundred  feet  wide.  It  was  semi¬ 
circular  in  shape,  and  supported  by  massive  piers  and  groined 


THEATRE  WITHIN  THE  CASTLE  AT  EL  BUSRAH. 

arches.  On  either  side  of  the  stage,  which  was  about  one  hundred 
and  forty  feet  long  and  sixty  feet  wide,  there  was  a  large  chamber 
sixty  feet  square,  whose  exterior  wall  was  adorned  with  Doric 
pilasters.  There  were  six  tiers  of  seats,  now  partly  covered  up  by 
Saracenic  buildings,  and  a  colonnade  of  nearly  sixty  Doric  columns 
ran  around  and  above  the  upper  tier  of  seats,  but  most  of  them 
have  disappeared.  The  theatre  faced  the  north,  and  the  audience 
not  only  witnessed  the  spectacle  on  the  stage,  but  they  could  over¬ 
look  the  entire  city  in  front  and  below  them,  and  beyond  it  was  the 


VIEW  FROM  THE  KEEP  OF  THE  CASTLE  AT  EL  BUSRAH.  515 

wide-spreading  plain  of  the  Hauran,  stretching  far  away  northward 
to  the  foot-hills  of  Mount  Hermon. 

Before  leaving  this  fortress  let  us  ascend  the  tower  at  the  north¬ 
west  angle.  From  the  top  of  it  we  can  survey  not  only  the  ex¬ 
tensive  ruins  of  el  Busrah,  but  also  the  surrounding  country  for 
many  miles  in  all  directions. 

“The  keep,”  says  Dr.  Porter,  “is  a  huge  square  tower,  rising 
high  above  the  battlements  [of  the  castle]  and  overlooking  the 
plains  of  Bashan  and  Moab.  From  it  I  saw  that  Bozrah  was  in 
ancient  times  connected  by  a  series  of  great  highways  with  the 
leading  cities  and  districts  in  Bashan  and  Arabia.  They  diverge 
from  the  city  in  straight  lines,  and  my  eye  followed  one  after  an¬ 
other  until  it  disappeared  in  the  far  distance.  One  ran  westward 
to  the  town  of  Ghusam  and  then  to  Edrei ;  another  northward  to 
Suweideh  and  Damascus ;  another  north-west  up  among  the  moun¬ 
tains  of  Bashan  ;  another  to  Kerioth  ;  and  another  eastward,  straight 
as  an  arrow,  to  the  castle  of  Salchah,  which  crowned  a  conical  hill 
on  the  horizon. 

“Towns  and  villages  appeared  in  every  direction,  thickly  dotting 
the  vast  plain  ;  a  few  of  those  to  the  north  are  inhabited,  but  all 
those  southward  have  been  deserted  for  centuries.  I  examined  them 
long  and  carefully  with  my  telescope,  and  their  walls  and  houses 
appeared  to  be  in  even  better  preservation  than  those  I  had  already 
visited.”  And  among  other  ruined  towns,  he  saw,  from  the  top  of 
this  tower,  Um  el  Jemal,  the  supposed  Beth-gamul  of  the  Scriptures. 
“The  plain,”  he  says,  “extends  to  the  horizon,  and  is  rich  and  fer¬ 
tile;  while  the  ruins  prove  that  it  was  at  one  time  densely  populated. 
But  the  cities  are  ‘  without  inhabitant,’  the  houses  are  ‘  without  man,’ 
the  land  is  ‘utterly  desolate/  judgment  has  come  upon  it  all  far 
and  near,  and  the  whole  of  Bashan  and  Moab  is  one  great  fulfilled 
prophecy.”  1 

Let  us  now  descend  from  this  lofty  outlook,  and  examine  some 
of  the  ancient  edifices  in  the  city  whose  ruins  lie  in  such  bewildering 
confusion  almost  at  our  feet.  We  need  not  stop  to  decipher  the 
Greek  inscriptions;  they  have  been  copied  by  Burckhardt,  Wadding- 
ton,  and  others.  M.  Waddington  collected  at  el  Busrah  nearly  sixty 

1  Bashan  and  its  Giant  Cities,  pp.  63-70. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


516 

of  them,  some  of  great  length,  but  most  of  them  are  brief  and  im¬ 
perfect,  and  of  no  special  historic  value. 

And  now  for  our  ramble  amongst  the  ruins  of  ancient  Bozrah. 
We  will  first  visit  those  tall  columns  which  stand  out  so  conspicu¬ 
ously  near  the  centre  of  the  town.  They  occupy  the  opposite  corners 
of  the  two  main  streets  which  divided  the  city  nearly  in  the  middle, 
one  running  from  east  to  west,  the  other  from  north  to  south. 
These  four  columns  on  the  left  stand  diagonally  across  the  north¬ 
west  corner  of  the  street,  but  there  is  no  trace  of  the  structure  to 
which  they  belonged,  and  without  excavations  it  is  impossible  to 
determine  the  original  plan  and  purpose  of  an  edifice  apparently 
occupying  so  unusual  a  position.  The  columns  are  about  twelve 
feet  in  circumference  and  over  forty-five  feet  in  height.  The  capi¬ 
tals  are  perfect,  but  the  entablature  has  fallen.  These  four  beauti¬ 
ful  columns  are  regarded  as  amongst  the  best  specimens  of  the 
Corinthian  order  in  Syria,  and  second  only  to  the  six  columns  in 
the  peristyle  of  the  temple  of  the  sun  at  Ba’albek. 

Those  two  lofty  columns  on  the  opposite,  or  north-east,  corner 
of  the  street  probably  belonged  to  a  colonnade  or  a  temple,  but 
only  a  part  of  the  front  wall  remains  standing,  showing  three  tiers 
of  niches,  one  above  the  other.  These  columns  are  too  slender 
for  their  great  height,  being  about  nine  feet  in  circumference  and 
nearly  fifty  feet  high,  and  they  are  otherwise  not  in  the  most  per¬ 
fect  style  of  classic  architecture.  They  stand  at  the  ends  of  the 
edifice  with  which  they  were  connected,  on  a  base  of  white  marble, 
and  had  Corinthian  capitals.  One  of  them  still  supports  a  pro¬ 
fusely  ornamented  entablature  which  rests  upon  a  pilaster  in  the 
front  wall  of  the  building. 

If  we  followed  the  main  street  westward  we  would  soon  come  to 
a  large  ruined  structure,  on  the  south  side  of  it,  which  from  its  thick 
walls  and  vaulted  chambers  was  probably  a  bath.  A  short  distance 
beyond  it,  on  the  same  side  of  the  street,  and  facing  north,  is  a  well- 
preserved  triumphal  arch,  partly  concealed  by  the  remains  of  private 
houses.  It  was  about  forty  feet  long  and  twenty  feet  wide,  and 
had  three  arches,  the  central  one  of  which  was  over  forty  feet  high. 
At  the  sides  and  between  the  arches  there  are  square  pilasters,  and 
niches  for  statues,  and  a  vaulted  passage-way  led  through  under  the 


RUINED  TEMPLES  OR  PUBLIC  EDIFICES 


I 


« 


DESERTED  BAZAAR.— HOUSE  OF  THE  JEW.— MOSK  OF  ’OMAR.  517 

arches  lengthwise.  From  a  Latin  inscription  on  one  of  the  pilasters 
we  learn  that  the  triumphal  arch  was  erected  about  the  middle  of 
the  third  century  of  our  era  in  honor  of  Julius  Julianus,  prefect  of 
the  first  Parthian  Philippine  legion. 

Leaving  these  columns,  and  the  ruins  of  the  temple  to  which 
they  belonged,  let  us  now  thread  our  way  northward  along  this 
narrow  street,  which  appears  to  have  been  occupied  by  shopkeepers 
whose  little  stalls  were  vaulted  over,  the  arches  in  many  cases  rest¬ 
ing  on  short  columns.  This  proves  that  they  are  comparatively 
modern  and  consequently  of  no  special  interest.  Our  object  in 
passing  through  this  deserted  bazaar,  which,  even  in  Muhammedan 
times,  was  the  centre  of  extensive  trade  and  traffic  for  several  hun¬ 
dred  years,  is  to  visit  the  great  mosk  at  el  Busrah,  said  to  have 
been  built  by  order  of  the  Khalif  ’Omar. 

Here,  on  the  left,  are  the  ruins  of  the  so-called  Beit  el  Yehudy, 
the  house  of  the  Jew.  Nothing  remains  but  the  gate-way  which 
once  led  into  the  dwelling-place  of  that  peculiarly  fortunate,  but 
execrable,  Israelite.  Tradition  affirms  that  he  was  deprived  of  his 
original  habitation  by  the  governor  of  el  Busrah,  who  built  a  mosk 
upon  the  site.  The  Jew  appealed  to  the  Khalif  ’Omar  at  Medina, 
who  gave  him  an  order  written  upon  the  jawbone  of  an  ass,  to  this 
effect:  “  Pull  down  the  mosk,  and  rebuild  the  house  of  Jhe  Jew.” 
Consequently,  he  became  “an  execration,  and  an  astonishment,  and 
a  reproach  ”  to  every  true  believer  from  that  day  to  this. 

We  will  now  cross  to  the  western  side  of  the  street,  and  enter 
the  court  of  the  great  mosk.  This  small  door,  near  the  minaret  at 
the  north-east  corner  of  the  edifice,  will  lead  us  into  the  interior. 
Within,  the  mosk  was  nearly  square,  and  the  roof  was  supported 
by  a  colonnade  that  ran  round  the  three  sides  north,  west,  and 
south,  but  on  the  east  there  was  a  double  row  of  columns  forming 
the  porch  or  vestibule.  Most  of  the  columns  are  of  well- polished 
white  marble,  with  Corinthian  capitals.  They  are  all  about  eighteen 
feet  in  height,  and  the  shafts  consist  of  a  single  stone.  Two  of  the 
columns  have  Ionic  capitals,  and  some  of  the  shafts  are  of  green 
micaceous  marble,  a  rare  variety,  of  which  there  are  but  few  speci¬ 
mens  in  this  country.  The  basaltic  columns  in  the  colonnade  are 
coarse,  unpolished,  and  badly  executed. 


5i8 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


A  beautiful  frieze  in  stucco,  and  Cufic  and  Arabic  inscriptions 
in  bass-relief,  ran  round  the  walls  on  the  interior  of  the  mosk.  Two 
of  the  marble  columns  have  Greek  inscriptions;  one  of  them  bears 
the  date  383  of  the  Bostrian  era,  corresponding  to  A.D.  489,  and 
the  other  contains  the  name  of  Christ.  All  the  material  of  which 
this  great  mosk  of  the  Khalif  ’Omar  was  constructed  evidently 
belonged  to  more  ancient  edifices,  and  the  columns  were  brought 
here  from  some  Christian  church  or  heathen  temple. 

We  will  not  visit  the  ruined  bath  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
street,  nor  extend  our  walk  to  the  east  and  north-east  of  it  to  visit 
the  Deir  and  Dar,  the  convent  and  the  house  of  the  monk  Boheira. 
At  the  bath  we  would  only  find  traces  of  the  pipes  that  conducted 
the  water  into  it,  and  upon  the  door  of  the  “  convent  ”  and  over 
that  of  the  “house”  we  would  see  a  Latin  and  a  Greek  inscription, 
neither  of  which  is  of  any  special  importance.  It  may  be  well  to 
mention,  in  passing,  that  the  ruined  walls  and  fallen  roofs  of  those 
two  buildings  are  probably  those  of  a  former  church  and  chapel. 
The  objects  most  worthy  of  notice  in  this  vicinity  are  the  cathedral 
of  Busrah — called  by  the  natives  the  church  of  the  monk  Boheira — - 
and  the  Cufic  inscription  in  the  court  of  a  small  mosk  near  it.  We 
can  examine  them  on  our  way  back  to  the  tents,  as  they  are  but  a 
short  distance  to  the  south-east  of  this  mosk. 

Who  was  the  monk  Boheira? 

Burckhardt  says:  “This  is  a  personage  well  known  to  the  bi¬ 
ographers  of  Mohammed,  and  many  strange  stories  are  related  of 
him  by  the  Mohammedans,  in  honor  of  their  Prophet,  or  by  the 
eastern  Christians,  in  derision  of  the  impostor.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  rich  Greek  priest,  settled  at  Boszra,  and  to  have  predicted 
the  prophetic  vocation  of  Mohammed,  whom  he  saw,  when  a  boy, 
passing  with  a  caravan  from  Mecca  to  Damascus.  According  to  the 
traditions  of  the  Christians,  he  was  a  confidential  counsellor  of  Mo¬ 
hammed  in  the  compilation  of  the  Koran.”1  It  is  supposed  that 
Boheira  accompanied  the  youthful  Prophet  to  Mecca,  and  afterwards 
became  his  instructor,  and  that  Muhammed  derived  from  him  that 
imperfect  knowledge  of  the  Bible  which  his  absurd  and  puerile 
stories  in  the  Koran  so  abundantly  display. 

1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  p.  22S. 


STIFLING  SIROCCO.  — CATHEDRAL  AT  BUSRAH.  5  1 9 

The  massive  and  circular  interior  of  this  cathedral  affords  us  a 
grateful  shelter  from  the  hot  wind.  I  have  felt  its  enervating  pres¬ 
ence  all  the  morning  during  our  rambles  among  the  ruins,  and  it 
appears  to  be  increasing  in  violence  every  hour. 

Such  stifling  sirocco  winds,  with  clouds  of  suffocating  dust,  are 
not  uncommon  at  this  season  of  the  year,  and  Busrah,  situated  on 

V 

the  verge  of  the  Arabian  desert,  is  entirely  exposed  to  their  full 
force  and  their  irritating  and  debilitating  effects.  During  a  sirocco, 
therefore,  men  and  animals  seek  refuge  from  the  fierce  wind  and 
oppressive  heat  in  the  vaulted  chambers,  and  behind  the  thick  walls 
of  these  ruined  edifices,  and  I  am  not  surprised  to  see  that  those 
Bedawin  shepherds  and  their  flocks  have  found  safe  shelter  within 
the  enclosure  of  this  ancient  cathedral. 

They  are  certainly  a  startling  illustration  of  the  change  that  has 
come  over  place  and  people  since  this  edifice  was  erected. 

This  Greek  inscription,  on  the  west  side  of  it,  over  the  main 
entrance,  is  still  quite  perfect,  and  from  it  we  learn  that  the  cathe¬ 
dral  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  this  region,  that  at  Edhra’  antedating  it 
by  about  two  years.  M.  Waddington  has  copied  it,  and,  together 
with  the  text,  he  gives  a  brief  account  of  the  three  martyrs,  Sergius, 
Bacchus,  and  Leontius,  in  whose  honor  the  church  was  built  by  the 
Archbishop  Julian  us  in  407  of  the  Bostrian  era,  corresponding  to 
A.D.  513.  The  cathedral  was  square  externally  and  circular  within. 
The  walls  are  nearly  perfect,  but  the  domed  roof  has  fallen,  and  the 
interior  is  encumbered  with  the  debris.  The  altar  was  at  the  east 
end,  and  the  apse  was  supported  by  short  Corinthian  columns  with 
low  arches.  In  the  walls  are  several  sculptured  stones  which  must 
have  belonged  to  a  more  ancient  building.  On  either  side  of  the 
entrance,  and  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  chancel  there  are  large 
niches,  and  the  circular  walls  of  the  rotunda  were  adorned  with 
many  smaller  niches  and  other  architectural  ornaments  common  to 
all  Oriental  churches  in  early  Christian  times. 

M.  Waddington  gives  the  text  of  an  inscription  found  at  Busrah, 
in  honor  of  the  patriarch  Job,  and  in  his  comments  upon  it  he  tells 
us  that  a  very  ancient  tradition  makes  the  neighborhood  of  this 
city  the  home  of  the  patient  man  of  Uz.  He  adds  that  Job  was, 
and  still  is,  the  patron  of  hospitals,  especially  for  lepers,  and  he  sup- 


520 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


poses  that  the  inscription  belonged  to  such  an  institution  founded 
at  Bozrah  by  the  Emperor  Justinian  during  the  sixth  century.  It  is 
certainly  interesting  to  hear  of  a  tradition  associating  the  name  of 
that  ancient  patriarch  with  this  region — the  supposed  land  of  Uz. 

In  the  court  of  that  mosk,  north  of  this  cathedral,  is  the  basaltic 
stone  mentioned  by  Burckhardt,  “covered  with  a  long  and  beautiful 
Cufic  inscription,  which  is  well  worth  transporting  to  Europe ;  the 
characters  being  very  small,  it  would  require  a  whole  day  to  copy 
it.”1  An  excellent  photograph  of  that  inscription  was  secured  by 
the  gentlemen  of  the  American  Palestine  Exploration  Society  when 
at  el  Busrah  in  the  autumn  of  1875,  but  I  am  not  aware  that  any 
attempt  has  been  made  to  ascertain  its  purport. 


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CUFIC  INSCRIPTION  AT  EL  BUSRAH. 

Turning  our  steps  southward  from  the  cathedral,  we  will  pass  by 
the  house  of  the  sheikh  of  el  Busrah  on  the  right,  and  here,  on  the 
left,  spanning  the  main  street  which  ran  through  the  city  from  east 
to  west,  is  another  triumphal  arch,  much  smaller  than  the  one 
farther  west,  and  only  remarkable  for  the  thickness  of  its  walls. 
South  of  this  Roman  arch  is  Kusr  Melek  el  Asfar,  the  palace  of  the 
Yellow  King.  It  is  a  large  ruined  house  with  several  courts,  strewn 
with  sculptured  stones  and  fragments  of  columns.  Nothing  is  to 

1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  p.  232. 


GATE  OF  THE  WIND.— ROMAN  GUARD- HOUSE.  52  I 

be  seen  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  town  but  the  prostrate 
ruins  of  former  habitations,  so  we  will  pass  on,  without  further  de¬ 
lay,  to  our  tents  near  the  castle. 

September  22d.  Evening. 

Here  at  Busrah  the  distances  are  so  great,  and  the  ruins  over, 
under,  and  among  which  one  must  find  or  force  his  way  are  so  con¬ 
fusing,  that  exploration  is  rendered  particularly  fatiguing. 

Especially  in  such  a  prostrating  sirocco  as  this.  It  is  more  than' 
a  mile  from  the  east  gate  to  Bab  el  Hawa  at  the  opposite  or  west¬ 
ern  end  of  the  street,  but  that  is  the  longest  diameter  of  the  city. 
The  western  half  of  the  town  appears  to  have  been  occupied  princi¬ 
pally  by  private  dwellings,  which  are  now  entirely  prostrate,  and 
the  only  remarkable  structure  in  that  neighborhood  is  Bab  el  Hawa, 
the  Gate  of  the  Wind.  It  consists  of  a  well-preserved  Roman  arch, 
with  shell-shaped  niches  and  square  pilasters  on  either  side.  Traces 
of  the  ancient  pavement  are  still  visible,  but  the  gate-way  is  choked 
up  with  rubbish  and  hewn  stones. 

Outside  the  gate,  on  the  north,  there  is  a  round  tower,  or  guard¬ 
house,  whose  walls  are  in  a  ruinous  condition.  According  to  Burck- 
hardt,  the  tower  was  built  by  Yusuf  Pasha,  of  Damascus,  to  com¬ 
mand  the  springs  called  ’Aiyun  el  Merj,  which  rise  some  distance 
to  the  north-west  of  it  and  within  the  walls  of  the  town.  But  the 
pasha  probably  only  repaired  the  old  Roman  guard -house.  Near 
the  springs  is  a  meadow,  and  there  appears  to  have  been  a  small 
temple  or  nymphaeum  built  over  the  fountain  of  el  Jeheir,  a  little 
stream  which  rises  in  that  neighborhood.  A  large  pedestal  has 
recently  been  discovered  near  the  city  wall  in  that  vicinity,  with 
a  Latin  inscription  dedicating  it  to  “Antonia  Fortunata,  the  wife 
of  Antonius  Caesar.”  East  of  the  springs  are  the  ruins  of  a  small 
mosk  called  el  Khudr,  the  Moslem  name  for  St.  George,  and  near 
it  are  the  remains  of  an  old  tomb. 

It  may  well  be  that  this  city  originally  owed  its  existence  to 
those  springs  and  fountains  both  within  and  without  the  walls  of 
the  town,  for  such  “  a  blessing  ”  is  rarely  found  in  these  regions. 
They,  however,  did  not  prove  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  el  Busrah 
when  it  became  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Arabia,  else  the  com¬ 
munity  would  never  have  constructed  such  large  and  expensive 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK 


r  o  o 

j 

reservoirs  on  the  east  side  of  the  city.  The  one  not  far  from  our 
tents,  and  near  the  south-east  corner  of  the  city  wall,  is  about  five 
hundred  feet  long,  four  hundred  feet  wide,  and  even  now  over 
twenty  feet  deep.  The  surrounding  walls  are  more  than  ten  feet 
thick,  and  a  staircase  led  down  to  the  bottom.  On  the  north  and 
east  sides  of  the  reservoir  there  are  remains  of  former  habitations, 
and  some  public  buildings,  whose  massive  stone  doors  were  nearly 
ten  feet  high  and  about  a  foot  thick,  and  near  the  north-east  angle 
is  a  ruined  and  deserted  mosk  with  a  dilapidated  square  minaret. 


RESERVOIR  AND  RUINED  MOSK  AT  EL  BUSRAH. 

Burckhardt  supposes  that  “  this  reservoir  is  a  work  of  the  Sara¬ 
cens,”  intended  for  the  use  of  the  Moslem  pilgrims,  who  as  late  as 
the  seventeenth  century  passed  by  this  city  on  their  way  to  Mecca; 
but  it  appears  to  be  ancient,  and  was  probably  constructed  for  the 
supply  of  the  great  mercantile  caravans  that  made  el  Busrah  one  of 
their  principal  stations  ages  before  the  rise  of  Muhammedanism. 
Burckhardt  is  mistaken  when  he  says  that  “  the  basin  is  never  com¬ 
pletely  filled.”  I  have  seen  the  reservoir  full  to  the  brim,  and  the 
wavelets  upon  its  surface,  wafted  by  the  wind,  were  like  those  on  a 
small  lake.  Some  distance  farther  north,  on  the  east  side  of  the 


BOZRAH  OF  EDOM  AND  BOZRAH  OF  MOAB. 


523 


town  and  outside  of  the  walls,  is  another  reservoir,  nearly  four  hun¬ 
dred  feet  square  and  fifteen  feet  deep.  But  heaps  of  rubbish  en¬ 
cumber  the  sides  and  centre,  and  it  is  only  remarkable  for  the  num¬ 
ber  of  “masons’  marks”  upon  the  stones  in  the  walls.  “These 
characters,”  says  Dr.  Merrill,  “strongly  resemble  Aramaic  letters 
of  the  seventh  or  eighth  century  before  Christ.”  1 

Is  it  not  strange  that  so  little  is  known  about  the  ancient  history 
of  this  great  city,  and  that  its  claim  to  Biblical  notice  should  be  dis¬ 
puted  by  some  modern  critics? 

Like  everything  else  in  these  days,  Busrah  must  submit  to  the 
scrutiny  of  enlightened  and  impartial  criticism.  The  objections 
against  its  being  the  Bozrah  mentioned  by  Jeremiah  are,  however, 
not  convincing,  though  it  is  but  fair  to  admit  that  there  remains  a 
certain  degree  of  doubt  with  regard  to  the  claims  of  this  city  to 
Biblical  celebrity.  It  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Bozrah 
referred  to  in  the  well-known  passage,  “Who  is  this  that  cometh 
from  Edom,  with  dyed  garments  from  Bozrah.”  2  That  place  has 
been  identified  with  el  Busaireh,  or  Little  Busrah,  as  its  name  im¬ 
plies,  in  the  mountainous  district  to  the  south-east  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  about  eight  miles  south  of  Tufileh,  the  ancient  Tophel.3 

But  as  the  Bozrah  mentioned  by  Jeremiah  is  associated  with 
Beth-gamul,  supposed  to  be  Um  el  Jemal,  five  hours  to  the  south 
of  this  place,  and  also  with  Kerioth,  identified  with  el  Kureiyeh, 
a  few  miles  east  of  el  Busrah,  and  near  the  road  to  Sulkhad,  the 
undoubted  Salchah  of  the  Bible,  it  is  reasonable  to  believe  that 
it  may  be  the  Bozrah  intended  by  the  prophet.  The  judgments  of 
Jeremiah  were  against  the  Moabites,  who  appear  to  have  been  ex¬ 
tremely  haughty  and  arrogant.  “  We  have  heard  of  the  pride  of 
Moab  (he  is  exceeding  proud),  his  loftiness,  and  his  arrogancy,  and 
his  pride,  and  the  haughtiness  of  his  heart.”  4  The  Moabites  were 
apparently  rich  and  prosperous  at  that  time,  and  there  may  have 
been  flourishing  colonies  of  them  in  Beth-gamul,  in  Kerioth,  and  in 
Bozrah.  And  the  prophet  assures  them  that  the  judgment  of  the 
Lord  would  overtake  them  wherever  they  dwelt ;  for  it  is  come 
“  upon  all  the  cities  of  the  land  of  Moab,  far  or  near.”  5 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  55. 

3  Deut.  i.  1. 


4  Jer.  xlviii.  29. 


2  Isa.  lxiii.  1. 

6  Jer.  xlviii.  24. 


524 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


He  has  certainly  stretched  out  upon  Bozrah  or  el  Busrah  “  the 
line  of  confusion,  and  the  stones  of  emptiness.”  1 

That  prediction  is  far  more  literally  fulfilled  in  the  appalling 
desolation  of  this  city  than  in  the  entire  obliteration  of  its  insignifi¬ 
cant  namesake  of  el  Busaireh,  to  which  the  prophecy  is  now  gen¬ 
erally  applied.  But  whatever  may  or  may  not  be  the  facts  in 
regard  to  the  identity  of  el  Busrah  with  the  Biblical  Bozrah,  the 
historic  notices  of  the  Graeco-Roman,  Christian,  and  Moslem  city 
are  numerous  and  explicit  enough. 

Judas  Maccabeus,  previous  to  the  conquest  of  this  region  by 
the  Romans,  in  his  expedition  east  of  the  Jordan,  extricated  great 
numbers  of  his  brethren  who  “were  shut  up  in  Bosora,  and  Bosor, 
and  Alema,  Casphor,  Maked,  and  Carnaim.”  And  “  he  slew  all  the 
males  [of  Bosora]  with  the  edge  of  the  sword,  and  took  all  their 
spoils,  and  burned  the  city  with  fire.”  2  A  similar  fate  befell  Car¬ 
naim,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  at  Tell  ’Ashtarah,  north  of 
Der’a.  Judas  took  the  city;  slew  the  inhabitants,  and  burnt  their 
temple.  During  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Trajan,  and  about  A.D. 
105,  his  general  A.  Cornelius  Palma,  then  governor  of  Syria,  conquer¬ 
ed  all  this  region  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  made  Busrah  the  capital 
of  the  new  Roman  province,  which  was  called  Nova  Trajana  Bostra. 

The  Romans  beautified  the  city,  and  adorned  it  with  temples, 
theatres,  baths,  and  other  public  edifices,  and  under  them  it  became 
a  military  colony,  and  remained  an  important  commercial  centre 
for  many  centuries.  They  also  made  public  highways  extending 
in  all  directions,  and  especially  eastward  across  the  desert  towards 
the  valley  of  the  Euphrates.  One  of  those  roads  started  from 
Bostra  and,  passing  by  Sulkhad,  ran,  it  is  said,  in  a  straight  line 
through  the  desert  to  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 

The  so-called  Bostrian  era  originated  in  this  city  about  the  com¬ 
mencement  of  the  first  century  A.D.,  and  after  Bozrah  had  been 
constituted  the  metropolis  of  this  part  of  Arabia ;  and  it  was  ex¬ 
tensively  used  upon  the  coins  and  inscriptions  now  found  in  the 
cities  and  towns  east  of  the  Jordan.  Towards  the  middle  of  the 
third  century,  Philip  the  Arabian,  a  native  of  Bozrah,  as  is  gener¬ 
ally  supposed,  became  Roman  emperor,  and,  as  was  natural,  he  con- 
1  Isa.  xxxiv.  II.  2  I.  Macc.  v.  24-28,  42-44  ;  Jos.  Ant.  xii.  8,  3,  4. 


VISIT  OF  ORIGEN  TO  EL  BUSRAH.  525 


ferred  many  privileges  upon  his  native  city.  There  are,  however, 
two  other  claimants  in  this  region  for  the  honor  of  being  the 
birthplace  of  that  Arabian  emperor  of  Rome. 


RUINS  OF  EL  BUSRAH. 


After  the  establishment  of  Christianity  in  the  empire  it  was 
early  introduced  into  Bozrah,  and  spread  rapidly  throughout  all 
this  region.  The  great  Origen  made  a  visit  to  Bozrah  in  order  to 
restore  to  the  orthodox  faith  the  bishop  Beryllus,  who  had  taught 
certain  speculations  regarding  the  pre-existing  nature  of  Christ, 
which  were  considered  heretical.  He  presided  over  at  least  one  of 
the  councils  held  here,  and  his  mission  was  entirely  successful. 
This  city  became  the  seat  of  a  metropolitan  archbishop,  after  the 
time  of  Constantine,  having  dependent  upon  it  a  large  number  of 


526 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


bishops  scattered  over  the  entire  province  of  Northern  Arabia,  and 
Reland  finds  the  names  of  several  of  its  occupants  in  the  lists  of 
various  ecclesiastical  councils.  At  present  there  is  not  a  single 
Christian  family  residing  in  el  Busrah. 

Previous  to  the  Moslem  era,  or  el  Hegira,  this  city  was  frequented 
by  trading  caravans  and  merchants  from  Mecca  and  other  places 
in  western  Arabia,  and  Muhammed  himself  visited  it  at  least  twice  ; 
once,  when  twelve  years  old,  in  company  with  his  uncle,  Abu  Talib, 
when — if  ever — he  had  his  famous  interview  with  the  monk  Boheira. 
Again,  when  twenty-five  years  old,  he  came  hither  in  the  employ  of 
Khadija,  who  eventually  rewarded  his  mercantile  success  with  her 
hand  and  fortune.  After  the  subjugation  of  Arabia,  and  soon  after 
the  death  of  the  Prophet  of  Islam,  a  Muhammedan  army  attacked 
this  city.  The  Moslems  advanced  under  the  leadership  of  the  fierce 
and  impetuous  Khalid,  renowned  as  the  Sword  of  God,  and  shouting 
the  fanatical  cry,  “  Fight,  fight,  victory  or  paradise !”  they  fell  upon 
the  Christians  and  drove  them  into  the  city. 

The  terrified  inhabitants  might  have  long  resisted  the  Arabian 
hordes,  but  the  town  was  betrayed  by  Romanus,  the  governor,  who 
had  been  deposed  from  office,  and  who  afterwards  embraced  the 
faith  of  Islam.  El  Busrah  was  the  first  fortified  city  in  Syria  that 
fell  by  treachery  into  the  hands  of  the  Muhammedans,  and  from 
that  day  to  this  they  have  held  uninterrupted  possession  of  it. 
Under  their  baneful  rule  it  has  gradually  dwindled  down  to  its 
present  insignificant  condition,  and  only  thirty  or  forty  families  of 
poor  Moslem  fellahin  and  Bedawin  shepherds  now  find  shelter 
amidst  the  vast  ruins  of  the  Roman  capital  of  Arabia. 

Do  you  suppose  that  Sulkhad  occupies  the  site  of  Salchah  or 
Salcah,  mentioned  by  Moses  and  Joshua  in  connection  with  the 
Hebrew  conquests  on  this  “side  Jordan  toward  the  sunrising?” 

Almost  nothing  is  known  about  the  long  history  of  Salcah,  ex¬ 
tending  over  a  period  of  more  than  three  thousand  years,  and 
some  writers  have  not  accepted  the  traditional  identification,  but 
I  think  their  objections  are  based  upon  insufficient  grounds.  In 
“the  story  of  the  conquest”  Moses  says,  “Then  we  turned  and 
went  up  by  the  way  of  Bashan  :  and  Og,  the  king  of  Bashan,  came 
out  against  us,  and  we  took  all  his  cities  and  all  Bashan  unto  Sal- 


THE  SALCAH  OF  THE  BIBLE.— FORTRESS  AND  ANCIENT  TOWN.  527 

chah.”1  Joshua  mentions  Og  as  reigning  in  Salcah,  and  includes 
in  his  territory  “  all  Bashan  unto  Salcah.” 2  About  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  later  we  read  that  “the  children  of  Gad  dwelt  in 
the  land  of  Bashan  unto  Salcah.” 3  These  are  all  the  Biblical 
notices,  and  from  them  we  are  justified  in  locating  Salcah  some¬ 
where  in  this  neighborhood,  at  the  extreme  eastern  limit  of  the 
Hebrew  territory  on. this  side  Jordan. 

“The  most  striking  feature  of  Sulkhad,”  says  Dr.  Merrill,  “is  its 
great  castle,  which,  indeed,  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  landmarks 
in  all  the  Bashan  plain.  It  is  built  in  the  mouth  of  an  extinct 
crater,  on  a  conical  swell  or  rise  composed  of  porous  lava  rock.  The 
hill  itself  is  three  hundred  feet  high,  and  the  rim  of  the  crater  con¬ 
sists  of  ashes  and  cinders,  while  near  the  foot  of  the  mound  the 
volcanic  rock  appears.  As  the  crater  is  bowl-shaped,  there  is  a  deep 
natural  moat  entirely  around  the  castle,  and  the  fortress  is  ap¬ 
proached  by  a  bridge  over  this  moat. 

“  The  walls  of  the  castle  are  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  high. 
The  interior  is  a  perfect  labyrinth  of  halls,  galleries,  chambers,  and 
vaults,  which  are  now  in  a  very  confused  and  ruined  state.  There 
is  a  long  Arabic  inscription  here,  and  also  several  in  Greek,  and  on 
the  stones  many  masons’  marks  appear.  There  are  a  good  many 
busts,  lions,  eagles,  and  other  figures  sculptured  upon  the  walls. 
Near  the  gate  [and  on  the  exterior  wall]  are  two  colossal  lions  facing 
each  other,  and  between  them  is  a  palm-tree.  [The  importance  of 
Sulkhad]  as  a  frontier  fortress  must  always  have  been  great,  and 
there  are  good  reasons  for  regarding  it  as  the  fortress  captured  by 
Judas  Maccabeus  after  he  had  taken  Bosora,  the  modern  Busrah.”  4 

The  ancient  town  was  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  mound,  and  is 
entirely  hidden  by  it  from  view.  In  the  early  part  of  this  century 
the  place  was  quite  deserted,  owing  principally  to  its  lack  of  good 
water ;  but  it  has  been  gradually  reoccupied,  and  it  now  has  a  con¬ 
siderable  population  composed  mostly  of  Druses  from  the  Lebanon. 
It  was  visited  by  Dr.  Porter  in  1854,  and  he  has  given  a  graphic 
description  of  the  impression  its  deserted  condition  made  upon  his 
mind  at  that  time.  “On  approaching  Sulkhad,”  he  says,  “we  rode 


1  Deut.  iii.  1-10. 
3  1  Chron.  v.  11. 


2  Josh.  xii.  5  ;  xiii.  11. 

4  East  of  the  Jordan,  pp.  50,  53. 


528  the  land  and  the  book. 

through  an  old  cemetery,  and  then,  passing  the  ruins  of  an  ancient 
gate,  entered  the  streets  of  the  deserted  city.  The  open  doors,  the 
empty  houses,  the  rank  grass  and  weeds,  the  long  straggling  bram¬ 
bles  in  the  door-ways  and  windows  formed  a  strange  and  impressive 
picture.  Street  after  street  we  traversed,  the  tread  of  our  horses 


KULA’T  SULKHAD — CASTLE  OF  SALCHAH. 


awakening  mournful  echoes  and  startling  the  foxes  from  their  dens 
in  the  palaces  of  Salcah.  Reaching  an  open  paved  area,  in  front 
of  the  principal  mosque,  we  committed  our  horses  to  the  keeping 
of  Mahmood,  who  tied  them  up,  unslung  his  gun,  and  sat  down  to 
act  the  part  of  sentry,  while  we  explored  the  city. 

“  The  view  [from  the  castle]  is  wide  and  wonderfully  interest- 


VIEW  FROM  SULKHAD  CASTLE.— EL  KUREIYEH,  KERIOTH.  529 

ing;  it  embraces  the  whole  southern  slopes  of  the  mountains,  which, 
though  rocky,  are  covered  from  bottom  to  top  with  artificial  ter¬ 
races,  and  fields  divided  by  [low  stone  walls  or]  fences.  From  their 
base  the  plain  of  Bashan  stretches  out  on  the  west  to  Hermon  ;  the 
plain  of  Moab  on  the  south  to  the  horizon  ;  and  the  plain  of  Arabia 
on  the  east,  beyond  the  range  of  vision.  Wherever  I  turned  my 
eyes,  towns  and  villages  were  seen.  Bozrah  was  there  on  its  plain, 
twelve  miles  distant.  The  towers  of  Beth-gamul  [Um  el  Jemal] 
were  faintly  visible  far  away  on  the  horizon.  To  the  south-east 
an  ancient  road  runs  straight  across  the  plain  far  as  the  eye  can  see. 
From  this  one  spot  I  saw  upwards  of  thirty  deserted  towns!  Well 
might  I  exclaim  with  the  prophet,  as  I  sat  on  the  ruins  of  this 
great  fortress  and  looked  over  that  mournful  scene  of  utter  desola¬ 
tion,  ‘Judgment  is  come  upon  the  plain  country,  upon  Keriathaim, 
and  upon  Beth-gamul,  and  upon  Kerioth,  upon  Bozrah,  and  upon 
all  the  cities  of  the  land  of  Moab,  far  and  near.’  ” 1 

The  village  of  el  Kureiyeh,  in  this  neighborhood,  is  supposed  to 
be  the  modern  representative  of  the  ancient  Kerioth  included  in 
the  judgment  upon  Beth-gamul,  Bozrah,  and  all  the  other  cities  in 
the  land  of  Moab,  is  it  not? 

When  the  identity  of  el  Busrah  and  Um  el  Jemal  themselves 
can  be  established  with  Bozrah  and  Beth-gamul,  then  it  may 
fairly  be  inferred  that  el  Kureiyeh  is  merely  the  Arabic  form  of 
the  Hebrew  Kerioth,  and  that  both  places  are  the  same  in  name 
as  well  as  in  location.  It  appears  to  have  been  a  doomed  city 
in  the  time  of  Amos,  for  we  read,  “  Thus  saith  the  Lord,  I  will 
send  a  fire  upon  Moab,  and  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  of  Kirioth 
and  besides  the  judgment  pronounced  upon  it,  nearly  two  hundred 
years  later,  by  Jeremiah,  that  prophet  informs  us  that  “  Kerioth  is 
taken,  and  the  strongholds  [in  Moab]  are  surprised.” 2  But  we 
know  even  less  of  its  Biblical  story  than  that  of  Salchah,  and 
scarcely  anything  of  its  secular  history. 

The  ruins  at  el  Kureiyeh,  though  not  important  nor  imposing, 
are  quite  extensive,  and  consist  of  several  square  towers,  a  large 
reservoir,  the  remains  of  a  few  public  buildings,  and  many  private 

1  Jer.  xlviii.  21-24  ;  Bashan  and  its  Giant  Cities,  pp.  76,  77. 

2  Amos  ii.  1,  2  ;  Jer.  xlviii.  41. 


530 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


habitations,  some  of  which  have  very  thick  walls  and  heavy  stone 
doors.  The  reservoir  is  near  the  centre  of  the  town,  and  was  sur¬ 
rounded  by  a  stone  wall.  Adjacent  to  it  is  a  singular  structure, 
with  a  portico  consisting  of  three  rows  of  columns,  six  in  each  row, 
supporting  a  flat  roof.  A  broad  flight  of  seven  steps,  extending 
the  whole  length  of  the  portico,  led  from  the  first  row  of  columns 
up  to  the  third.  From  a  Greek  inscription  on  a  stone  upon  one  of 
the  steps  we  learn  that  the  reservoir  was  constructed  during  the 
second  century  of  the  Bostrian  era,  or  about  A.D.  296. 

In  the  fourth  century  el  Kureiyeh  appears  to  have  been  the 
seat  of  a  bishop  in  one  of  the  ecclesiastical  districts  dependent 
upon  Bozrah,  and  from  its  position  on  the  confines  of  the  eastern 
desert  it  must  always  have  been  a  frontier  town  of  considerable 
importance.  Since  the  conquest  of  this  part  of  the  country  by  the 
Muhammedans,  el  Kureiyeh  has  dwindled  into  insignificance,  and, 
like  most  of  the  ancient  towns  in  the  Hauran,  it  has  often  been 
entirely  deserted.  When  Burckhardt  visited  it,  only  four  of  its  seven 
or  eight  hundred  houses  were  inhabited,  but  thirty  years  ago  Dr. 
Porter  spent  a  night  at  el  Kureiyeh,  and  was  hospitably  entertained 
by  the  celebrated  Druse  sheikh  Isma’il  el  Atrash,  who  then  resided 
in  the  place,  and  he  found  upward  of  one  hundred  houses  occupied 
by  at  least  as  many  Druse  families. 


EL  BUSRAH  TO  DER’A  AND  JERASH. 


531 


XIV. 

EL  BUSRAH  TO  DER’A  AND  JERASH. 

The  Country  between  el  Busrah  and  Jerash. — Plain  of  el  Hauran. — Roman  Road. — 
Boundary  Line  between  Gilead  and  Bashan.  —  Few  Villages. — Volcanic  Waste. — 
Waving  Wheat  and  Barley. — Broken  Lava.— -Remarkable  History  of  the  Hauran. — 
Migration  of  Abraham. — The  Region  West  and  East  of  the  Jordan. — A  Fierce  Race. 
— The  Rephaims,  Zuzims,  Emims,  Horites. — The  Invasions  of  Chedorlaomer. — March 
around  the  South  End  of  the  Dead  Sea. — En-misphat. — Amalekites,  Amorites. — Defeat 
of  the  Five  Kings. — Capture  of  Sodom. — Lot  carried  away  Captive. — Pursuit  of  Chedor¬ 
laomer  by  Abraham. — Night  Attack. — Recovery  of  Lot  and  Restoration  of  the  other 
Captives. — Melchizedek. — Salem,  Jerusalem. — A  March  of  about  two  thousand  Miles. 
— Arrival  of  the  Hebrews  led  by  Moses. —  Moabites,  Ammonites,  Amorites. —  Sihon 
and  Og. — Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  Half  Tribe  of  Manasseh. — Captives  in  Mesopotamia. 
— Assyrians,  Babylonians,  and  Persians. — Alexander  the  Great. — The  Ptolemies  and 
the  Seleucidae. — The  Romans. — Byzantines  and  Muhammedans. — Illustration  of  the 
Sacred  Record  by  the  Physical  Features  of  the  Country  and  the  Manners  and  Customs 
of  the  People. — Ishmael. — The  Promise  to  Hagar  wonderfully  fulfilled. — Ishmaelites. 
— Muhammedanism. — Ishmael  the  Ancestor  of  the  Moslems. — Divine  Predictions  con¬ 
cerning  the  Descendants  of  Abi'aham. —  The  River  Zeidy. — Ghusam. — Central  Parts 
of  Plains  destitute  of  Villages. — Agricultural  Hamlets. — Various  Native  Races. — 
Nebaioth,  Nabatheans. — Caravan  Trade  between  Arabia,  India,  and  Africa. — Petra, 
Sellah. — The  Nabatheans  unconquered  by  the  Persians,  Greeks,  or  Romans. — Expedi¬ 
tion  of  ZElius  Gallus. — Ruin  of  the  Nabatheans  by  the  Abandonment  of  the  Arabian 
Caravan  Lines. — Aretas.  —  Paul.  —  Herod  Antipas. — John  the  Baptist. — The  Ghas- 
sanide. — Palmyra. — Zenobia. — Indigenous  Tribes. — Roman  Bridge  over  the  Zeidy. — 
Traces  of  Chariot-wheels. — Et  Taiyibeh. — Large  Tower. — Um  el  Meiyadin. — Volcanic 
Rock  and  Cretaceous  Limestone. — Hill-sides  aglow  with  red  Anemones. — Villages. — 
Ghurs. — Camels  carrying  Wheat  to  Acre. — Caravan  Route. — Company  of  Ishmaelites. 
— Balm  of  Gilead. — Joseph  sold  into  Egypt. — Fanatical  Moslems. — Turkish  Firman. — 
M.  Waddington. — The  Capital  City  of  Og. — The  Hebrew  Invasion  and  the  Conquest 
of  Bashan. — Edhr’a,  Edrei. — Der’a,  Adara. —  The  Onomasticon  and  the  Pentinger 
Table. — Eusebius. — Muhammedan  Conquest. — Situation  of  the  Ancient  Town  and  the 
Modern  Village  of  Der’a. —  Extensive  Cemetery. —  Prospect  from  Tell  Iverak. — El 
Jaulan,  Lake  Huleh,  and  Mount  Hermon. — Tell  'Ashtarah. — Ashteroth  Karnaim. — 

N  2 


532 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


The  principal  Divinity  of  the  Phoenicians. — Temple  at  Carnaim. — The  Maccabees. — 
Atargatis. — Twenty-five  Thousand  slain  at  Carnaim. — Josephus. — The  Onomasticon. 
— Eusebius. — Dr.  Merrill’s  Description  of  Tell  ’Ashtarah. — A  strongly  fortified  Place. 
— Cyclopean  Remains. — Massive  Entrance. — Timotheus’s  defeated  Army. — Large  rock- 
cut  Reservoir. — Roman  Baths. — Aqueduct. — Mosk  and  square  Tower. — Sarcophagus 
with  Lion’s  Head. —  Church  and  Monastery. — Remains  of  an  ancient  Structure. — 
Masons’  Marks. — Three  Cities,  one  beneath  the  other. — Dr.  Wetzstein’s  Subterranean 
Residence  of  Og. — Crusaders  at  Der’a. — Ragged  Arab  Tents. — Bedawin,  Gypsies,  and 
Vagabonds.  — Fortune  -  telling. —  Burning  Straw.  —  Romping  Children.  —  Abundant 
Harvests. — Blasted  Plain. — Luxuriant- Grass,- waving  Wheat,  and  brilliant  Flowers. — 
Mountainous  and  wooded  Region. — Cities  of  the  Decapolis. — The  Zeidy. — Cascades 
and  Rapids.  —  Country  east  of  the  Jordan  dotted -with  Villages,  abandoned  to  the 
Bedawin. — Dr.  Merrill’s  Search  for  the  ancient  Golan. — Wady  or  Nahr  ’Allan. — Beit 
er  Ras,  Capitolias. — Roman  Road. — Ruins  of  Public  Buildings  and  great  Arches. — 
Corinthian  and  Ionic  Columns. — Ornamental  Work  and  fine  Eagles. — Inscriptions. — 
Underground  City. — Subterranean  Dwellings. — Irbid. — Cyclopean  Walls  described  by 
Dr.  Merrill. — Substructures  of  strong  Towers. — Arbela. — Beth-arbel. — Eidun,  Dion. 
— Haj  Road. — Pilgrim  Caravan  to  Mecca. — Burckhardt  at  Remtheh. — Last  inhabited 
Village  of  the  Hauran. — Cavernous  Habitations  at  Remtheh. — Dr.  Merrill’s  Experi¬ 
ence  at  Remtheh. — No  Water  for  Ten  Hours. — Migration  of  the  Wulid  ’Aly. — “  One 
hundred  thousand  Camels.” — Contrivance  for  the  Comfort  of  the  Sheikhs’  Wives. — 
The  Ship  of  the  Desert. — Bedawin  Migrations  and  Hebrew  Invasions. — Distress  of 
Moab. — Pasture  and  Provender  for  the  Camels  and  Caravans  of  the  Bedawin. — Life 
of  the  wandering  Ishmaelites. —  Contempt  for  the  Fellahin. — The  Denizens  of  the 
Desert  number  Hundreds  of  Thousands. — Wooded  Hills.  —  Hawarah. — Beautiful  and 
Productive  Region. — Tell  Husn. — Ruined  Castle. — Church  and  Columns. — Rock-cut 
Tombs.  —  El  Husn. —  No  Fountains. —  Dry  Cisterns.  —  Greeks,  Muhammedans,  and 
Protestants. — No  Distinction  in  Dress  and  Manners  between  the  different  Sects. — 
Freedom  of  Speech  and  Action. — Extensive  Forest. — Mahneh. — Canon  Tristram. — 
Biblical  References  to  Mahanaim. — A  Levitical  City. — The  Capital  of  Ish-bosheth. — 
The  Refuge  of  David. — The  Chamber  over  the  Gate  at  Mahanaim. — David’s  Grief 
at  the  Death  of  Absalom. — A  Station  of  Solomon’s  Purveyors. — Josephus. — Site  of 
Mahanaim  described  by  Modern  Writers.  —  Beisan.  —  Suggestion  of  Dr.  Porter  and 
Conclusion  of  Dr.  Merrill. — Jegar-sahadutha  and  Mizpah. — Galeecl  or  Watch-tower. — - 
Josephus. — The  Land  of  Gilead. — Covenant  between  Laban  and  Jacob. — False  Gods 
in  the  Family  of  Jacob. — The  Call  of  Abraham. — Jacob  at  Mahanaim. — Jacob  liideth 
the  Strange  Gods. — Worship  of  the  True  God  at  Beth-el. — Oppressive  Heat. — Birket 
ed  Deir. — Thousands  of  Flowers. — Cultivated  Region. — Forest  of  Oak,  Pine,  Tere¬ 
binth,  and  Hawthorn. — Um  el  Khanzir. — Shepherds,  Milk,  and  fine  Flocks. — Ride 
through  the  Forest  in  the  Land  of  Gilead.  —  Pine-trees.  —  Forest  Fires. — Wheat 
amongst  Blackened  Stumps. — Wady  ed  Deir. — Camp  amongst  Olive-trees. — Village 
of  es  Suf. — Jerash  Deserted  and  Unsafe. 

September  23d. 

As  Jerash  —  the  most  important  place  we  wish  to  reach  from 
here  —  is  nearly  south  of  el  Busrah,  why  do  we  take  this  long 


ft 


GILEAD  AND  BASH  AN.— ROMAN  ROAD.— PLAIN  OF  EL  HAURAN.  533 

circuitous  route  of  over  seven  hours  to  the  north-west  ?  We  shall 
be  farther,  I  suppose,  from  Jerash  at  Der’a,  where  you  propose 
to  spend  the  night,  than  we  are  now. 

The  country  between  el  Busrah  and  Jerash  is  an  uninhabited 
desert — a  no  man’s  land — over  which  roam  only  bands  of  lawless 
Bedawin.  Even  caravans  rarely  venture  to  cross  it,  and  we  must 
necessarily  take  this  route  to  get  round  it.  But  the  time  will  not 
be  lost ;  our  course  will  take  us  across  the  plain  of  el  Hauran,  at  its 
broadest  part,  and  will  make  us  better  acquainted  with  it  than 
otherwise  we  should  have  been.  The  old  Roman  road,  also,  which 
we  shall  follow  for  some  distance,  is  not  without  interest,  especially 
because  it  passes  near  the  boundary  -  line  between  Bashan  and 
Gilead,  the  two  great  districts  into  which  the  region  east  of  the 
Jordan  was  divided  in  ancient  times. 

Those  names  are  familiar  to  readers  of  the  Bible,  and  the  fact 
that  we  shall  have  both  districts  in  view  will  relieve  the  mo¬ 
notony  of  our  ride  through  this  dreary  region.  Der’a,  also,  I  sup¬ 
pose,  occupies  the  site  of  an  old  town,  and  must  be  well  worth 
visiting  for  its  own  sake.  There  seem  to  be  very  few  villages  along 
the  road,  and  none  of  any  importance,  and  the  plain  is  apparently 
as  bare  and  lifeless  as  the  desert  itself. 

The  crops  have  all  been  gathered  in,  and  the  surface  now  pre¬ 
sents  only  a  dry  volcanic  waste;  but  when  the  autumn  rains  com¬ 
mence,  the  whole  aspect  of  this  vast  plain  of  el  Hauran  will  quick¬ 
ly  change,  as  if  by  magic,  to  a  brilliant  green.  Pass  this  way  in  the 
spring,  and  you  will  find  it  a  boundless  expanse  of  waving  wheat 
and  barley,  promising  abundant  harvests  a  few  months  later. 

I  notice  that  the  ground  is  everywhere  strewn  with  fragments  of 
broken  lava  in  countless  numbers,  but  they  are  not  large  enough, 
evidently,  to  injure  the  crops. 

They  do  not  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  grain,  and  the 
yield  is  as  great  here  as  in  those  central  portions  of  the  plain  where 
the  soil  is  composed  of  dark  volcanic  ashes.  Desolate  and  forlorn 
as  most  of  the  Hauran  is  at  present,  it  has  been  connected  with 
some  remarkable  events,  originating  in  the  earliest  historic  times  of 
which  there  is  any  authentic  record.  Our  acquaintance  with  the 
country  west  of  the  Jordan  begins  with  the  arrival  of  Abraham  at 


534 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Shechem.  But  previous  to  his  migration  from  Haran  to  Canaan 
the  region  east  of  that  river  was  inhabited  by  a  fierce  race  of  men 
divided  into  several  tribes,  who  may  have  dwelt  in  this  part  of 
the  country  from  remote  antiquity,  and  long  before  the  invasions 
of  Chedorlaomer  and  his  confederate  kings. 

From  the  fourteenth  chapter  of  Genesis  we  learn  the  names  of 
various  tribes  who  then  occupied  this  land.  The  Rephaims  dwelt 
in  Ashteroth  Karnaim,  a  place  probably  at  or  near  Tell  ’Ashtarah, 
which  we  shall  see  this  evening  from  the  hill  above  Der’a.  A  peo¬ 
ple  called  thfe  Zuzims  lived  in  Ham,  wherever  that  may  have  been  ; 
the  Emims  dwelt  in  Shaveh  Kiriathaim,  “and  the  Horites  in  their 
mount  Seir,  unto  El-paran.”  Chedorlaomer  and  his  confederate 
kings  extended  his  invasion  as  far  south  at  least  as  the  Dead  Sea, 
including  Sodom  and  its  associate  cities.  Twelve  years  the  inhab¬ 
itants  submitted,  and  then  they  rebelled  against  their  foreign  con¬ 
querors.  In  the  fourteenth  year  after  Chedorlaomer’s  first  invasion 
he  returned,  “  and  the  kings  that  were  with  him,”  to  quell  the  re¬ 
bellion  and  re-impose  his  own  authority. 

Chedorlaomer  smote  all  those  tribes,  and  continued  his  victorious 
march  around  the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  out  into  the  wilder¬ 
ness,  and  then  “  returned  and  came  to  En-misphat  which  is  Kadesh,” 
where  Moses,  four  centuries  later,  encamped  when  he  sent  the  spies 
to  explore  the  land  of  Canaan.  Having  subdued  the  Amalekites 
in  that  region,  Chedorlaomer  led  his  army  back  homeward  along 
the  west  side  of  the  Dead  Sea,  “  and  smote  the  Amorites  that  dwelt 
in  Hazezon-tamar  ”  or  En-gedi.  From  that  place  he  proceeded  to 
attack  the  kings  of  the  five  cities  of  the  plain,  captured  Sodom,  and 
carried  away  the  inhabitants,  including  Lot,  the  nephew  of  Abra¬ 
ham.  Continuing  his  march  northward,  up  the  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
Chedorlaomer  was  overtaken  by  Abraham  and  the  “  three  hundred 
and  eighteen  trained  servants,  born  in  his  own  house,”  and  utterly 
defeated  at  Dan,  under  Mount  Hermon. 

It  was  a  night  attack,  and  Abraham  smote  the  host  of  Chedor¬ 
laomer  “and  pursued  them  unto  Hobah,  which  is  on  the  left  of 
Damascus.”  Having  recovered  Lot,  Abraham  returned  and  restored 
the  other  captives  to  the  king  of  Sodom,  and  he  was  blessed  by 
Melchizedek,  “  the  priest  of  the  most  high  God,”  who  reigned  in 


THE  ANCIENT  NATIONS  EAST  OF  THE  JORDAN.  535 

righteousness  and  peace  at  Salem — generally  supposed  to  be  Jeru¬ 
salem.  Thus  ended  one  of  the  first  military  expeditions  of  which 
there  is  any  detailed  account  in  authentic  history.  Including  the 
more  distant  countries  over  which  Chedorlaomer  and  the  confed¬ 
erate  kings  reigned,  their  invasion  of  this  region,  “beyond  Jordan, 
eastward,”  from  the  distant  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates, 
implies  a  march  of  about  one  thousand  miles  —  an  extraordinary 
undertaking  for  that  early  day,  and  one  that  could  only  have  been 
achieved  by  the  despotic  ruler  of  a  nation  with  a  stable  govern¬ 
ment  and  a  well-appointed  military  organization. 

What  occurred  here  during  the  four  succeeding  centuries  after 
that  invasion  can  be  partly  inferred,  or  imagined,  from  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  country  when  the  Hebrews,  led  by  Moses  through  the 
wilderness  east  of  Moab,  arrived  from  Ezion-gaber,  “  and  pitched  in 
the  mountains  of  Abarim,  before  Nebo.”  The  old  inhabitants  had 
all  disappeared;  we  hear  no  more  of  the  Zuzims,  the  Emims,  and 
the  Horites.  Instead  of  them  the  names  of  new  races  and  tribes 
occur:  Moabites  dwelt  on  the  high  plateau  east  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  Ammonites  had  possession  of  the  region  around  the  head¬ 
waters  of  the  Jabbok,  while  the  warlike  Amorites  occupied  the  cen¬ 
tral  parts  of  the  country  between  them,  with  Sihon,  their  king,  on 
the  south,  and  Og,  king  of  Bashan,  on  the  north. 

Those  two  kings  were  destroyed  by  the  Hebrews,  and  their  ter¬ 
ritory  divided  between  Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh.  They,  in  their  turn,  were  harassed  and  gradually  overcome  by 
the  Syrians  of  Damascus,  and  ultimately  carried  away  captive  to 
Mesopotamia  by  the  Assyrians,  the  Babylonians,  and  the  Persians. 
After  them  came  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  Graeco-Macedonians, 
and  the  Ptolemies  and  the  Seleucidae  held  possession  of  the  coun¬ 
try  down  to  the  advent  of  the  all-conquering  Romans,  shortly  be¬ 
fore  the  beginning  of  our  era.  Their  Byzantine  successors  main¬ 
tained  a  feeble  and  doubtful  sway  over  the  land  until  the  early  part 
of  the  seventh  century,  when  the  fierce  and  fanatical  Muhammedans 
from  Arabia  swept  them  away,  and  overran  the  entire  country  east 
of  the  Jordan;  and  they  have  held  it  ever  since,  to  its  utter  ruin 
and  entire  demoralization. 

In  glancing  thus  briefly  at  the  various  races,  tribes,  and  nation- 


536 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


alities  that  have  occupied  this  region  during  the  four  thousand  years 
and  more  of  the  past,  we  do  not  depart  from  the  main  purpose  of 
our  travels.  In  no  other  way  can  some  of  the  ancient  records  in 
the  sacred  volume  be  so  strikingly  verified  and  illustrated  as  by 
studying  the  physical  features  of  this  country  and  the  manners  and 
customs,  the  laws  and  religions  of  the  people  who  once  occupied  it, 
and  compare  them  with  the  regions  we  pass  through  and  the  in¬ 
habitants  of  the  land  as  we  see  them  to-day. 

The  latter  are  the  direct,  remote,  or  collateral  descendants  of 
Abraham  and  the  other  patriarchs  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  they 
still  dwell  in  the  regions  originally  assigned  to  them  in  those  early 
historic  times.  Ishmael,  the  son  of  Hagar,  the  Egyptian  bondwom¬ 
an,  was  the  first-born  to  Abraham,  and  in  regard  to  him  the  prom¬ 
ise  of  the  Lord  made  to  his  outcast  mother  has  been  most  won¬ 
derfully  fulfilled:  —  “I  will  multiply  thy  seed  exceedingly,  that  it 
shall  not  be  numbered  for  multitude.  And  he  will  be  a  wild  man ; 
his  hand  will  be  against  every  man,  and  every  man’s  hand  against 
him;  and  he  shall  dwell  in  the  presence  of  all  his  brethren.”' 

One  hundred  and  forty  years  after  the  invasion  of  Chedorlaomer 
we  find  that  the  Ishmaelites  had  greatly  multiplied  and  had  spread 
over  the  southern  desert,  “  from  Havilah  unto  Shur,  that  is  before 
Eg  ypt,”  according  to  the  promise.2  And  there  they  are  to  this  day, 
possessing  the  special  characteristics  of  their  great  ancestor,  follow¬ 
ing  the  same  mode  of  life,  dwelling  in  tents,  wearing  the  same  kind 
of  garments,  and  speaking  substantially  the  same  language.  Mu- 
hammedanism,  which  crushed  out  of  existence  so  many  other  races 
and  tribes  between  the  upper  and  nether  millstone  of  its  sanguinary 
creed,  has  effected  no  essential  change  among  the  Ishmaelites  during 
the  past  twelve  centuries  of  Moslem  domination.  In  some  impor¬ 
tant  respects  it  has  not  only  perpetuated  their  peculiar  traits  but 
contributed  greatly  to  the  expansion  of  the  race  itself. 

Do  you  include  the  followers  of  the  Arabian  Prophet  in  that 
multitude  of  Ishmael’s  descendants  that  could  not  be  numbered? 

Without  accepting  the  Muhammedan  legends  in  regard  to  the 
founding  of  Mecca  and  the  erection  of  the  Caaba  by  Abraham  and 
his  son  Ishmael,  still  the  fact  remains  that  the  Muhammedans  claim 

1  Gen.  xvi.  io,  12. 


2  Gen.  xxv.  18. 


PROMISE  TO  II AGAR.— EZ  ZEIDY.— VILLAGES  ON  THE  PLAINS.  537 

Ishmael  as  their  remote  ancestor  and  profess  to  be  Ishmaelites,  in¬ 
heriting  the  religion  of  Abraham,  with  its  promises  and  blessings 
included ;  and  in  their  long  and  varied  career  they  have  exhibited 
the  very  same  characteristic  traits  ascribed  to  Ishmael.  Their  hand, 
also,  has  been  against  every  man,  and  every  man’s  hand  against 
them,  and  yet  they  still  dwell  in  the  presence  of  all  their  brethren, 
in  the  centre  of  the  Old  World,  a  defiance  and  a  menace  to  the 
surrounding  nations  whether  pagan  or  Christian. 

The  promise  to  Hagar  thus  expanded  is,  to  say  the  least,  very 
suggestive  and  exceedingly  impressive. 

It  would  be  easy  to  show  that  the  divine  predictions  concerning 
the  other  descendants  of  Abraham  and  the  patriarchs — the  Edom¬ 
ites,  Moabites,  and  Ammonites — were  remarkably  fulfilled,  both  as 
to  their  homes  in  these  regions  and  to  their  rapid  extension  and 
multiplication  ;  but  we  may  have  occasion  to  resume  this  subject 
when  we  come  to  the  lands  which  were  occupied  by  those  peo¬ 
ple;  and  though  these  and  kindred  topics  are  quite  appropriate  to 
the  country  through  which  we  are  journeying  we  must  not  be  so 
absorbed  in  subjects  far  away  as  not  to  notice  the  objects  of  inter¬ 
est  that  lie  along  our  present  pathway. 

I  have  been  wanting,  for  the  last  half  hour,  to  inquire  the  name 
of  the  river  on  our  right  and  of  the  pretty  village  upon  its  bank. 

The  river  is  called  Nahr  ez  Zeidy,  and  it  drains  the  country  west 
of  the  Lejah  and  most  of  the  slopes  of  Jebel  Hauran  to  the  north¬ 
east  of  el  Busrah.  We  crossed  it  on  the  bridge  near  Jemurrin,  half 
an  hour  north  of  el  Busrah,  and  shall  soon  cross  it  again.  The 
name  of  the  village  is  Ghusam,  and  it,  no  doubt,  occupies  the  site 
of  an  ancient  town,  as  shown  by  the  ruins  of  some  large  buildings — 
the  remains  of  a  church  and  the  existence  of  high  gates  with  massive 
stone  doors.  There  are  many  other  hamlets  near  by  and  far  away 
on  the  plain,  but  there  is  nothing  remarkable  about  them. 

We  have  noticed  before  this  that  the  central  parts  of  such  plains 
were  generally  destitute  of  large  villages,  important  ruins,  or  ancient 
monuments,  and  at  this  day  we  see  around  us  only  small  agricultural 
hamlets,  the  homes  of  the  peasants  who  cultivate  the  fields  adjacent 
to  their  habitations.  But  it  is  important  to  remember  that  there 
has  always  been  an  indestructible,  native  element  in  the  population 


538  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

of  this  region.  Various  native  races  and  tribes  have  existed  here 
from  remotest  times,  and  they  survived  the  tide  of  foreign  nationali¬ 
ties  that  ebbed  and  flowed  around  them  down  to  the  last  centuries 
before  our  era.  The  most  celebrated  native  tribes,  in  times  compar¬ 
atively  modern,  were  the  Nabathean  and  the  Ghassanide. 

Who  were  the  Nabatheans?  We  hear  of  them  in  this  region, 
and  have  seen  their  inscriptions  in  some  of  the  places  we  have 
visited  during  our  journey  south  of  Damascus. 

They  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  descendants  of  Ishmael’s 
eldest  son,  Nebaioth,  and  were  originally  a  nomad  tribe — a  pastoral 
people  much  like  the  Bedawin  Arabs  of  the  eastern  desert.  They 
appear  to  have  occupied  Northern  Arabia,  and  probably  extended 
from  the  lower  valley  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  shore  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  the  Red  Sea  and  the  confines  of  Egypt.  Eventually  most 
of  the  Nabatheans  seem  to  have  abandoned  tent -life  and  built 
towns  and  cities.  They  became  actively  engaged  in  commerce,  and 
for  many  centuries  almost  the  entire  trade  between  Arabia,  India, 
and  Eastern  Africa  was  carried  on  by  their  countless  caravans — 
north  to  Syria,  east  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  west  to  Gaza  and  Egypt, 
and  southward  through  Central  Arabia  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  The 
celebrated  Petra  —  the  Sellah,  probably,  of  the  Bible  —  was  their 
capital  and  the  centre  of  their  trade  and  traffic. 

They  became  wealthy,  civilized,  and  powerful,  able  to  defend 
themselves  against  foreign  enemies  —  whether  Persians,  Greeks,  or 
Romans — nor  were  they  ever  effectually  conquered  by  them.  The 
Persian  invaders  were  always  defeated,  and  the  only  Roman  expedi¬ 
tion  into  their  dominions — that  of  Avlius  Gallus,  in  the  time  of  Au¬ 
gustus — was  an  utter  failure.  A  more  insidious  enemy,  however, 
against  which  the  unconquerable  deserts  could  not  protect  the 
Nabatheans,  ultimately  overpowered  the  entire  race.  They  grew 
great  and  wealthy  through  commerce  alone,  and  when  that  failed 
they  succumbed  and  sunk  into  insignificance.  The  Graeco-Roman 
merchants  discovered  that  the  passage  through  the  Gulf  of  Suez 
and  Egypt  was  shorter,  cheaper,  and  safer  for  Oriental  commerce, 
and  thus  the  Elanitic  branch  of  the  Red  Sea  was  forsaken,  and  the 
Arabian  caravan  lines  of  trade  were  abandoned. 

Some  of  the  Nabathean  princes  rose  to  high  station  and  were 


JOHN  THE  BAPTIST.— THE  GHASSANIDE.— ROMAN  BRIDGE.  539 

recognized  as  kings  even  by  Roman  emperors,  and  one  is  mentioned 
under  the  title  of  Aretas  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Antiochus.1 

Was  the  Aretas  whose  governor  “  kept  the  city  [of  Damascus] 
with  a  garrison,  desirous  to  apprehend  ”  Paul,  a  Nabathean?2 

No  doubt,  and  probably  he  was  the  same  Aretas  whose  daughter, 
married  to  Herod  Antipas,  was  divorced  by  him  at  the  instigation 
of  Herodias,  his  brother  Philip’s  wife.  To  avenge  that  insult  to  his 
daughter,  Aretas  declared  war  against  Herod  and  utterly  defeated 
him — a  calamity  which,  Josephus  says,  was  generally  regarded  by 
the  Jews  as  a  judgment  upon  Herod  for  the  murder  of  John  the 
Baptist,  whom  he  beheaded  to  please  the  vindictive  Herodias.3 

The  Ghassanide  were  of  Arabian  origin,  mostly  immigrants  from 
the  central  and  western  parts  of  the  peninsula.  They  settled  along 
the  southern  and  eastern  borders  of  Syria,  and  finally  spread  over 
the  desert  to  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates.  They  were  divided  into 
many  distinct  tribes,  some  of  which  became  civilized  and  occupied 
large  and  flourishing  cities.  We  need  only  instance  Palmyra  and 
its  noble  queen,  Zenobia,  who  belonged  to  the  Ghassanide  people. 
At  one  time  they  professed  Christianity  and  built  numerous  monas¬ 
teries,  but  the  irruption  of  the  Muhammedans  into  this  country 
ultimately  extinguished  the  Ghassanide  dynasty,  and  their  name 
and  fame  ceased  to  appear  in  Arabian  history.  Similar  indigenous 
tribes,  however,  still  exist,  and  we  may  come  in  contact  with  them 
as  we  penetrate  farther  into  the  region  east  of  the  Jordan  which 
they  claim  as  their  special  domain. 

We  are  now  approaching  the  bridge  over  the  Zeidy,  and  as  it  is 
about  midway  between  el  Busrah  and  Der’a  we  will  rest  there  and 
take  our  lunch  in  the  shade  near  its  eastern  buttress. 

The  river  seems  sluggish  and  not  very  deep. 

I  have  passed  this  way  in  early  spring,  and  the  Zeidy  was  quite 
unfordable.  This  bridge,  of  two  arches,  is  broad  and  substantial 
and  apparently  Roman.  The  traces  of  chariot-wheels  on  the  stone 
pavement  establish  its  claim  to  a  certain  antiquity,  for  no  wheeled 
vehicles  have  passed  over  it,  I  suppose,  for  many  a  century. 

That  village  on  the  south  is  called  et  Taiyibeh,  and  farther  west 
you  can  see  a  large  tower,  which  gives  the  name  of  Um  el  Meh 

1  2  Macc.  v.  8.  2  2  Cor.  xi.  32.  3  Ant.  xviii.  5,  2  ;  Matt.  xiv.  3-12. 


540 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


yadin — Mother  of  Minarets — to  the  village  near  it.  The  nature  of 
the  country  from  here  to  Der’a  changes  from  level  to  hilly,  and 
from  volcanic  rock  to  cretaceous  limestone.  In  the  spring  the  hill¬ 
sides  are  all  aglow  with  red  anemones  and  other  flowers,  bright  and 
gay;  now  they  are  burned  and  brown  under  the  scorching  rays  of 
the  sun  during  the  rainless  months  of  summer. 

As  usual,  villages  increase  on  the  hills  that  border  the  plain, 
and  more  life  and  activity  are  manifest  among  the  inhabitants. 

In  this  valley  into  which  we  are  now  descending,  south  of  that 
village  called  Ghurs,  I  once  found  a  large  caravan  of  camels  that 
were  carrying  wheat  to  Acre.  The  caravan  had  stopped  here  to 
rest,  and  the  camels  were  allowed  to  brouse  upon  the  luxuriant 
pasture.  The  men  were  asleep  on  the  ground  by  the  side  of  the 
loads,  and  I  was  reminded,  by  their  appearance  and  the  road  they 
were  travelling,  that  this  had  been  a  caravan  route  from  remote 
antiquity.  They  would  descend  into  the  profound  gorge  of  the 
Jarmuk  and  cross  the  Jordan  on  the  bridge  called  Jisr  el  Mejami’a, 
the  only  one  now  available  south  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias.  Thence 
they  would  pass  westward  through  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  to  their 
destination  at  Acre.  It  was  probably  by  this  route  that  the  “  com¬ 
pany  of  Ishmaelites  came  from  Gilead,  with  their  camels  bearing 
spicery  and  balm  and  myrrh,  going  to  carry  it  down  to  Egypt,”  to 
whom  Joseph  was  sold  by  his  cruel  brethren.1  The  road  to  Egypt 
then  left  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  at  Dothan,  as  it  does  still. 

We  have  been  making  a  rapid  descent  towards  the  Zeidy,  and 
that  village  on  the  hill  beyond  it  must  be  Der’a,  which  we  have 
come  to  visit.  It  occupies  a  very  commanding  position. 

We  shall  find  our  tents  at  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  the 
town,  where  I  spent  a  Sabbath  many  years  ago.  The  inhabitants 
are  rude,  fanatical  Moslems,  and  it  was  not  easy  to  find  a  suitable 
place  to  encamp.  No  one  would  allow  us  to  pitch  in  any  of  their 
fields,  and  we  were  obliged  to  apply  to  the  sheikh  in  the  name  of 
the  Sultan,  whose  Turkish  firman  we  had  with  us  for  just  such 
emergencies.  With  evident  reluctance  and  disgust  he  pointed  out 
a  vacant  spot  which  we  then  found  quiet  and  well  protected.  There 
is  time  enough  to  make  the  circuit  of  the  place  before  it  grows 

1  Gen.  xxxvii.  25-28. 


CAPITAL  OF  OG.— HEBREW  CONQUEST.— DER’A  AND  EDREI.  541 

dark,  and  in  the  evening  we  will  look  into  the  history  of  the  old 
town  and  its  surroundings. 

Dev’a,  September  23d.  Evening. 

Der’a  is  a  much  larger  place,  and  there  are  more  remains  of  an¬ 
tiquity  about  it  than  I  had  expected  to  find. 

You  are  aware  that  M.  Waddington  and  others  have  maintained 
that  this  is  the  true  site  of  the  Biblical  Edrei  in  which  Og,  the  king 
of  Bashan,  dwelt  when  the  children  of  Israel  invaded  his  territory, 
in  the  time  of  Moses.  But  it  appears  to  be  improbable  that  Og  would 
locate  his  capital  upon  a  hill  in  the  open  country,  on  the  south-west 
border  of  his  kingdom,  at  a  place  that  could  be  so  easily  surrounded 
and  captured,  when  his  dominions  extended  over  all  Bashan,  in¬ 
cluding  “the  region  of  Argob  ”  or  the  Lejah,  with  its  bewildering 
labyrinths  and  extensive  caverns. 

The  Israelites  came  up  from  the  south,  and  Og  probably  retired 
before  them  to  a  town  in  the  natural  fortresses  of  the  Lejah,  and 
there,  as  we  have  seen,  are  the  ruins  of  a  large  and  ancient  city, 
at  Edhr’a — a  name  almost  identical  with  the  Biblical  Edrei.  But 
there  are  no  data,  either  in  the  Bible  or  elsewhere,  sufficiently  ex¬ 
plicit  to  settle  that  question.  Der’a,  however,  is  undoubtedly  the 
Adara  of  the  Onomasticon  and  the  Peutinger  Table,  said  to  have 
been  twenty-four  miles  from  Bosrah  ;  and  it  was  probably  regarded 
by  Eusebius  as  the  Edrei  of  the  Bible.  After  the  Muhammedans 
conquered  the  country,  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventh  century, 
Der’a  is  no  longer  mentioned  as  an  important  place,  and  has  no 
special  history  down  to  the  present  day. 

The  ancient  town  was  situated  upon  a  hill  in  a  bend — almost  a 
loop — of  the  river  Zeidy,  but  the  modern  village  occupies  only  a 
small  part  of  the  former  site.  Including  the  hill  just  north  of  the 
village,  the  circuit  of  the  old  town  must  have  been  more  than  three 
miles.  On  a  former  occasion  I  had  a  long  ramble  about  the  place, 
accompanied  by  the  son  of  the  sheikh.  We  went  first  to  an  ex¬ 
tensive  cemetery,  the  largest  I  have  seen  in  this  region — a  perfect 
wilderness  of  Muhammedan  tombstones.  We  next  ascended  the 
hill,  which  was  once  fortified,  and  the  whole  surface  is  covered  by 
the  debris  of  a  city  apparently  of  great  antiquity. 

The  prospect  from  Tell  Kerak,  as  the  hill  is  called,  over  the  sur- 


542 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


rounding  country  is  very  extensive.  I  could  see  with  my  glass  most 
of  those  lofty,  conical  tells  which  form  so  striking  a  feature  of  the 
plateau  of  the  Jaulan,  east  and  south-east  of  Lake  Huleh,  with 
snow-capped  Hermon,  in  all  his  glory,  for  background  on  the  north 
— a  panorama  of  great  interest,  and  as  vast  as  it  was  varied.  On 
the  plain  below  us,  which  stretches  north  and  east  to  the  horizon, 
are  numerous  tells,  each  with  a  significant  name,  but  the  one  which 
chiefly  attracted  my  attention  was  Tell  ’Ashtarah.  It  is  nearly 
north,  and  apparently  about  ten  or  twelve  miles  distant. 

Is  it  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  city  where  the  Rephaim 
dwelt  in  the  time  of  Abraham?1 

As  already  remarked  in  the  account  of  Chedorlaomer’s  invasions, 
a  place  called  Ashteroth  Karnaim  existed  in  this  region  at  that  very 
early  day,  and  it  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  Ashtaroth  men¬ 
tioned  in  Deuteronomy,  Joshua,  and  elsewhere  as  a  city  in  Bashan 
and  not  far  from  Edrei.  If  Tell  ’Ashtarah  could  be  identified  with 
both  Ashtaroths  it  would  impart  additional  interest  to  that  site ; 
but  aside  from  the  similarity  in  name  and  location,  the  Biblical  and 
other  notices  of  the  two  places  are  not  sufficiently  decisive.  We 
hear  no  more  of  Ashteroth  Karnaim  until  the  time  of  the  Maccabees. 
Ashtoreth  was  the  principal  female  divinity  of  the  Phoenicians,  and 
her  worship  prevailed  over  Western  Asia.  A  temple  dedicated  to 
her,  apparently,  at  Ashteroth  Karnaim  was  well  known  in  later 
Hebrew  times,  and  both  the  city,  then  called  Carnaim,  'and  the 
temple  are  mentioned  in  Maccabees:  Judas  Maccabeus  “took  the 
city,  and  burnt  the  temple  with  all  that  were  therein.”2 

The  same  achievement  is  referred  to  in  2  Maccabees,  where  the 
temple  is  called  that  of  Atargatis — another  name  for  Ashtoreth — 
and  the  number  of  the  slain,  in  both  city  and  temple,  is  said  to  have 
been  twenty-five  thousand.3  Josephus  also  mentions  the  exploits  of 
Judas  at  Carnaim,  the  capture  of  the  city,  the  slaughter  of  his 
enemies,  and  the  burning  of  the  temple.4  In  the  Onomasticon 
Ashteroth  Karnaim  is  said  to  be  six  miles  from  Edrei,  by  which 
Eusebius  must  have  meant  this  Der’a,  for  Edhr’a,  or  Edrei,  in  the 
Lejah  is  much  farther  from  Tell  ’Ashtarah. 


1  Gen.  xiv.  5. 

3  2  Macc.  xii.  21,  26. 


2  1  Macc.  v.  26,  42-44. 
4  Ant.  xii.  8,  4. 


TELL  ’ASHTARAH.—  ASHTEROTH  KARNAIM.—  RUINS  AT  DER’A.  543 

Dr.  Merrill  carefully  examined  that  interesting  site.  “  The  sum¬ 
mit  of  the  mound,”  he  says,  “  is  one  thousand  nine  hundred  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  sixty  or  more  above  the  surrounding  plain,  and 
is  longer  from  north  to  south  than  from  east  to  west.  There  is  an 
irregular  depression  on  the  summit,  running  from  north-east  to 
south-west,  which  divides  it  into  two  portions.  It  is  very  probable 
that  this  depression  was  much  more  marked  in  ancient  times  than 
at  present.  The  remains  of  the  wall  around  the  brow  of  the  sum¬ 
mit  we  examined  with  care,  and  the  indications  are  that  it  has  been 
a  strongly  fortified  place. 

“  On  the  south-west  side  of  the  hill  there  still  exist  some  Cyclo¬ 
pean  remains  of  great  interest.  These  consist  chiefly  of  two  lines 
[of  walls]  formed  of  immense,  unhewn  blocks  of  stone,  starting  from 
a  point  in  the  plain  about  twenty-five  yards  from  the  base  of  the 
hill,  and  running  thence  to  the  base  and  up  the  side  of  the  mound, 
till  they  meet  the  wall,  already  mentioned,  around  the  summit.  At 
the  point  in  the  plain  where  we  have  said  these  walls  commence, 
they  turn  towards  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  space  is  left  for  a 
great  gate.  This  gate  and  passage  may  have  served  as  the  entrance 
to  a  castle;  and  if  the  massiveness  of  the  entrance  affords  any  hint 
as  to  the  character  of  the  place,  it  must  have  been  one  of  unusual 
strength.  Being  fortified,  it  is  the  only  place  in  all  that  immediate 
region  whither  a  defeated  army  would  flee,  as  is  related  of  Timo- 
theus’s  army  in  1  Maccabees,  5,  and  there  is  no  objection  to  regard¬ 
ing  it  [that  is,  Tell  ’Ashtarah]  as  the  Carnaim  of  those  times.”1 

Descending  from  Tell  Kerak  we  came  to  a  large  reservoir  be¬ 
tween  it  and  the  village.  It  was  excavated  in  the  solid  rock,  and 
is  about  five  hundred  feet  long,  two  hundred  feet  wide,  and  now 
partially  filled  up  with  rubbish,  but  originally  it  may  have  been  fifty 
feet  deep.  Near  the  south-west  corner  of  the  reservoir  are  the 
remains  of  ancient  baths,  probably  Roman.  I  was  told  that  the 
reservoir  is  called  Birket  Siknany,  because  of  the  echoes  made  by 
the  walls.  That  “  birkeh  ”  is  now  dry,  but  it  was  formerly  filled  by 
an  aqueduct  that  was  carried  over  the  river  gorge  on  a  bridge.  The 
bridge,  of  four  arches,  is  seen  below  Tell  Kerak,  and  a  line  of  what 
appears  to  have  been  an  aqueduct,  which  the  natives  call  Kanatir 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  pp.  329,  330. 


544 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Far’aun — the  Arches  of  Pharaoh — stretches  across  the  plain  beyond 
it  towards  the  north-east  for  several  miles. 

.  Returning  through  the  village  towards  the  south-east  we  tried  to 
enter  the  mosk,  whose  tall,  square  tower  forms  such  a  conspicuous 
object  in  the  general  view  of  the  place,  but  it  was  closed,  and  we 
could  only  look  into  the  large  court  from  a  terrace  above  it.  The 
mosk  is  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long  and  one  hundred 
feet  wide,  with  three  gates,  and  a  double  colonnade  of  many  short 
columns  ran  around  it.  In  the  north-east  corner  of  the  court  is  a 
remarkable  sarcophagus,  adorned  with  the  heads  of  lions  and  other 
decorations  in  bass-relief.  The  mosk  was  built  out  of  the  ruins  of  a 
church  and  monastery,  and  just  south  of  it  are  the  solid  foundations 
of  a  semicircular  structure,  probably  the  apse  of  the  church.  The 
chord  is  nearly  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet,  and  the  edifice,  which 
faced  the  north,  was  divided  into  aisles  by  columns  and  piers. 

At  the  south-eastern  border  of  the  village  are  the  remains  of 
an  ancient  structure,  which  are  well  worth  examining ;  but  the  frag¬ 
ments  have  been  built  into  modern  houses,  and  large  pieces  of  the 
cornice  are  scattered  about  in  utter  confusion,  so  that  it  is  impos¬ 
sible  to  make  out  the  plan  of  the  edifice.  The  son  of  the  sheikh 
said  that  there  were  many  inscriptions  on  the  walls  of  native  houses, 
and  led  the  way  through  narrow,  crooked,  and  filthy  lanes  to  show 
them  ;  but  they  were  all  mere  masons’  marks,  consisting  of  a  single 
letter,  cut  into  the  face  of  stones  which  probably  belonged  to  the 
houses  of  the  old  city.  I  noticed,  however,  that  some  of  those 
marks  were  found  on  large,  unhewn  blocks  of  stone.  That  Der’a 
must  have  been  an  important  city  in  the  Graeco-Roman  times  no 
one  can  doubt  who  examines  the  existing  remains. 

Dr.  Merrill  remarks  that  “  Dra’a  ought  to  be  a  rich  field  for  ex¬ 
cavations,  because  at  least  three  cities  exist  there,  one  beneath  an¬ 
other,”  and  he  translates  Dr.  J.  G.  Wetzstein’s  “interesting  account 
of  his  visit  to  the  extensive  underground  dwellings  which  exist 
here,”  and  which  Dr.  Wetzstein  calls  “the  subterranean  labyrinthine 
residence  of  Og,”  king  of  Bashan.1  But  neither  Dr.  Wetzstein  nor 
M.  Waddington  found  any  important  inscriptions,  and  Dr.  Merrillr 
who  recently  attempted  to  explore  that  subterranean  city,  was  not 

1  East  cf  the  Jordan,  pp.  349-352. 


CRUSADERS  AT  DER’A.— FORTUNE-TELLING.— BURNING  STRAW.  545 

more  successful  than  either  of  the  others.  Dr.  'Merrill  relates  the 
historical  fact  “  that  when  King  Baldwin  III.  (1144-1162)  and  his 
crusaders  made  their  wild  chase  to  Bozrah,  they  went  by  way  of 
Dra’a.  The  weather  was  hot,  and  the  army  was  suffering  terribly 
for  want  of  water;  but  as  often  as  they  let  down  their  buckets,  by 
means  of  ropes,  into  the  cisterns  here,  men  concealed  on  the  inside 
of  the  cisterns  would  cut  the  ropes  and  thus  defeat  their  efforts. 
Probably  the  underground  city  has  connection  with  all  the  impor¬ 
tant  cisterns  of  the  place.”  1 

Der’a,  September  24th. 

We  have  a  ride  of  ten  hours  before  us  to-day  from  Der’a  to  the 
village  of  Suf,  near  Jerash,  where  we  are  to  spend  the  ni  ght. 

I  am  surprised  to  see  around  the  outskirts  of  this  village  so 
many  ragged  Arab  tents,  with  occupants  equally  ragged. 

They  belong  to  remnants  of  indigent  Bedawin  tribes,  roving 
gypsies  and  Mograbian  vagabonds,  who  gather  about  such  places 
to  beg  and  to  steal.  When  we  were  here  before,  a  Mograbian 
woman  came  to  the  tents  one  afternoon  and  offered  to  tell  our 
fortunes  and  perform  sundry  tricks  of  legerdemain.  She  was  the 
only  one  of  that  people  I  have  seen  in  this  region  who  could  speak 
Arabic  like  a  native  of  the  country. 

What  is  the  cause  of  those  clouds  of  black  smoke  that  float 
down  the  hill-side  towards  the  river? 

The  shiftless  natives  are  trying  to  get  rid  of  the  great  heaps 
of  old  straw  and  manure  that  overtop  their  houses  by  burning  in¬ 
stead  of  carrying  them  out  onto  the  fields.  It  is  the  usual  custom, 
and  they  were  doing  the  same  thing  when  I  was  here  years  ago. 
Then  some  small  boys  and  naked  children  were  romping  in  the 
smouldering  mass  until  they  became  nearly  as  black  as  the  ashes 
they  were  tossing  about  in  their  rude  sport.  Such  great  mounds 
of  refuse  straw  and  chaff  show  that  the  wheat-fields  around  Der’a 
are  very  extensive  and  yield  abundant  harvests. 

The  direction  of  our  ride  appears  to  be  nearly  south-west,  and 
the  first  village  we  shall  pass  through,  you  say,  is  Remtheh  ? 

It  is  an  hour  and  a  half  brisk  riding  from  Der’a,  and  at  this 
season  of  the  year  the  brown  and  blasted  plain,  which  we  must 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  352. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


546 

traverse  to  reach  it,  is  a  dreary  and  desolate  waste.  But  I  have 
passed  this  way  in  the  spring,  when  those  swelling  uplands  and 
broad  fields  were  covered  with  luxuriant  grass  and  waving  with 
green  wheat,  and  these  rugged  hill-sides  were  fairly  glowing  with 
thousands  of  red  anemones,  scarlet  ranunculuses,  and  other  gay  and 
brilliant  flowers,  presenting  a  beautiful  appearance. 

The  country  between  our  line  of  travel  and  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan  northward  and  westward  is  wild  and  mountainous,  and  in 
some  parts  it  is  well  wooded  with  noble  oak  forests.  It  is  the 
region  of  the  ancient  Decapolis,  and  all  but  one — Scythopolis — of 
the  ten  confederate  cities  were  on  this  side  of  the  Jordan.  The 
list  includes  Hippos,  identified  with  Fik ;  Gadara,  the  modern  Um 
Keis;  Pella,  Tubukat  Fahil ;  Capitolias,  or  Beit  er  Ras;  Damascus; 
Canatha,  Kunawat ;  Gerasa,  or  Jerash  ;  Dion,  probably  Eidun  ;  Phil¬ 
adelphia, ’Amman  ;  and  Raphana,  which  has  not  yet  been  identified. 
There  are  several  other  sites  of  Biblical  and  historic  interest,  such 
as  Irbid,  the  ancient  Arbela;  Ibl,  the  Abila  of  Peraea;  and  el  Mahneh, 
possibly  the  Mahanaim  where  Jacob  was  met  by  the  angels. 

The  Zeidy,  after  passing  around  the  north  side  of  Der’a,  makes 
a  tremendous  descent,  by  a  succession  of  cascades  and  frequent 
rapids,  of  more  than  two  thousand  feet  in  twenty  miles  down  to 
where  it  joins  the  river  Jarmuk,  and  thence  onward  to  the  Jordan. 
Numerous  tributaries  from  the  north  and  east  find  their  way  into  it 
through  profound  gorges,  which  render  that  region  and  that  around 
the  Jarmuk  north  of  it  among  the  wildest  and  most  picturesque  east 
of  the  Jordan.  Much  of  the  land,  however,  is  capable  of  cultiva¬ 
tion,  and  in  ancient  times  it  appears  to  have  been  dotted  over  with 
villages  and  towns.  At  present  it  is  mostly  abandoned  to  the  Bed- 
awin,  and  large  tracts  are  literally  without  settled  inhabitants. 

Dr.  Merrill  has  made  several  excursions  through  different  parts 
of  it.  One  of  them  was  from  Fik,  the  Aphek  of  the  Bible,  above 
the  south  end  of  Lake  Tiberias,  northward  to  Nowa,  and  thence 
southward  to  el  Mezarib,  Tell  ’Ashtarah,  Der’a,  el  Husn,  and  ’Ain 
Jenneh  in  Wady  ’Ajlun.  In  the  first  day’s  ride  he  was  searching 
for  the  ancient  Golan,  and  though  he  could  discover  no  site  bear¬ 
ing  that  name,  he  found  a  “Wady  or  Nahr  ’Allan”  in  the  region 
where  the  city  of  Golan  was  probably  situated.  As  in  the  case  of 


CAPITOLIAS.— IRBID.—  CYCLOPEAN  WALLS. 


547 


Wady  Yabis  and  Jabesh-gilead,  Dr.  Merrill  suggests  that  the  name 
Gollan  is  preserved  in  that  of  Wady  or  Nahr  ’Allan — an  identifica¬ 
tion  which  may  be  accepted  as  sufficiently  probable  so  far  as  the 
mere  name  and  locality  are  concerned.1 

Some  fifteen  miles,  nearly  west,  of  Der’a  is  Beit  er  Ras,  supposed 
to  mark  the  site  of  Capitolias.  Dr.  Merrill,  who  visited  it  also,  says 
that  “  it  occupies  the  slopes  and  summits  of  two  or  three  low  hills, 
and  extends  far  to  the  east  on  the  line  of  the  Roman  road  [between 
it  and  Um  Keis,  or  Gadara]  which  is  still  quite  perfect.  The  pub¬ 
lic  buildings  were  numerous  and  imposing,  but  are  now  mere  piles 
of  ruins.  Great  arches  exist  here,  also  columns,  Corinthian  and 
Ionic  capitals,  a  vast  amount  of  carved  ornamental  work,  and 
large,  fine  eagles,  still  perfect,  whose  wings  spread  three  feet.  There 
are  also  some  inscriptions  [one  Nabathean,  the  rest  Greek]  among 
the  ruins.  The  road  leading  east  was  lined  with  columns,  and  the 
building-material  was  chiefly  basalt  rock.  Evidently  a  great  deal 
of  the  old  city  is  underground,  for  twelve  fine  arches  in  succession 
could  be  traced  which  are  below  the  surface,  and  indeed  people 
live  in  these  underground  apartments.  This  place  has  a  special 
interest,  because  it  was  one  of  the  cities  which  belonged  to  the 
Decapolis.”  2 

About  an  hour  south  of  Beit  er  Ras  is  Irbid,  now  a  small  village 
on  the  south  side  of  a  large  tell  or  mound,  upon  which  are  the 
ruins  of  a  castle.  “  There  are  here  fine  Roman  ruins  and  some  evi¬ 
dent  marks  of  great  antiquity,”  Dr.  Merrill  says;  “the  cyclopean 
walls  about  this  hill  are  a  great  curiosity.  They  are  relics  of  an 
ancient  people  who  once  occupied  this  region,  and  as  but  few  of 
them  exist  east  of  the  Jordan  valley,  they  are  on  that  account  all 
the  more  interesting.  These  here  are  formed,  for  the  most  part, 
of  bowlders  laid  into  walls.  In  one  section  I  counted  five  courses, 
which  reached  altogether  a  height  of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet,  and  else¬ 
where  I  counted  three  courses  which  reached  nearly  the  same  height. 
In  a  few  places  the  walls  are  formed  of  great  blocks  of  unhewn 
stone  instead  of  bowlders,  and  these  vary  from  ten  to  eighteen  feet 
in  length  and  are  of  proportionate  width  and  thickness. 

“At  certain  points  large  foundations  project  from  the  main  wall, 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  pp.  325,  326.  2  East  of  the  Jordan,  pp.  297,  298. 

O  2 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


54? 

in  at  least  one  or  two  cases  for  sixty  feet.  These  are  evidently 
the  substructures  of  strong  towers.  It  is  in  these  foundations  that 
the  largest  stones  appear.  The  most  perfect  section  of  this  ancient 
wall  is  at  present  on  the  east  side  of  the  mound,  and  extends  un¬ 
broken  for  over  three  hundred  feet.”1  The  Graeco-Roman  name  of 
that  place  is  supposed  to  have  been  Arbela.  There  was  a  city  of 
the  same  name— the  Beth-arbel  of  Hosea  and  the  Arbela  of  Josephus 
— north-west  of  Tiberias  and  near  Kurun  Hattin,  whose  ruins  are 
believed  to  be  at  a  place  also  called  Irbid. 

“  A  little  less  than  one  hour  south  of  Irbid,  in  the  midst  of  a 
fertile  tract  well  supplied  with  water,  is  a  large  double  village  with 
ruins,  called  Eidun,”  which,  Dr.  Merrill  is  confident,  “  should  be 
regarded  as  the  ‘  Dion  ’  or  ‘  Dium  ’  of  the  Decapolis.”  3 

That  large,  wretched  village  on  the  hill-side  ahead  of  us  is  er 
Remtheh,  and  I  call  your  attention  to  the  Haj  road  which  passes 
below  it,  with  its  many  well -beaten  parallel  tracks  made  by  the 
great  pilgrim  caravan  on  its  weary  way  to  Mecca.  In  former  times 
the  Haj  road  passed  by  el  Busrah,  but  for  many  years  since  it  has 
kept  along  the  western  side, of  the  Hauran,  and  from  el  Mezarib  it 
leads  through  the  hill  country  west  of  Der’a,  and  thence  trending 
to  the  south-east  reaches  Remtheh  and  passes  on  over  the  plain  to 
Kul’at  ez  Zerka,  near  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Jabbok. 

Burckhardt  spent  a  night  at  Remtheh  on  his  way  to  Jerash,  and 
he  thus  speaks  of  its  inhabitants:  “We  met  with  a  very  indifferent 
reception  at  the  sheikh’s  house,  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  villages 
on  the  Hadj  route  exceed  all  others  in  fanaticism ;  an  old  man  was 
particularly  severe  in  his  animadversions  on  Kafers  [infidels]  treading 
the  sacred  earth  which  leads  to  the  Kaabe,  and  the  youngsters  echoed 
his  insulting  language.  I  found  means,  however,  to  show  the  old 
man  a  penknife  which  I  carried  in  my  pocket,  and  made  him  a 
present  of  it  before  he  could  ask  it  of  me ;  we  then  became  as 
great  friends  as  we  had  been  enemies^and  his  behaviour  induced 
a  like  change  in  the  others  towards  me.  Remtha  is  the  last  in¬ 
habited  village  on  this  side  of  the  Hauran;  the  greater  part  of 
its  houses  are  built  against  the  caverns  with  which  this  calcareous 
country  abounds,  so  that  the  rock  forms  the  back  of  the  house 
1  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  294.  .  2  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  29S. 


NO  WATER  AT  REMTHEH.— MIGRATION  OF  THE  WULD  ’ALY.  549 

while  the  other  sides  are  enclosed  by  a  semicircular  mud  wall  whose 
extremities  touch  the  rock.”  1 

We  have  no  occasion  to  visit  those  cavernous  habitations,  or 
subject  ourselves  to  the  insolence  of  their  fanatical  inmates.  We 
must  not  neglect,  however,  to  fill  our  “  water  bottles”  and  to  give 
drink  to  our  horses,  for  there  is  no  water  to  be  found  at  this  season 
of  the  year  between  this  and  Suf.  Dr.  Merrill  says  that  “  the  water 
at  Remtheh  was  very  poor,  and  had  it  not  been  for  some  friendly 
Turkish  soldiers,  who  aided  us  in  obtaining  it,  we  should  have  had 
none  at  all.  The  morning  of  the  day  that  we  left  this  place  for 
Jerash  our  animals  had  no  water,  nor  did  they  or  ourselves  have 
any  until  near  sunset,  although  our  march  was  about  eight  hours 
for  ourselves  and  about  ten  for  our  mules,  and  the  thermometer 
was  87°  in  the  shade. 

“  When  at  last  we  found  water  it  was  a  dirty,  stagnant  pool, 
hardly  eight  feet  in  diameter.  Our  animals  were  frantic  and  entire¬ 
ly  unmanageable  until,  having  crowded  and  almost  tumbled  over 
each  other  in  their  efforts  to  reach  the  water,  they  had  quenched 
what  must  have  been  their  burning  thirst.  Then  came  our  turn. 
We  all  drank  freely.  I  fancied  I  never  before  was  so  heartily  thank¬ 
ful  for  any  blessing  as  for  the  two  or  three  glasses  of  the  muddy, 
dirty  stuff  which  I  drank  here.  But  half  an  hour  beyond  this  place 
[or  pool],  and  only  a  few  minutes  from  Jerash,  we  found  a  small  spring 
of  cool,  fresh,  delicious  water,  where,  of  course,  we  drank  again.”2 

When  passing  through  this  region  on  a  former  occasion  our 
party  beheld  a  sight  never  to  be  forgotten — one,  indeed,  worthy  of 
a  long  journey  to  witness.  Some  time  before  reaching  Remtheh 
our  curiosity  was  excited  by  the  appearance  of  a  great  caravan,  ex¬ 
tending,  in  an  unbroken  line,  from  south-east  to  north-west,  farther 
than  the  eye  could  reach  in  either  direction.  On  coming  up  to  it 
we  found  that  the  Wuld  or  Wulid  ’Aly,  a  branch  of  the  ’Anazeh 
tribe  of  Bedawin,  were  upon  their  annual  spring  migration  to  the 
Hauran,  and  subsequently  to  el  Jaulan  and  the  region  south  of  Da¬ 
mascus.  Their  camels,  mostly  accompanied  by  young  ones  of  various 
ages,  seemed  innumerable.  The  sheikh  of  the  tribe,  surrounded  by 
several  horsemen,  took  up  a  position  on  the  hill-side  to  overlook  the 
1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  p.  247.  2  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  101. 


550 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


march  of  the  caravan,  and  he  assured  us  that  they  had  one  hundred 
thousand  camels — no  doubt  a  great  exaggeration.  We  stood  on  the 
hill  and  watched  the  countless  numbers  pass  by  for  more  than  an 
hour,  and  they  came  on  eight  or  ten  abreast,  and  with  a  steady  and 
rapid  march,  many  thousands  of  them,  old  and  young. 

The  men  and  larger  boys  were  on  foot,  but  the  women  and  chil¬ 
dren  were  perched  upon  the  camels.  Most  of  them  were  seated  on 
the  ordinary  rough,  wooden  saddle,  but  there  were  many  extraordi¬ 
nary  contrivances  for  the  comfort  and  protection  of  the  wives  of  the 
various  sheikhs.  The  one  in  common  use  was  made  of  two  slabs, 
or  planks  of  wood,  about  ten  feet  in  length,  which  were  fastened 
upon  the  frame  of  the  saddle  and  at  right  angles  to  it.  From  the 
ends  of  those  slabs  ropes  were  stretched  over  upright  posts  fixed 
above  the  middle  of  the  saddle,  to  support  an  awning  under  which 
the  women  sat  upon  quilts  and  cushions.  The  swinging  gait  of  the 
camels  gave  to  those  curious  tents  an  undulatory  motion  like  that 
of  small  boats  on  the  ruffled  surface  of  the  sea.  The  camel,  you 
know,  is  called  “  the  ship  of  the  desert,”  and  those  extraordinary 
contrivances  certainly  gave  a  new  meaning  to  the  adage. 

The  migration  of  such  a  formidable  host,  or  caravan,  of  Bedawin 
Arabs  must  be  quite  alarming  to  the  agricultural  population. 

No  cultivated  country  can  bear  them.  I  was  reminded  at  the 
time  of  the  distress  of  Moab  because  of  the  invasion  of  his  territory 
by  the  children  of  Israel.  No  wonder  that  he  said  “  unto  the  elders 
of  Midian,  Now  shall  this  company  lick  up  all  that  are  round  about 
us,  as  the  ox  licketh  up  the  grass  of  the  field.”  1  Those  Wulid  ’Aly 
Bedawin  followed  the  Haj  road  as  far  as  I  could  see  them  with  my 
glass,  and  north-west  of  Der’a  they  would  spread  themselves  over 
the  districts  of  el  Jaulan  and  el  Jeidur  up  to  the  southern  foot-hills 
of  Hermon,  where  they  would  find  pasture  during  the  summer.  In 
the  autumn  they  would  retire  again  to  their  winter-quarters  in  the 
great  desert  that  stretches  away  eastward  towards  the  valley  of 
the  Euphrates  and  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 

How  can  sufficient  food  be  found  for  so  many  mouths? 

The  camels  of  the  Bedawin  furnish  an  important  part  of  it,  and 
one  object  of  those  annual  migrations  is  to  procure  wheat  and  other 

1  Numb.  xxii.  4. 


WANDERING  ISHMAELITES.— VILLAGE  OF  EL  HUSN.  55  I 

necessaries  upon  which  those  “  children  of  the  East  ”  subsist,  and 
which  they  take  with  them  to  their  home  in  the  desert.  A  strange 
life  is  that  of  the  wandering  Ishmaelites!  Yet  they  glory  in  it,  and 
look  down  with  contempt  upon  the  poor  fellahin  who  dwell  in 
houses  and  till  the  soil.  We  greatly  underrate  the  number  of  those 
denizens  of  the  desert.  The  ’Anazeh  alone  spread  over  Northern 
Arabia  and  the  regions  between  Syria  and  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates, 
and  must  amount  to  several  hundred  thousand. 

Since  leaving  Remtheh  we  have  been  riding  over  wooded  hills 
for  two  hours,  without  meeting  a  single  wayfarer  or  seeing  a  human 
habitation,  nor  even  a  deserted  village. 

There  is  a  miserable  hamlet  ahead  of  us,  situated  on  the  plain, 
called  Hawarah,  but  with  nothing  attractive  about  it.  The  sur¬ 
rounding  country,  however,  is  beautiful,  and  if  properly  cultivated 
much  of  the  soil  would  no  doubt  be  productive.  It  was  covered 
with  rich  pasture  when  I  passed  this  way  in  the  spring.  We  must 
now  turn  southward  towards  the  village  of  el  Husn,  the  capital  of 
this  large  district  of  Belad  Beni  ’Obeid. 

What  is  there  to  be  seen  at  that  place? 

Husn  means  castle,  and  the  most  remarkable  thing  about  the 
village  is  a  large  and  lofty  mound,  called  Tell  Husn,  the  summit 
of  which  is  overspread  with  the  debris  of  a  Saracenic  castle,  proba¬ 
bly  built  upon  the  site  of  a  far  more  ancient  fortress.  There  are 
remains  of  an  old  wall  surrounding  the  top  of  the  hill,  and  at  the 
south-western  base  of  the  mound  are  a  few  ordinary  columns,  but 
without  capitals  or  anything  about  them  to  indicate  the  character 
of  the  edifice  to  which  they  belonged.  In  the  village  are  also  a  few 
short  columns  connected  with  a  ruined  church  afterward  transformed 
into  a  mosk,  but  now  deserted.  Besides  great  stones,  fragments  of 
pottery,  and  other  ancient  remains  found  in  all  directions,  numerous 
rock-cut  tombs  in  the  village  and  its  neighborhood  indicate  that  el 
Husn  occupies  the  site  of  a  very  old  city. 

The  village  extends  along  the  side  of  a  hill  which  slopes  eastward 
towards  a  wady  that  passes  around  the  south  end  of  it  and  then 
turns  westward  and  descends  into  the  Jordan  valley.  There  are  no 
fountains  in  el  Husn,  and  the  inhabitants  depend  for  water  entirely 
upon  cisterns.  Those  are  always  exhausted  in  the  latter  part  of 


552 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


summer,  and  water  has  then  to  be  brought  from  a  long  distance. 
Of  the  seventy  or  eighty  families  that  reside  at  el  Husn  two-thirds 
are  Christians  belonging  to  the  orthodox  Greek  Church,  the  rest  are 
Muhammedans.  A  considerable  number  of  the  Christians  had  de¬ 
clared  themselves  Protestants  not  long  before  I  was  there,  and  had 
placed  themselves  under  the  care  of  the  English  mission  at  es  Salt. 
In  appearance,  dress,  manners,  and  occupations  there  is  no  apparent 
distinction  between  the  different  sects — and  the  same  may  be  said 
of  all  the  fellahin  in  this  region — nor  do  the  Moslems  assume  any 
superiority  over  the  Christians  in  their  general  intercourse.  During 
a  quarrel  the  latter  will  not  hesitate  to  curse  and  even  beat  the 
former  —  a  freedom  of  speech  and  action  not  indulged  in  by  the  in¬ 
habitants  of  any  part  of  the  country  except  those  on  Lebanon. 

We  will  follow  a  road  over  the  hills,  a  little  to  the  east  of  el  Husn, 
by  which  we  shall  the  sooner  reach  the  friendly  shelter  of  the  great 
forest  which  extends  from  it  quite  to  Jerash  and  indeed  far  beyond. 
About  five  hours  from  el  Husn,  in  a  south-westerly  direction,  and 
two  hours  north-east  from  Kul’at  er  Rubad,  according  to  Dr.  Merrill, 
is  a  ruin  called  Mahneh,  in  a  wady  of  the  same  name,  which,  some 
have  supposed,  marks  the  site  of  Mahanaim,  where  Jacob  met  the 
angels  after  parting  with  Laban. 

It  is  certainly  remarkable  that  a  place  so  distinguished  in  the 
history  of  the  patriarch,  and  subsequently  in  that  of  Ish-bosheth  and 
David,  should  be  entirely  lost. 

And  almost  equally  strange  that  the  name,  or  one  nearly  identi¬ 
cal  with  it,  should  be  found,  after  so  many  centuries,  clinging  to 
such  a  featureless  locality  as  that  of  Mahneh  is  said  to  be.  Yet 
Canon  Tristram,  who  visited  the  place,  says,  “There  is  every  proba¬ 
bility  that  the  name  of  Mahanaim  has  been  preserved  in  Mahneh, 
and  that  these  grass-grown  mounds  represent  all  that  is  left  of  the 
capital  of  Ish-bosheth  and  the  refuge  of  David.”1  From  the  Bibli¬ 
cal  narrative,  in  Genesis  and  elsewhere,  Mahanaim  appears  to  have 
been  north  of  the  Jabbok  and  east  of  the  Jordan,  within  the  terri¬ 
tory  of  Gad  and  near  the  border  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh.2 

It  was  a  Levitical  city  after  the  time  of  Jacob,  and  the  fortified 

1  Land  of  Israel,  pp.  487,  488. 

2  Gen.  xxxii.  1,  2  ;  Josh.  xiii.  24,  26,  29,  30. 


KING  DAVID  AT  M AH ANAIM.— LABAN  AND  JACOB  AT  MIZPAH.  553 

capital  of  a  district,  perhaps,  in  the  days  of  Ish-bosheth  and  David.1 
It  was  to  Mahanaim  that  David  fled  from  before  Absalom,  and 
seated  there  “between  the  two  gates”  of  the  city  they  brought  him 
“  tidings  ”  of  the  death  of  his  son  after  the  battle  in  “  the  wood  of 
Ephraim.”  2  And  it  was  “to  the  chamber  over  the  gate”  at  Maha¬ 
naim  that  David  went  up,  “  and  as  he  went,  thus  he  said,  O  my  son 
Absalom  !  my  son,  my  son  Absalom,!  would  God  I  had  died  for 
thee,  O  Absalom,  my  son,  my  son!”3  After  that  memorable  day 
Mahanaim  is  mentioned  but  once  in  the  Bible,  and  then  merely  as  a 
station  of  one  of  Solomon’s  twelve  purveyors.4 

The  incidental  notices  of  Mahanaim  by  Josephus  furnish  no  ad¬ 
ditional  particulars  regarding  the  location  of  that  city,  and  the  site 
is  but  vaguely  referred  to  by  more  recent  writers  as  lying  about 
half  a  day’s  journey  nearly  due  east  of  Beth-shean  or  Beisan,  which 
seems  to  be  much  too  far  north  of  the  Jabbok.  Dr.  Porter  suggests 
the  possibility  that  Jerash  may  be  the  true  site  of  Mahanaim,  and 
Dr.  Merrill  concludes  that  “  if  any  existing  ruin  in  the  Jordan  val¬ 
ley,  or  in  the  foot-hills  bordering  on  it,  is  to  be  chosen  as  the  site 
of  Mahanaim,  Khirbet  Suleikhat  perhaps  answers  the  conditions 
better  than  any  other.”5  It  is  possible  that  future  research  will  yet 
bring  to  light  some  place  between  the  Jordan  valley,  the  ruins  of 
Jerash,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Wady  Mahneh,  that  will  prove 
to  be  the  real  site  of  the  lost  city  of  Mahanaim. 

Laban  called  the  place  where  the  covenant  between  him  and 
Jacob  was  made  Jegar- sahadutha  and  Mizpah,  “for  he  said,  The 
Lord  watch  between  me  and  thee,  when  we  are  absent  one  from 
another.”6  But  Jacob  called  it  Galeed,  the  meaning  in  both  cases 
being  that  of  a  witness  or  watch-tower.  Josephus  tells  us  that  “  they 
erected  a  pillar  [upon  certain  mountains]  in  the  form  of  an  altar, 
whence  that  hill  is  called  Gilead;  and  from  thence  they  call  that  land 
the  land  of  Gilead  at  this  day.”  7  Whether  we  attach  any  importance 
to  that  explanation  or  not,  it  is  sufficiently  certain  that  we  are  now 
passing  through  the  region  of  Mount  Gilead  where  those  remarkable 
events  occurred,  and  that  fact  imparts  peculiar  interest  to  our  ride. 

1  1  Chron.  vi.  64,  80 ;  2  Sam.  ii.  8,  12,  29  ;  xvii.  24,  27 ;  1  Kings  ii.  8. 

2  2  Sam.  xviii.  24,  31,  32.  3  2  Sam.  xviii.  33.  4  1  Kings  iv.  14. 

6  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  438.  6  Gen.  xxxi.  47,  49.  7  Ant.  i.  19,  11. 


554 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Is  there  reason  to  believe  that  the  covenant  between  Laban  and 
Jacob  was  held  to  have  been  permanently  binding  upon  the  descend¬ 
ants  of  the  contracting  parties? 

It  was  a  formal  and  final  separation  between  the  members  of  the 
Abrahamic  family  and  the  original  race  from  which  they  sprang; 
and  they  never  afterwards  intermingled,  nor  were  there  any  more 
intermarriages  between  them.  It  would  appear  strange  that  a  mere 
family  compact  should  have  received  such  an  extended  description 
in  the  Biblical  record,  could  we  not  discover  in  that  covenant  a 
higher  and  more  important  significance.  Laban’s  entire  tribe  were 
then  idolaters,  and  the  family  of  Jacob  had  been  led  astray  and  al¬ 
ready  worshipped  the  same  false  gods. 

Rachel,  the  favorite  wife  of  the  patriarch,  stole  the  images  of  her 
father’s  gods  and  brought  them  with  her  in  their  flight ;  and  had 
Jacob’s  family  remained  in  Padan-aram  they  would,  in  all  proba¬ 
bility,  have  apostatized  from  the  true  God.  Thus  the  divine  pur¬ 
pose  in  the  call  of  Abraham,  the  leaving  of  his  kindred  and  his 
migration  into  Canaan,  would  have  been  frustrated.  The  breaking 
off  of  all  intercourse,  therefore,  with  the  Mesopotamian  branch  of 
his  race  had  become  absolutely  necessary  for  the  preservation  of 
Jacob’s  descendants  from  lapsing  into  the  worship  of  idols. 

Nor  was  that  flight  of  Jacob  sufficient  of  itself  to  effect  the  all- 
important  result.  The  wonderful  experiences  of  Jacob  at  Mahanaim 
and  at  Peniel  had  no  doubt  greatly  quickened  the  religious  life  in 
Israel  himself,  but  the  Mesopotamian  idols  were  still  in  his  family. 
When,  however,  a  second  migration  had  become  necessary  soon 
after,  in  consequence  of  the  cruel  and  treacherous  slaughter  of  the 
people  of  Shechem  by  Simeon  and  Levi,  Jacob  took  advantage  of 
that  occasion  to  exterminate  from  his  family  those  abominable  idols 
and  their  worship.  “Then  Jacob  said  unto  his  household,  and  to 
all  that  were  with  him,  Put  away  the  strange  gods  that  are  among 
you,  and  be  clean,  and  change  your  garments.  And  they  gave  unto 
Jacob  all  the  strange  gods  which  were  in  their  hand,  and  all  their 
earrings  which  were  in  their  ears;  and  Jacob  hid  them  under  the  oak 
which  was  by  Shechem.”  1  “Jacob  and  all  the  people  that  were  with 
him  [went  up  to  Beth-el,  and  there  he  dwelt]  and  built  an  altar,”  and 

1  Gen.  xxxv.  2,  4. 


SHEPHERDS  AND  FLOCKS.— OAK  FORESTS  OF  GILEAD.  555 

established  the  worship  of  the  God  of  his  fathers,  at  the  place  where 
“  God  appeared  unto  him,  when  he  fled  from  the  face  of  his  brother.”1 
Thus  was  the  great  reformation  completely  effected,  and  we  hear  no 
more  of  that  kind  of  idolatry  in  the  household  of  Israel. 

We  have  now  reached  the  regular  road  from  el  Husn  to  Suf 
and  Jerash,  and  will  have  the  shade  of  this  noble  forest  of  oak, 
pine,  and  other  trees  for  the  rest  of  our  ride. 

There  is  not  a  breath  of  air  in  these  thick  woods,  and  the  heat  is 
most  oppressive  both  to  ourselves  and  our  weary  animals. 

Very  different,  indeed,  is  this  stifling  atmosphere  from  that  in 
April,  when  our  party  came  direct  from  el  Husn  to  Birket  ed  Deir, 
which  we  have  just  passed  on  our  right.  Then  it  was  a  wide  pool, 
where  we  watered  our  horses  and  gathered  some  of  the  thousands 
of  flowers  that  overspread  and  glorified  the  hills  in  all  directions. 
Now  the  pool  is  dry,  the  hill-sides  are  blasted,  and  even  the  grass 
has  disappeared.  Up  to  this  point — an  hour  and  a  half  from  el  Husn 
— much  of  the  country  is  cultivated,  but  from  this  on  to  Suf  the  forest 
is  uninterrupted,  and  is  composed  mostly  of  evergreen  oaks,  inter¬ 
spersed  occasionally  with  pine,  terebinths,  and  hawthorn. 

In  another  hour  we  shall  reach  a  very  large  pool  called  Um  el 
Khanzir — Mother  of  the  Hog  or  Boar — but  which  might  with  more 
propriety  be  named  Mother  of  Goats,  for  it  was  surrounded  by  many 
flocks  of  them  in  the  spring.  There  we  lunched,  and  the  shepherds 
brought  us  plenty  of  fresh  milk.  Those  were  the  only  animals  we 
found  in  the  woods,  and  I  never  saw  more  beautiful  flocks  in  any 
other  part  of  the  country  —  goats  black  as  the  raven,  with  clean 
limbs,  long,  pendent  ears,  and  large,  liquid  eyes.  We  need  not  turn 
aside  to  visit  that  pool,  for  it  is  now  empty,  dry,  and  solitary. 

From  Um  el  Khanzir  to  Suf  is  nearly  two  hours,  and  in  spring 
nothing  can  be  more  delightful  than  a  ride  through  these  forests, 
the  grandest  in  this  land  of  Gilead ;  and  we  need  not  wonder  at  the 
encomiums  lavished  by  all  travellers  that  have  passed  this  way  on 
the  beautiful  woodland  scenery  of  these  regions,  for  even  the  most 
enthusiastic  have  not  said  enough  in  its  praise. 

I  notice  that  pine-trees  are  becoming  more  numerous,  and  the 
grove  on  our  left  has  apparently  been  swept  by  an  extensive  fire. 

1  Gen.  xxxv.  6,  7. 


556 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Such  fires  are  not  always  accidental.  When  going  from  Jerash 
to  ’Ajlun  I  saw  a  part  of  the  forest  which  had  evidently  been  burnt 
over  by  the  peasants  in  order  to  clear  the  ground  for  cultivation  ; 
and  young  wheat  was  springing  up  vigorously  amongst  the  black¬ 
ened  stumps  of  the  trees — very  much  like  what  is  often  seen  in  the 
far  West  in  our  own  country — and  I  have  no  doubt  that  large  tracts 
of  Mount  Gilead  might  thus  be  brought  under  profitable  cultivation. 

Our  road  begins  to  descend  southward  towards  Wady  ed  Deir, 
having  a  high,  wooded  hill  on  the  left  and  a  more  open  country  on 
the  right,  and  in  half  an  hour  we  shall  reach  our  place  of  encamp¬ 
ment  amongst  the  olive-trees  on  the  west  side  of  Suf. 

As  Jerash  is  only  an  hour  farther  on,  why  do  we  camp  at  this 
miserable  village  instead  of  near  the  ruins  at  that  place? 

Jerash  is  entirely  deserted,  and  only  robbers  and  one  or  two 
millers  are  found  there.  And  though  travellers  have  become  more 
numerous  in  these  days,  and  the  danger  less,  our  muleteers  would  be 
very  reluctant  to  take  their  animals  and  encamp  amongst  the  pros¬ 
trate  columns  and  solitary  remains  of  that  remarkable  city. 


JERASH  TO  ’AJLUN,  AND  ES  SALT. 


557 


XV. 

JERASH  TO  ’AJLtJN,  AND  ES  SALT. 


The  Sheikh  of  Suf. — Experience  of  Canon  Tristram  and  his  Party. — The  ’Adwan  levy  a 
Fine  on  the  Sheikh  of  Stif. — Remains  of  Antiquity  at  Suf. — Stream  in  Wady  ed  Deir. 
— Olive-trees  and  Woods  of  Oak  and  Pine. — Muzar  Abu  Bekr. — Old  Coins  for  Sale. — 
Broken  Sarcophagi. — Cemetery  of  Ancient  Gerasa. — Entering  Jerash  through  a  Breach 
in  the  Wall. — General  Survey  of  the  City. — Seil  Jerash. — The  Site  and  the  City  of 
Jerash. — Remains  of  Private  Houses  and  Public  Buildings  beyond  the  City  Gate. — The 
Triumphal  Arch. — The  Emperor  Trajan. — The  Stadium. — Naval  Combats. — The  City 
Gate. — Ruins  of  a  beautiful  Temple. — Remains  of  a  large  Theatre. — Grand  Colonnade 
of  the  Forum. — Fifty-five  Columns  still  standing. — The  Main  Street  lined  with  Col¬ 
umns. — The  Pavement  and  the  Ruts  made  by  Chariot-wheels. — Side  Street,  Gate  in 
the  West  Wall,  Bridge  across  the  Stream. — Pedestals  for  Colossal  Statues. — Sections  of 
the  Colonnade  along  the  Main  Street. — The  Apse  of  a  Beautiful  Building. — Marcus 
Aurelius  Antoninus. — Side  Street  and  Bridge. — The  Propylaeum. — Antoninus  Pius. — 
Temple  of  Jupiter  or  of  the  Sun. — Earthquake  Shocks. — Burckhardt. — The  City  Wall, 
small  Temple,  and  Church. — Rows  of  Prostrate  Columns  and  others  still  standing  with 
their  Entablatures. — Square  Pedestals  covered  with  a  low  Dome. — Portico  of  a  Theatre. 
— Ruined  Theatre  designed  for  Gladiatorial  Combats. — Northern  Gate  of  the  City.— 
Guard-house. — Street  Pavement. — Groups  of  Columns  with  Ionic  Capitals. — Ruins  of 
a  Bath  with  Columns  in  Front. — Aqueduct. — ’Ain  Jerwan. — Original  Site  of  Jerash. — 
Great  Clumps  of  Oleander. — Ruins  on  the  Eastern  Side  of  the  Stream. — Temple  and 
Church. — Spring  and  Aqueduct. — Bridge  and  Bath. — Jerash  a  City  of  Columns. — Not 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  and  almost  unknown  to  History. — Dr.  Porter. — Mahanaim. — 
Dr.  Merrill. — Ramoth-gilead.  —  Gerasa. — Josephus. — Alexander  Jannasus. — A  City  of 
the  Decapolis.  —  Gerasa  burnt  by  the  Jews  and  captured  by  Vespasian.  —  Gerasa  a 
flourishing  City  for  half  a  Century. — The  Seat  of  a  Bishop. — No  Trace  of  Muhammedan 
Work  or  Worship. — William  of  Tyre. — The  Crusaders. — Jerash  deserted  in  the  Thir¬ 
teenth  Century. — Trading  Caravans  and  Mercantile  Stations. — Ezion-geber. — Petra.— 
Palmyra. — A  Store-city  of  Solomon. — ^The  Nabatheans. — Superior  Skill  and  Enterprise 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. — Western  Civilization  and  Classic  Taste. — The  stately 
Forum  and  the  luxuriant  Bath.  —  Decline  of  Commerce  and  Abandonment  of  the 
Graeco-Roman  Cities  East  of  the  Jordan.  —  Prophecy  translated  into  History. — The 
Lord’s  Sacrifice  in  Bozrah. — Fulfilment  of  Prophecy. — The  Olive  Groves  of  Suf  and 
the  Oak  Woods  of  Jebel  ’Ajlun. —  Dr.  Eli  Smith. — Luxuriant  Pasture  and  brilliant 
Wild  Flowers. — ’Ain  Jenneh. — The  Walnut  and  Olive. — Great  Variety  of  Fruit-trees. 


553 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


— Large  Fountains  and  Abundance  of  Water. — Evening  Ride  through  venerable  Oak 
Forests. — Jebel  ’Ajlun. — “The  Land  of  Gilead.” — Jacob  and  Laban.  —  Mizpah  and 
Galeed. — Mahanaim. — Shechem  and  the  Damieh  Ford. — Wady  ’Ajlun  and  the  Jordan 
Valley. — A  Present  of  Sheep  and  Goats,  Camels  and  Cattle  for  Esau. — Meeting  between 
Esau  and  Jacob. — Interview  between  Joseph  and  his  Brethren. —  Peniel. —  City  and 
Tower  at  Penuel. —  Gideon. — Jeroboam  built  a  Palace  at  Penuel. — Josephus. —  Dr. 
Merrill  locates  Penuel  at  Tellul  edh  Dhahab. — The  Hills  of  Gold. — Canaan’s  Ford. — 
The  Wood  of  Ephraim. — “A  Great  Oak”  with  “Thick  Boughs.” — The  Death  of 
Absalom  and  the  Biblical  Narrative  of  the  Battle. — Kul’at  er  Rubud. — Outlook  from 
the  Fortress. — From  Hermon  to  Hebron,  and  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee  to  the  Dead  Sea, 
while  Jordan  rolls  between.  —  Famous  Historical  Events. — From  Chedorlaomer  to 
David. — Elijah  and  Elisha. — From  Judas  Maccabeus  to  Herod  the  Great. — The  Baptist 
and  the  Redeemer. — The  Moat  and  Foundations  of  Kul’at  er  Rubud. — Indications  of 
a  more  ancient  Fortress. — The  present  Castle. — Saladin. — The  Crusaders. — Abulfeda. 
— A  singular  Transposition  of  Names. — The  Village  of  ’Ajlun. — Modern  Chapel  and 
Old  Mosk. — Unsafe  Region  between  ’Ajlun  and  es  Salt. — Villages  on  the  Plain  of 
the  Ghor  and  upon  the  Hills  of  Samaria. — Sunken  Channel  of  the  Jordan. — Ivefrenjy. 
— The  Course  of  the  Jabbok  through  the  Plain  to  the  Jordan. — Dr.  Merrill. — Succoth 
and  Tell  Deir  ’Alla. — Jacob  encamped  in  Wady  Fari’a. —  ’Ain  Thaluth.  —  Khirbet 
Thaluth. — Indications  of  former  Cultivation. — ’Ain  Um  el  Jalud. — El  Khiidr,  St.  George. 
— Dibbin,  et  Tekitty,  and  Reimun. — Um  el  Jauzeh. — Limestone  Strata. — Dense  Oak 
Woods.  —  Kusr  Nejdeh.  —  Captain  Warren.  —  Tropical  Climate.  —  Fruit-trees  and 
Flowers. — Burmeh. — Olive  Groves. — Sandstone  Formation. — The  Zerka  in  Spring  and 
Summer. — Luxuriant  Wild  Oats  and  thriving  Clover. — Impenetrable  Thickets  of  tall 
Oleander. — The  Ford  of  the  Christian  Woman. — Visit  from  the  Sheikh  of  a  Bedawin 
Encampment. — Bulls  of  Bashan. — Bedawin  Boys  and  Girls. — Bakhshish. — Gorge  of  the 
Zerka. — El  Belka  and  Jebel  ’Ajlun. — Sihon  and  Og. — The  Zerka  or  Blue  River. — 
Wooded  Heights  and  Fertile  Plain  of  the  Belka. — Waving  Wheat  and  Barley,  and 
Wild  Flowers  bright  and  gay. — Clumps  of  Oak  and  Pine  trees. — Many  Birds  and  large 
Coveys  of  Partridges. — ’Ain  ’Allan. — Green  Fig-trees.  —  Khirbet  ’Allan.  —  Sihan. — 
Khirbet  ez  Zi. — Neby  Osh’a. — Pilgrims  and  Votive  Offerings. — Sacrifice  and  Feasting. 
— Annual  Fair. — Es  Salt  a  Commercial  Centre. — The  Prophet  Hosea. — Elijah  and 
Joshua. — Outlook  from  Jebel  Osh’a  described  by  Dr.  Merrill. — From  Mount  Hermon 
to  the  Dead  Sea. — Jebel  Osh’a  and  Mount  Nebo. — The  Spot  where  Moses  stood. 

Es  Suf,  September  25th. 

Contrary  to  my  expectations,  we  have  had  no  occasion  to 
complain  as  others  have  of  the  behavior  of  the  Moslem  inhabitants 
of  this  village  during  the  past  night. 

Travellers  have  often  been  annoyed  by  their  fanatical  insolence 
and  by  the  importunate  attempts  of  the  sheikh,  a  notorious  scamp, 
to  levy  black-mail  upon  them,  and  once  I  had  no  little  difficulty  in 
bringing  him  to  reason.  He  was  determined  that  we  should  not 
visit  Jerash  at  all  unless  we  paid  a  large  bakhshish.  Then,  as  now, 


ES  StJF  TO  JERASH.— ENTERING  JERASH.  559 

I  finally  convinced  him  that  we  were  able  to  take  care  of  ourselves 
and  could  dispense  with  his  services  as  protector  and  guide. 

Canon  Tristram  and  his  party  were  insulted,  threatened,  and 
nearly  robbed  here.  They  were  compelled  to  pay  an  exorbitant 
sum  before  they  were  allowed  to  leave,  and  had  to  abandon  all  idea 
of  visiting  Jerash.  Subsequently,  however,  under  the  protection  of 
the  ’Adwan  Arabs,  they  were  more  successful,  and  Sheikh  ’Abd  el 
’Aziz,  with  a  strong  party,  recovered  the  money,  levied,  as  a  fine, 
the  sheikh’s  best  cow,  and  brought  him  and  his  friends  under  com¬ 
pulsion  to  be  their  guards  to  Pella,  whither  the  ’Adwan  could  not 
accompany  them.1  The  village  has  not  improved  in  any  respect 
during  the  last  fifty  years,  and  there  are  no  remains  of  antiquity 
about  it  with  the  exception  of  a  ruined  square  building,  a  few  broken 
columns,  and  one  or  two  Greek  inscriptions  almost  illegible. 

Let  us  now  start  for  Jerash,  where  we  shall  spend  a  day  of  un¬ 
usual  interest  amongst  the  wonderful  ruins  of  that  once  splendid 
city.  The  site  is  about  four  miles  to  the  south-east  of  Suf,  and  the 
road  to  it  winds  along  the  west  bank  of  this  stream  in  Wady  ed  Deir, 
and  around  the  heads  of  shallow  valleys,  amongst  olive-trees  and 
through  straggling  woods  of  pine,  oak,  and  evergreen  bushes,  for 
nearly  an  hour  to  Muzar  Abu  Bekr,  a  Moslem  saint’s  tomb. 

These  people  coming  out  to  the  road  to  meet  us  are  some  of  the 
temporary  occupants  of  the  Muzar,  and  they  offer  a  few  old  coins 
for  sale,  but  none  of  them  are  of  any  special  value.  From  Abu  Bekr 
there  is  a  long  and  steep  descent  of  about  a  mile  to  the  north  wall 
of  the  city.  On  the  left  of  the  road  and  not  far  from  the  city  wall 
are  many  sarcophagi — upwards  of  fifty — scattered,  as  you  see,  far 
and  wide  over  the  hill-side.  The  inscriptions  upon  them,  and  the 
sculptured  festoons  and  genii  in  bass-relief,  have  been  nearly  obliter¬ 
ated  and  defaced  ;  but  careful  search  and  excavation  might  bring  to 
light  some  interesting  relics  of  a  by-gone  age,  for  that  must  have 
been  the  cemetery  of  ancient  Gerasa. 

We  have  now  entered  Jerash  through  this  breach  in  the  wall, 
near  the  north-west  corner,  and  from  here  we  can  take  a  general 
survey  of  this  once  beautiful  city:  groups  of  columns  standing 
around  the  fallen  walls  of  ancient  temples  ;  shapeless  ruins  of  private 

1  Land  of  Israel,  p.  567. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


560 

dwellings,  and  massive  remains  of  great  theatres ;  the  main  street, 
with  a  long  double  colonnade,  terminating  at  the  southern  end  in 
the  forum,  with  its  grand  circle  of  a  hundred  columns  or  more  ;  the 
triumphal  arch  near  the  entrance  to  the  town  from  the  south,  and 
the  crumbling  walls  of  the  city  with  their  ruined  towers  and  shat¬ 
tered  battlements — these  are  some  of  the  principal  features  which 
strike  the  beholder  as  he  gazes  upon  this  wonderful  picture  of  ruin 
and  desolation.  But  the  little  stream,  called  Seil  Jerash,  that  winds 
through  the  town  with  its  foaming  rapids  and  rocky  banks  fringed 
with  green  oleanders  in  full  bloom,  imparts  life  and  beauty  to  the 
scene  and  relieves  the  dreariness  of  this  deserted  city. 

For  the  purpose  of  examining  these  ancient  edifices  in  consecu¬ 
tive  order  and  to  the  greatest  advantage,  let  us  make  our  way  south¬ 
ward,  as  best  we  can,  over  great  masses  of  ruins  half  concealed  by 
tall  grass  and  rank  weeds,  to  the  triumphal  arch  about  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  beyond  the  city  gate  in  that  direction. 

Jerash  was  almost  surrounded  by  mountains,  and  was  built  upon 
uneven  ground  on  both  sides  of  the  shallow  valley  called  Wady  ed 
Deir.  The  walls,  nearly  eight  feet  thick,  enclosed  an  irregular  area 
about  a  mile  square,  which  was  divided  into  two  unequal  parts  by 
Seil  Jerash,  the  purling  stream  that  flows  southward  through  the 
valley  on  its  way  to  join  the  Zerka — the  ancient  Jabbok — some  dis¬ 
tance  below  the  town.  The  principal  part  of  the  city  was  on  the 
western  side  of  the  stream,  and  most  of  the  important  edifices  stood 
upon  the  rising  ground  on  the  west  of  the  main  street.  The  remains 
of  private  houses  and  public  buildings  extend  for  some  distance 
beyond  the  city  gate,  but  the  only  ruins  of  importance  are  those  of 
the  stadium,  or  race-course,  and  these  of  this  triumphal  arch  which 
we  have  now  reached  and  from  whence  we  will  start  northward  on 
our  tour  of  inspection  through  the  city. 

In  thus  approaching  Jerash  from  the  south,  this  structure  is  the 
most  imposing  and  the  first  to  claim  our  attention.  The  Bedawin 
Arabs  call  it  Bab  ’Amman,  because  the  road  from  Jerash  to  that  city 
passed  by  or  through  it.  The  entire  gate-way  was  about  eighty  feet 
wide  and  forty  feet  high,  and  consisted  of  a  central  arch  thirty  feet 
in  height,  and  two  smaller  side  arches  with  rectangular  niches  for 
statues  above  them.  On  the  front  or  south  side  are  four  Corinthian 


TRIUMPHAL  ARCH.— STADIUM.— THE  CITY  GATE.  561 

semicolumns,  occupying  the  spaces  between  the  arches ;  but  portions 
of  the  shafts,  all  their  capitals,  and  the  frieze  and  cornice  of  the 
structure  have  fallen.  The  remarkable  and  unusual  feature  about 


TRIUMPHAL  ARCH  AT  JERASH. 

those  columns  is  the  vase-shaped  pedestal  of  acanthus  leaves  above 
their  bases,  supposed  to  indicate  that  this  triple  gate-way  is  not  older 
than  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Trajan. 

Near  the  triumphal  arch,  to  the  left  of  the  roadway  and  between 
that  structure  and  the  gate  of  the  city,  is  the  stadium  or  race-course. 
It  was  about  three  hundred  feet  wide  and  seven  hundred  feet  long, 
considerably  depressed  below  the  surface,  had  steps  or  seats,  and 
was  semicircular  at  its  northern  end.  The  canal  that  passes  along 
its  eastern  side  seems  to  indicate  that  it  was  sometimes  filled  with 
water  from  Seil  Jerash,  and  used  for  the  purpose  of  representing 
naval  combats.  Proceeding  northward  we  soon  reach  the  city  gate, 
a  triple  entrance  resembling  the  triumphal  arch,  and  originally  con- 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


562 

nected  with  the  massive  walls  of  the  town.  It  is  now  blocked  up 
by  great  heaps  of  fallen  stones,  and  rendered  almost  impassable. 

On  the  left,  as  we  enter  the  city,  are  the  remains  of  a  beautiful 
temple,  which  stood,  fronting  the  north-east,  upon  a  large  mound 
overlooking  the  main  street  and  commanding  a  fine  view  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  town.  This  temple  was  surrounded  by  Corinthian 
columns,  only  one  of  which — at  the  south-east  angle — remains  stand¬ 
ing,  and  the  portico  was  composed  of  two  rows  of  columns,  eight  in 
each  row.  The  portal  was  about  fifteen  feet  broad,  and  the  walls  were 
nearly  eight  feet  thick.  The  temple  was  fifty  feet  wide,  and  seventy 
feet  long,  and  the  walls  had  square  pilasters  with  a  plain  cornice  on 


TEMPLE  AT  JERASH. 


TEMPLE  AND  THEATRE  AT  JERASH.  563 


THEATRE  AT  JERASH. 

the  inside,  and  a  row  of  six  rectangular  niches  with  round  arches  for 
statues  on  the  outside.  The  roof,  the  front  and  rear  of  the  temple, 
a  portion  of  the  side  walls,  especially  on  the  west,  and  all  the  col¬ 
umns,  appear  to  have  been  thrown  down  by  an  earthquake, -and  the 
ruins — heaps  of  stones,  fragments  of  the  frieze  and  cornice,  capitals, 
bases,  and  sections  of  the  shafts — lie  scattered  about  and  piled  to¬ 
gether  in  utter  confusion.  At  the  north-west  corner  of  this  temple 
is  a  side-entrance  leading  towards  a  large  theatre  a  few  rods  distant, 
built  against  the  side  of  a  small  hill  and  close  to  the  city  wall. 

This  theatre  fronted  towards  the  north  and  commanded  a  mag¬ 
nificent  outlook  over  the  city,  so  that  those  of  the  spectators  occu¬ 
pying  the  highest  row  of  benches  enjoyed  an  uninterrupted  prospect 
of  the  surrounding  mountains  and  of  the  principal  public  buildings 
and  private  residences  in  the  town.  Steps  led  up  to  the  entrance  of 
the  theatre  at  the  ends  of  the  proscenium  and  between  it  and  the 
semicircular  walls.  There  were  side-doors  also,  and  the  gallery  was 
P  2 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


564 

reached  by  means  of  vaulted  passages  running  under  the  upper  tiers 
of  benches.  The  proscenium  was  embellished  on  the  inside  with 
pilasters  and  Corinthian  columns  in  pairs,  supporting  a  plain  entabla¬ 
ture,  and  between  the  pilasters  were  ornamented  niches  for  statues. 
Twenty-eight  tiers  of  benches  are  exposed  to  view,  divided  into 
sections  by  narrow  aisles,  and  above  the  tenth  tier  a  broad  passage 
ran  around  the  theatre,  upon  which  were  small  chambers  or  private 
boxes.  The  benches  are  almost  perfect,  and  the  theatre  probably 
accommodated  upwards  of  five  thousand  spectators. 

Descending  eastward  to  the  more  level  part  of  the  city,  we  come 
to  the  grand  colonnade  surrounding  an  oval  area,  probably  the  forum, 
at  the  southern  end  of  the  main  street  and  almost  in  front  of  the 
theatre.  This  colonnade  consisted  of  about  one  hundred  columns, 
fifty-five  of  which  remain  standing — on  the  west  twenty-one,  and 
then  four ;  on  the  east  eighteen,  seven,  and  five  with  their  en¬ 
tablatures.  The  columns  have  Ionic  capitals  but  no  pedestals,  are 
about  six  feet  in  circumference  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  high, 
in  order  to  preserve  the  uniform  level  of  the  entablature.  This 
colonnade  was  paved,  and  probably  open  at  the  south,  in  front  of  the 
theatre,  and  on  the  north,  where  the  main  street  leads  into  the  city. 

Leaving  the  forum  and  proceeding  northward,  we  will  follow 
along  the  main  street  towards  the  gate  of  the  city  in  that  direction. 
The  columns  which  once  lined  this  splendid  thoroughfare  on  either 
side,  for  about  a  mile,  were  mostly  Corinthian,  but  nearly  all  of  them 
have  been  overthrown  by  earthquakes,  and  many  of  those  which 
still  remain  standing  are  of  different  styles  and  vary  in  height  from, 
twenty  to  twenty-five  and  even  thirty  feet.  In  some  places  the  en¬ 
tablature  of  the  shorter  columns  rests  upon  a  bracket  set  into  the 
shafts  of  the  higher,  and  no  attempt  was  made  to  preserve  a  uniform 
height  in  the  construction  of  the  colonnade.  That  feature,  together 
with  the  difference  in  the  size  and  height  of  the  columns  and  their 
various  styles,  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that  this  colonnade  was 
built  at  different  times  and  of  material  which  had  once  been  used 
for  other  purposes.  Although  this  street  is  rendered  almost  im¬ 
passable  by  heaps  of  rubbish,  blocks  of  stone,  fallen  entablatures, 
fragments  of  capitals,  and  parallel  rows  of  prostrate  columns,  the 
roadway  was  not  entirely  destroyed,  and  the  pavement  can  still  be 


FORUM  AT  JERASH 


were  four  cubical  masses  of  stone,  about  seven  feet  high  and  fourteen 
feet  side,  with  niches  for  statues.  They  probably  were  pedestals 
for  colossal  statues,  or  columns  may  have  been  placed  upon  them 
supporting  a  dome,  under  the  centre  of  which  a  statue  stood.  Con¬ 
tinuing  northward  along  the  main  street  we  pass  sections  of  the 
colonnade  on  the  right  and  left,  composed  of  successive  rows  of 
seven,  three,  and  two  columns,  nearly  all  of  which  still  support  their 
entablatures;  but  the  three  large  columns  on  the  right  are  without 


THE  OVAL  FORUM.— THE  MAIN  STREET.  565 

seen  in  some  places,  with  the  ruts  made  by  chariot-wheels  in  the 
long  ages  of  the  past  deeply  worn  into  its  hard  surface. 

This  side  street  which  we  have  now  reached  was  also  lined  with 
similar  columns,  and  it  led  from  a  gate  in  the  west  wall  of  the  city 
to  a  bridge  which  crossed  the  stream  upon  three  substantial  arches, 
the  central  one  being  the  largest  and  highest.  And  here,  at  the 
angles  where  these  two  streets  met  and  crossed  each  other,  there 


SECTION  OF  THE  COLONNADE  ALONG  THE  MAIN  STREET  AT  JERASH. 


other.  Each  row  consists  of  three  round  and  two  intervening  rec¬ 
tangular  niches,  above  which  was  an  elegant  cornice  with  broken 
pediments.  Masses  of  stone  lie  in  confused  heaps  within  the 
building,  and  from  an  inscription  found  upon  a  pedestal  in  the 
portico  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  constructed  during  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  or  towards  the  latter 
part  of  the  second  century  of  our  era. 


566  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

entablatures,  and  they  are  the  first  we  have  seen,  thus  far,  amongst 
the  remains  at  Jerash  standing  upon  bases  or  pedestals. 

Here  on  the  left  are  the  ruins  of  what  apparently  was  once  a 
beautiful  building.  In  the  rear  wall  of  this  edifice — the  only  part 
of  it  still  standing,  though  in  a  ruinous  condition — there  is  a  large 
semicircular  recess,  or  apse,  with  two  rows  of  niches  one  above  the 


NICHES  IN  THE  SEMICIRCULAR  RECESS  OF  AN  ELEGANT  BUILDING. 


ENTRANCE  TO  THE  COURT  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER.  567 


r 


PROPYL^UM  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  THE  SUN. 


We  are  now  approaching  a  group  of  ruins  near  the  centre  of  the 
town,  the  most  imposing  of  which  are  the  remains  of  the  propylaeum, 
or  entrance  to  the  court  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  or  of  the  Sun.  A 
bridge  crossed  the  stream  below  us  on  the  right,  and  this  side  street, 
lined  with  columns  on  either  side,  evidently  led  up  from  it  to  the 
propylaeum.  Sculptured  blocks,  sections  of  columns,  and  broken 
capitals  and  pedestals  lie  scattered  about  the  front  of  this  grand 
gate-way,  of  which  most  of  the  facade  still  remains  standing.  On 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


568 

either  side  of  this  lofty  portal  there  were  small  entrances,  or  windows, 
and  above  them  shell -shaped  niches  with  projecting  cornice  and 
broken  pediments.  The  gate -way  was  rectangular  and  is  nearly 
perfect,  but  lintel  and  architrave  have  fallen,  though  enough  remains 
of  the  latter  to  give  a  good  idea  of  its  highly  ornamental  character. 
From  inscriptions  found  here  it  appears  that  this  propylaeum  was 
constructed  during  the  first  half  of  the  second  century,  in  the  time 
of  Antoninus  Pius,  and  that  the  temple  was  dedicated  to  the  Sun. 

As  that  noble  edifice  stands  upon  higher  ground  and  is  not  visi¬ 
ble  from  here,  we  will  leave  the  main  street  and  find  our  way  to  it 
up  the  hill  westward  and  over  great  masses  of  ruins.  And  now  we 
can  form  some  idea  of  the  magnificent  effect  produced  upon  the 
beholder  as  he  advanced  up  the  hill  from  the  propylaeum,  and  the 
temple  with  its  surrounding  columns  and  courts  suddenly  came  into 
view.  The  great  court  was  encompassed,  except  perhaps  on  the 
west,  by  a  double  colonnade,  and  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  or  of  the 
Sun  stood  in  the  middle  of  it,  facing  the  east,  upon  a  stylobate,  or 
platform,  about  five  feet  high,  surrounded  by  the  columns  of  the 
peristyle,  and  those  of  the  magnificent  portico  in  front.  The  corner 
columns  in  the  second  row  of  the  colonnade  around  the  court 
were  heart-shaped — that  is,  they  were  double  in  front  and  gradually 
tapered  to  a  point  in  the  rear.  Of  the  many  columns  of  the  peri¬ 
style  only  two  remain,  one  on  either  side  of  the  portico. 

A  flight  of  steps  led  up  to  the  portico  which  consisted  of  two 
rows  of  colossal  Corinthian  columns,  six  in  each  row.  Five  still 
remain  standing  in  the  first,  and  four  in  the  second  row ;  and  those 
nine  columns,  together  with  the  two  in  the  peristyle,  are  the  largest 
at  Jerash,  being  about  forty  feet  high  and  eighteen  feet  in  circum¬ 
ference.  The  shafts  of  most  of  the  columns  were  composed  of  five 
pieces,  or  sections,  of  the  ordinary  limestone  of  the  neighborhood, 
which  takes  an  excellent  polish,  and  the  capitals  were  admirably 
executed  and  beautifully  ornamented  with  acanthus  leaves.  The 
capitals  of  two  of  these  eleven  columns  have  fallen,  and  the  shafts 
of  all  of  them  are  slightly  out  of  place — a  striking  evidence  of  the 
unmistakable  action  of  severe  earthquake  shocks.  According  to 
Burckhardt,  “the  number  of  columns  which  originally  adorned  the 
temple  and  its  area  was  not  less  than  two  hundred  or  two  hundred 


V 


I 


TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER  OR  OF  THE  SUN. 


- 


. 


TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER.— NORTHERN  THEATRE.  569 

and  fifty,”  but  without  careful  examination  and  extensive  excava¬ 
tions  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the  exact  number.1 

The  temple  was  about  eighty  feet  long  and  sixty  feet  wide,  but 
the  roof  and  most  of  the  front  wall  have  been,  thrown  down  ;  the 
other  three  walls,  however,  are  almost  entire.  The  interior  is  en¬ 
cumbered  with  the  remains  of  the  fallen  roof,  and  with  the  exception 
of  a  row  of  six  plain  niches  on  the  side  walls,  was  apparently  without 
any  architectural  ornamentation.  In  the  rear  wall  opposite  the  en¬ 
trance  of  the  temple  there  is  a  double  arch  and  a  vaulted  recess  with 
a  small  dark  chamber  on  either  side. 

The  city  wall  is  a  short  distance  to  the  west  of  this  temple  of  the 
Sun,  and  not  far  from  it,  towards  the  south,  are  the  remains  of  a 
small  temple  and  probably  those  of  a  church.  Returning  to  the 
main  street  we  will  follow  it  northward  to  the  cross  street  that  led 
to  a  large  theatre  in  that  part  of  the  town. 

There  are  rows  of  prostrate  columns,  and  others  still  standing 
with  and  without  their  entablatures  on  either  side  of  this  great 
thoroughfare ;  and  now  that  we  have  reached  the  cross  street  there 
appears  to  have  been  another  set  of  pedestals  here,  at  the  intersect¬ 
ing  angles,  like  those  we  saw  a  short  distance  above  the  forum. 

These,  as  you  perceive,  are  square  on  the  outside  and  rounded 
within,  and  covered  with  a  low  dome  beneath  which  a  statue  may 
have  stood,  while  others  were  probably  placed  upon  those  projecting 
pedestals  in  the  sides  of  the  rotunda.  Let  us  turn  to  the  left  and 
pass  up  this  side  street  westward. 

These  seven  large  Corinthian  columns  are  all  that  remain  of  the 
original  twelve  that  formed  the  portico  of  this  theatre.  There  were 
two  rows  of  them,  six  in  each  row,  but  now  only  five  are  still  stand¬ 
ing  in  the  first,  and  two  in  the  second  row.  Though  the  arena  is 
larger,  and  apparently  designed  for  the  exhibition  of  combats  be¬ 
tween  gladiators  or  wild  beasts,  this  theatre  could  not  have  accom¬ 
modated  as  many  spectators  as  the  one  near  the  forum.  It  had 
sixteen  tiers  of  benches  and  a  row  of  six  arched  recesses,  or  private 
boxes,  between  the  tenth  and  eleventh  tiers,  counting  from  the  top, 
This  theatre  was  comparatively  low,  but  a  fine  view  of  the  Temple 
of  Jupiter  behind  it,  to  the  south-west,  could  be  obtained  from  the 

1  Travels  in  Syria,  etc.,  p.  254, 


570 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


highest  tier  of  benches,  and  the  tops  of  the  columns  of  the  portico 
are  visible  from  the  arena.  The  exterior  wall  of  the  theatre  was 
built  of  bevelled  stones,  and  there  appear  to  have  been  two  lofty 
main  entrances  to  the  benches  and  a  smaller  side  door  on  the  right. 


NORTHERN  THEATRE  AT  JERASH. 


As  there  are  no  other  ruins  of  any  importance  in  this  northern 

part  of  the  town,  and  but  few  of  special  interest  across  the  stream 

on  the  eastern  side  of  the  wady,  we  will  return  to  the  rotunda,  and 

retrace  our  steps  along  the  main  street  towards  the  south  gate. 

* 

The  northern  gate  of  the  town,  though  now  in  ruins,  was  a  plain 
but  substantial  structure,  and  within  the  massive  city  wall,  on  the 
right  of  it,  are  the  remains  of  the  guard-house.  Proceeding  from 
that  gate  southward  to  this  rotunda,  the  ancient  pavement  of  the 
street  is  still  to  be  seen  in  some  places  in  a  tolerable  state  of  preser¬ 
vation.  About  twenty  columns  in  detached  groups,  most  of  them 
with  Ionic  capitals  and  supporting  entablatures,  remain  standing  on 


RUINS  ON  THE  EASTERN  SIDE  OF  THE  STREAM  AT  JERASH.  57 1 

the  west  side  of  the  street,  but  on  the  left  side  the  colonnade  has 
been  almost  entirely  overthrown,  and  only  two  small  columns  with 
their  entablatures  are  now  to  be  seen. 

A  short  distance  east  of  this  rotunda,  on  the  south  side  of  the 
cross  street  and  above  the  right  bank  of  the  stream,  are  the  ruins 
of  a  large  bath  and  the  remains  of  a  row  of  columns  in  front  of  it. 
The  walls  were  massive,  and  it  had  numerous  chambers  with  high 
vaulted  roofs.  It  was  supplied  with  water  by  an  aqueduct,  traces 
of  which  still  remain.  Below  the  bath,  near  the  bed  of  the  stream, 
is  a  fine  fountain,  called  ’Ain  Jerwan,  with  an  abundant  supply  of 
delicious  water.  The  existence  of  that  copious  spring  may  have 
led  to  the  selection  of  this  place  for  the  site  of  the  beautiful  city 
of  Jerash,  since  there  is  nothing  else  to  recommend  it. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  heavy  masonry  in  the  wady  near  the 
fountain,  and  the  stream  is  half  concealed  by  great  clumps  of  ole¬ 
ander,  twenty  feet  high  and  more,  that  border  it  on  either  side. 
That  part  of  the  town  situated  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  stream,  or 
Seil  Jerash,  presents  the  appearance  of  a  confused  mass  of  ruins — 
the  prostrate  remains  of  a  few  public  edifices  and  those  of  numerous 
private  dwellings.  Near  the  left  bank  of  the  stream,  and  a  short 
distance  to  the  south-east  of  the  northern  gate  of  the  city,  are  the 
ruins  of  what  originally  appears  to  have  been  a  small  temple,  and 
which  may  subsequently  have  been  converted  into  a  church.  Only 
a  portion  of  the  wall,  a  vaulted  entrance,  and  one  of  the  interior 
columns  remain ;  but  from  the  number  of  broken  columns,  sculptured 
cornices,  and  heaps  of  stones,  that  edifice  when  completed  must 
have  presented  quite  an  imposing  appearance. 

Farther  down  the  valley  there  is  a  spring,  a  broken  aqueduct,  a 
ruined  bridge,  and  the  remains  of  a  bath  which  may  have  had  a 
colonnade  of  Corinthian  columns  around  the  exterior  court.  Still 
farther  south  the  stream  is  spanned  by  a  bridge  of  three  arches,  but 
both  those  bridges  we  have  already  noticed  from  the  western  part 
of  the  town,  together  with  the  streets  lined  with  columns  which  led 
down  to  them.  Indeed  Jerash  was  pre-eminently  a  city  of  columns, 
the  number  of  those  still  standing  and  the  prostrate  remains  of 
others  strewn  everywhere  on  both  sides  of  the  stream  in  such 
bewildering  confusion  far  exceeding  three  hundred. 


572 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


The  astonished  and  amazed  visitor  longs  to  know  something 
definite  and  satisfactory  about  the  history  of  this  wonderful  city. 

It  is  not  mentioned  either  in  the  Old  Testament  or  in  the  New; 
neither  its  ancient  name  nor  that  of  its  founder  have  yet  been  dis¬ 
covered,  and  it  is  almost  unknown  to  history.  The  existing  remains, 
however,  indicate  plainly  enough  who  were  its  builders  in  compara¬ 
tively  modern  times,  and  by  the  aid  of  a  few  imperfect  inscriptions 
we  conclude  that  most,  if  not  all,  of  its  public  edifices  were  erected 
after  the  beginning  of  our  era.  It  is  not  of  this  Graeco-Roman  town, 
however,  that  the  Biblical  student  desires  special  information;  there 
was  a  previous  city  here,  but  no  record  of  it  exists,  and  travellers 
and  archaeologists  are  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  mere  conjecture 
in  regard  to  its  ancient  name  and  former  history.  • 

Dr.  Porter  thinks  that  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude  that  this  city 
occupies  the  site  of  Mahanaim  ;  but  the  topographical  indications  in 
the  various  Biblical  narratives  suggest  a  position  for  that  long-lost 
'place  nearer  the  Jordan.  Dr.  Merrill  identifies  Ramoth-gilead  with 
Gerasa,  and  supports  his  theory  with  numerous  references  to  Biblical 
and  historical  authorities  which  certainly  claim  careful  consideration. 
We  can  examine  that  subject,  however,  when  we  reach  es  Salt,  which 
has  been  generally  accepted  as  the  site  of  Ramoth-gilead. 

But  whatever  uncertainty  there  may  be  regarding  the  Biblical 
history  of  Jerash,  all  agree  that  it  is  identical  with  Gerasa  in  Gilead, 
a  city  of  the  Decapolis,  and  upon  the  eastern  confines  of  Peraea. 
Gerasa,  however,  was  in  existence  long  before  the  conquest  of  this 
region  by  the  Romans,  and  it  is  first  mentioned  by  Josephus,  who 
relates  that  Alexander  Jannaeus,  king  of  the  Jews  in  the  last  century 
before  Christ,  marched  against  it,  built  a  triple  wall  about  the  gar¬ 
rison,  and  took  the  place  by  force.1  The  Romans  included  Gerasa 
among  the  cities  of  the  Decapolis,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  burnt 
by  the  Jews  in  retaliation  for  the  massacre  of  over  twenty  thousand 
of  their  number  at  Caesarea.2  Before  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  Ves¬ 
pasian  sent  his  general,  Lucius  Annius,  to  Gerasa,  who  took  the 
city,  slew  a  thousand  of  its  young  men,  carried  their  families  away 
captive,  and  permitted  his  soldiers  to  plunder  them,  after  which 
he  set  fire  to  their  houses.3 


1  B.  J.  i.  4,  8. 


2  B.  J.  ii.  i S ,  i. 


3  B.  J.  iv.  9,  i. 


A  FLOURISHING  CITY.— TRADING  CARAVANS. 


573 


For  half  a  century  or  more  after  that  Gerasa  appears  to  have 
been  a  flourishing  city,  one  of  the  largest  and  strongest  on  this  side 
of  the  Jordan  ;  and  probably  during  the  early  centuries  of  our  era 
it  was  adorned  with  those  public  edifices  and  private  dwellings 
whose  deserted  and  prostrate  ruins  now  astonish  the  beholder. 
Though  Gerasa  became  the  nominal  seat  of  a  bishop,  Christianity 
has  left  few  evidences  of  its  existence  upon  the  ruins,  and  the  Mu- 
hammedans  seem  never  to  have  established  themselves  here,  for  we 
find  no  trace  either  of  their  work  or  worship.  According  to  William 
of  Tyre,  the  crusaders,  under  Baldwin  II.,  in  1121  destroyed  a  castle 
here  which  was  built  by  the  king  of  Damascus ;  and  an  Arabian 
writer  informs  us  that  Jerash  was  deserted  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  the  few  mills  which  we  see  on  the  border  of  the  stream  to-day 
were  then,  as  now,  the  sole  representatives  of  this  once  populous 
and  splendid  Graeco-Roman  and  pagan  city. 

One  is  tempted  to  venture  into  the  debatable  regions  of  con¬ 
jecture  and  inference  in  search  of  the  origin  and  story  of  this  un¬ 
known  city.  History  informs  us  of  a  time  when  the  commerce  of 
Southern  India,  Western  Arabia,  and  Eastern  Africa  was  brought 
to  Ezion  -  geber,  the  modern  Akabah,  at  the  head  of  the  Elanitic 
gulf  of  the  Red  Sea.  Thence  it  was  carried  to  Petra,  and  from  that 
city  the  great  north-eastern  caravan  route  led  through  Moab  to 
’Amman.  The  well -watered  vale  of  Jerash  offered  the  next  con¬ 
venient  halting-place,  or  station,  for  the  caravans  north  of  ’Amman 
to  el  Busrah,  Damascus,  Palmyra,  and  their  dependencies.  Caravan¬ 
saries,  storehouses,  and  the  necessary  habitations  for  the  merchants 
gradually  rose  up  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  fountain  of  Jerwan, 
as  they  did  elsewhere  at  similar  stations,  including  even  that  at 
Palmyra,  the  store  city  which  “  Solomon  built  in  the  wilderness.”  1 

This  great  caravan  commerce  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Nabatheans 
for  centuries,  both  before  and  after  the  commencement  of  our  era, 
and  probably  they  did  not  originate  those  stations,  which  we  may 
suppose  began  to  be  formed  at  a  very  early  age,  but  they  merely 
availed  of  what  was  already  established.  Thus  the  selection  of  those 
mercantile  stations  was  not  made  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  but 
their  superior  skill,  enterprise,  and  wealth  enabled  them  to  control 

1  I  Kings  ix.  18;  2  Chron.  viii.  4. 


574 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


not  only  the  business,  but  also  to  obtain  complete  possession  of  the 
places  where  it  was  principally  conducted.  Greek  and  Roman 
merchants  began  to  visit  those  trading -stations,  and  growing  rich 
by  the  rapid  increase  of  commerce  they  finally  settled  in  them, 
bringing  with  them  Western  civilization  and  classic  taste.  Hence 
arose  the  stately  forum,  the  magnificent  colonnades,  the  great 
theatres,  the  splendid  temples,  and  the  luxurious  baths.  Thus  what¬ 
ever  ancient  material  they  found  available  was  used  in  the  con¬ 
struction  of  those  grand  edifices ;  and  those  cities  along  the  line 
of  that  caravan  route  ultimately  became  wholly  Roman,  and  all 
trace  of  their  former  existence  entirely  disappeared. 

This  condition  of  things  would  naturally  continue  as  long  as  the 
commerce  which  sustained  it  lasted  ;  but  when  the  route  was  changed 
by  which  the  commodities  of  the  East  were  transferred  to  the  West, 
these  cities  necessarily  declined,  and  they  were  abandoned  by  the 
wealthy  and  forsaken  by  all.  To  translate  prophecy  into  history, 
the  Lord’s  “  sacrifice  in  Bozrah  ”  and  his  “  great  slaughter  in  the 
land  of  Idumea  ”  have  been  completed.  He  hath  stretched  “  out 
upon  it  the  line  of  confusion,  and  the  stones  of  emptiness.  Thorns 
[have  come  up]  in  her  palaces,  nettles  and  brambles  in  the  fortresses 
thereof,”  and  there  dwell  “  the  owl  and  the  raven.  The  wild  beasts 
of  the  desert  ”  are  there,  and  there  “  the  great  owl  makes  her  nest 
and  lays,  and  hatches  and  gathers  under  her  shadow.”  1 

Certainly  those  desolations  present  a  convincing  testimony  to 
the  fulfilment  of  divine  prophecy. 

That  is  emphatically  true.  No  mere  human  sagacity  could 
have  foreseen  the  utter  ruin  of  ’Amman,  Jerash,  el  Busrah,  and 
other  magnificent  cities  along  the  extended  caravan  line  from 
Petra  to  Palmyra.  Let  us,  therefore,  carry  away  with  us  the  im¬ 
pressive  lesson  which  they  teach,  and  the  most  important  which 
they  now  confer  upon  mankind. 

Instead  of  spending  another  night  at  Suf  we  will  pass  on  to 
'Ajlun,  two  hours  and  a  half  west  of  it,  to  which  place  our  muleteers 
have  already  preceded  us.  After  leaving  the  olive  groves  of  Suf 
we  shall  be  overshadowed  by  an  uninterrupted  forest  of  venerable 
oak  and  other  evergreen  trees  for  more  than  an  hour  to  ’Ain  Jen- 

1  Isa.  xxxiv.  6,  n,  13-15.. 


'AIN  JENNEH.— VENERABLE  OAK  FORESTS.— JEBEL  'AJLUN.  575 

neh,  where  there  are  several  fine  fountains,  which  water  the  flourish¬ 
ing  gardens  and  orchards  and  irrigate  the  fields  of  that  village. 

These  forests  extend  a  great  distance  both  to  the  north  and 
south,  and  a  large  part  of  the  country  might  be  brought  under  culti¬ 
vation  by  clearing  away  the  trees.  The  substratum  is  everywhere 
limestone,  the  soil  is  naturally  fertile,  and  in  the  spring  of  the  year 
the  surface  is  clothed  with  luxuriant  pasture.  “  Jebel  Ajlun,”  says 
Dr.  Eli  Smith,  “  presents  the  most  charming  rural  scenery  that  I 
have  seen  in  Syria :  a  continued  forest  of  noble  trees,  chiefly  the 
evergreen  oak,  sindian,  covers  a  large  part  of  it,  while  the  ground 
beneath  is  clothed  with  luxuriant  grass,  a  foot  or  more  in  height, 
and  decked  with  a  rich  variety  of  wild  flowers.” 

’Ain  Jenneh  certainly  has  the  largest  walnut-trees  we  have  seen 
east  of  the  Jordan,  and  the  gardens  and  orchards  contain  a  great 
variety  of  other  trees — the  olive,  fig,  apple,  plum,  quince,  pear,  apricot, 
and  lemon — all  of  which  are  loaded  with  fruit. 

That  is  owing  entirely  to  the  abundance  of  water  from  the  large 
fountains  under  the  cliffs  farther  up  the  wady,  and  the  same  cause 
gives  to  this  region  around  the  village  of  ’Ajlun  its  well -wooded 
appearance  and  rural  beauty. 

'Ajlun,  September  25th.  Evening. 

This  has  been  a  day  of  varied  and  uninterrupted  enjoyment,  and 
the  evening  ride  through  those  venerable  oak  woods,  when 

“  Twilight  gray 

Had  in  her  sable  livery  all  things  clad,” 

was  singularly  impressive,  and  my  fancy  was  busy  recalling  some 
of  the  historic  events  which  have  rendered  those  great  forests 
memorable,  especially  during  the  earliest  Biblical  times. 

The  thickly  wooded  mountain  range  as  far  north  as  the  Jarmuk 
or  Heiromax,  and  south  to  the  Zerka  or  Jabbok,  is  now  called  Jebel 
’Ajlun,  and  it  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  picturesque  regions  east 
of  the  Jordan.  It  is  also  distinguished  by  some  remarkable  incidents 
in  the  early  history  of  the  Hebrew  people.  Jebel  ’Ajlun  is  in  the 
northern  half  of  “  the  land  of  Gilead,”  and  it  is  first  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  in  connection  with  the  history  of  Jacob.  Laban  overtook 
Jacob  in  Mount  Gilead,  and  before  parting  they  set  up  a  heap  of 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


576 

stones  as  a  witness  between  them.  “Laban  called  it  Mizpah,  or 
watch-tower,  but  Jacob  called  it  Galeed,  the  heap  of  witness;”  and 
“  from  thence  they  call  that  land  the  land  of  Gilead  at  this  day.”  1 
“  And  Jacob  went  on  his  way,  and  the  angels  of  God  met  him.  And 
when  Jacob  saw  them,  he  said,  This  is  God’s  host:  and  he  called 
the  name  of  that  place  Mahanaim  [the  two  hosts  or  camps].  And 
Jacob  sent  messengers  before  him  to  Esau  his  brother  unto  the 
land  of  Seir,  the  country  of  Edom.”  2 

Jacob  was  coming  from  the  north  with  the  intention  of  descend¬ 
ing  into  the  Jordan  valley,  and  probably  crossing  that  river,  on  his 
way  to  Shechem,  at  the  well-known  ford  of  ed  Damieh,  where  the 
road  from  Gilead  to  that  city  has  always  passed.  This  Wady  ’Ajlun 
would  offer  one  of  the  best  lines  of  descent  to  the  Jordan  valley 
north  of  the  Zerka  or  Jabbok,  and  here  Jacob,  after  leaving  Maha¬ 
naim  with  its  divine  manifestations,  would  find  ample  supply  of 
water  for  his  large  household  and  his  numerous  flocks  and  herds, 
camels  and  cattle,  as  well  as  abundant  pasture. 

Descending  to  the  Jordan  valley,  and  directing  his  course  through 
it  southward  for  about  a  day’s  journey,  Jacob  met  his  returning 
messengers,  and  learned  with  dismay  that  Esau  was  coming  to  meet 
him,  “and  four  hundred  men  with  him.  Then  Jacob  was  greatly 
afraid  and  distressed,”  and  he  halted  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Jab¬ 
bok,  “  and  he  lodged  there  the  same  night ;  and  took  of  that  which 
came  to  his  hand  a  present  for  Esau  his  brother.”  He  well  knew 
the  character  of  Esau,  and  adopted  the  right  means  to  propitiate 
him  and  to  gain  the  desired  reconciliation  with  him.  He  selected 
and  sent  forward  a  large  present  of  sheep  and  goats,  camels  and 
cattle,  such  as  his  brother  would  be  likely  to  appreciate.3 

And  not  only  was  the  present  large,  but  there  was  wisdom  in 
the  method  adopted  to  render  it  effective.  “And  he  said  unto  his 
servants,  Pass  over  before  me,  and  put  a  space  betwixt  drove  and 
drove.  And  he  commanded  the  foremost,  saying,  When  Esau  my 
brother  meeteth  thee,  and  asketh  thee,  saying,  Whose  art  thou  ? 
and  whither  goest  thou?  and  whose  are  these  before  thee?  then 
thou  shalt  say,  They  be  thy  servant  Jacob’s;  it  is  a  present  sent 
unto  my  lord  Esau  :  and,  behold,  also  he  is  behind  us.  And  so 
1  Gen.  xxxi.  46-49  ;  Ant.  i.  19,  11.  2  Gen.  xxxii.  1-3.  3  Gen.  xxxii.  6,  7,  13-15. 


JACOB  AND  ESAU.— PENIEL  AND  PENUEL. 


5  77 


commanded  he  the  second,  and  the  third,  and  all  that  followed  the 
droves.  For  he  said,  I  will  appease  him  with  the  present  that  goeth 
before  me,  and  afterward  I  will  see  his  face ;  peradventure  he  will 
accept  of  me.  So  went  the  present  over  before  him  ;  and  himself 
lodged  that  night  in  the  company.”1 

As  he  expected,  Esau  was  appeased.  The  next  day  “Jacob  lifted 
up  his  eyes,  and  looked,  and  behold,  Esau  came,  and  with  him  four 
hundred  men.  And  Jacob  passed  over  and  bowed  himself  to  the 
ground  seven  times,  until  he  came  near  to  his  brother.  And  Esau 
ran  to  meet  him,  and  embraced  him,  and  fell  on  his  neck,  and  kissed 
him:  and  they  wept.”2  The  meeting  of  the  two  brothers  after  their 
long  separation  was  altogether  unique,  and  the  description  of  the 
scene  reads  now,  after  more  than  three  thousand  years,  like  a  page 
out  of  some  Oriental  romance.  In  simplicity,  naturalness,  and  touch¬ 
ing  pathos  there  is  nothing  equal  to  it  in  the  Bible,  unless  it  be 
the  account  of  the  interview  between  Joseph  and  his  brethren  in 
Egypt  when  he  made  himself  known  to  them.3 

On  the  supposition  that  Jacob  descended  to  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan  through  Wady  ’Ajlun,  where  would  Peniel  be  —  the  place 
where  his  name  was  changed  from  Jacob  to  Israel? 

It  was,  apparently,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Jabbok  and  not  far 
from  the  ford  where  Jacob’s  household  crossed  that  stream.  There 
probably  was  no  inhabited  place  near  it  at  that  time,  but  the  spot 
where  that  mysterious  conflict  occurred  may  have  been  marked  by 
“a  heap  of  stones,”  or  pillar  like  that  at  Mizpah.  In  the  time  of 
Gideon,  about  five  hundred  years  later,  there  was  a  city  and  a  tower 
at  Penuel,  and  Gideon  “beat  down  the  tower,  and  slew  the  men  of 
the  city.”4  Nearly  three  hundred  years  later  Penuel  was  rebuilt  by 
Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Nebat  and  the  first  king  of  Israel;  and  accord¬ 
ing  to  Josephus,  he  built  him  a  palace  at  Penuel,  a  city  so  called.5 
Dr.  Merrill  places  the  site  of  Penuel  at  Tellul  edh  Dhahab,  or  Hills 
of  Gold,  in  the  valley  of  the  Jabbok,  about  four  miles  east  of  Mush- 
ra’a  Kana’an,  or  Canaan’s  Ford.  “  They  are  covered  with  ruins,  and 
on  the  eastern  of  the  two  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient  castle.”6  If 
that  identification  is  correct,  then  the  scene  of  Jacob’s  mysterious 

1  Gen.  xxxii.  i6-2I.  2  Gen.  xxxiii.  1-4.  3  Gen.  xlv.  1-15. 

4  Judg.  viii.  8,  9,  17.  6  1  Kings  xii.  25;  Ant.  viii.  8,  4.  6  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  391. 


578 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


conflict  must  have  been  nearer  the  crossing  of  the  Jabbok  and  some 
distance  from  the  supposed  site  of  the  ancient  city. 

Here  at  ’Ajlun  we  are  in  the  midst,  I  suppose,  of  that  “wood  of 
Ephraim  ”  in  which  the  battle  between  the  armies  of  David  and 
his  rebellious  son  Absalom  was  fought,  and  which  “  devoured  more 
people  that  day  than  the  sword  devoured.”  1 

We  shall  see  during  our  ride  to-morrow  many  “a  great  oak”  and 
terebinth  with  “thick  boughs,”  and  low,  wide- spreading  branches 
large  enough  to  have  caused  that  fatal  accident  to  Absalom,  and 
which  proved  so  disastrous  to  his  cause.  One  can  scarcely  read  the 
narrative  of  that  battle,  as  recorded  in  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth 
chapters  of  2d  Samuel,  without  pausing  to  dwell  upon  some  of  the 
many  reflections  which  are  suggested  by  it;  but  they  are  too  obvious 
to  require  illustration  or  comment. 

It  grows  late,  and  I  will  only  add  that  early  to-morrow  morning 
we  will  visit  Kul’at  er  Rubud,  north-west  of  ’Ajlun,  situated  on  a 
high  and  prominent  peak  directly  above  the  Jordan  valley,  and  which 
commands  a  more  extensive  outlook  over  the  Land  of  Promise  than 
even  Pisgah,  where  Moses  stood  and  viewed  the  landscape  o’er. 
We  will  make  the  ascent  in  time  to  see  the  rising  sun  light  up  the 
mountains  and  hills,  the  valleys  and  fertile  plains  of  “  Canaan’s  fair 
and  happy  land.” 

Ajlun,  September  26th. 

The  cool  and  bracing  air  of  the  morning  will  render  the  ride  up 
the  mountain-side  to  Kul’at  er  Rubud  less  fatiguing,  and  the  trans¬ 
parency  of  the  atmosphere  will  lend  enchantment  to  the  extensive 
view  from  the  top  of  the  castle. 

It  has  taken  three-quarters  of  an  hour  from  our  tents  to  reach 
the  summit  of  the  ridge,  winding  up  for  the  last  fifteen  minutes,  by 
a  zigzag  path,  the  steep  side  of  the  lofty  peak  which  is  crowned  by 
this  ruined  castle  of  er  Rubud. 

The  outlook  from  this  fortress  is,  indeed,  magnificent  and  im¬ 
pressive  beyond  anything  we  have  seen  “  on  this  side  Jordan  toward 
the  sunrising,”  and  one  never  to  be  forgotten. 

The  mountain  descends  abruptly,  on  the  west,  sheer  down  to  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan,  and  the  river  itself  can  be  traced  by  a  “line  of 

1  2  Sam.  xviii.  6-S. 


VIEW  FROM  KUL’AT  ER  RUBUD.— HISTORICAL  EVENTS.  579 

luxuriant  verdure”  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee  on  the  north  to  the 
Dead  Sea  on  the  south,  a  distance  of  about  seventy  miles  from  sea 
to  sea,  but  of  over  two  hundred  miles  following  the  sinuosities  of 

1 

that  remarkable  river.  That  high  mountain  on  the  extreme  north 
is  Hermon,  and  the  billowy  ranges  south  and  west  of  it  include  the 
picturesque  hills  of  Galilee  and  Nazareth,  and  Mount  Tabor.  By  the 
aid  of  your  glass  you  can  see  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  beyond  it 
is  Mount  Carmel,  with  its  bold  promontory  projecting  far  into  the 
blue  Mediterranean,  that  “great  and  wide  sea.” 

The  mountains  of  Gilboa,  the  hills  of  Samaria,  Ebal  and  Gerezim 
enclosing  the  vale  of  Nablus — the  Shechem  of  Jacob’s  time — are  all 
plainly  visible  nearly  due  west  ;  and  southward  stretches  the  rocky 
region  of  Ephraim  and  Benjamin  to  the  Mount  of  Olives,  behind 
which  is  Jerusalem,  the  city  of  the  Great  King.  The  hills  around 
Bethlehem  and  those  still  higher  between  it  and  Hebron  close  the 
prospect  in  that  direction,  while  below  and  beyond  all  else,  from 
north  to  south,  lies  the  sea-coast  from  the  Ladder  of  Tyre  to  the  road¬ 
stead  of  ancient  Joppa,  and  the  land  of  the  Philistines  fades  away 
into  the  sandy  desert  between  Palestine  and  Egypt. 

“  Thus  as  we  look  down  from  Kul’at  er  Rubud — the  watch-tower 
of  Gilead — upon  this  river  and  valley,  the  Sea  and  the  Lake,  our  eyes 
rest  upon  the  scene  of  a  multitude  of  famous  historical  events,  in 
which  many  of  the  great  men  of  antiquity  bore  a  part :  Chedor- 
laomer,  Abraham  and  Lot,  Jacob,  Joshua,  Gideon  and  Jephthah, 
David  and  Solomon,  Absalom  and  Joab  [Elijah  and  Elisha],  Judas 
Maccabeus,  Pompey,  Vespasian  and  Herod  the  Great,  John  the 
Baptist,  and  Christ,  the  Redeemer  of  the  world.”1  In  reality  this 
prospect  includes  more  points  of  Biblical  and  historical  interest 
than  any  other  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  Deeply  impressive  as  it 
is,  we  cannot  linger  here,  but  must  descend  to  ’Ajlun  and  resume 
our  ride  over  the  oak-clad  mountains  of  Gilead  to  es  Salt,  upon 
the  south-eastern  side  of  the  lofty  peak  of  Jebel  Osh’a. 

Has  this  castle  of  er  Rubud  no  history,  sacred  or  secular? 

It  is  highly  probable  that  a  position  so  commanding  and  so  easily 
defended  was  occupied  from  remote  antiquity  by  a  fortress  of  some 
kind.  The  moat  is  broad  and  deep,  and  it  was  partly  excavated  in 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  365. 


58° 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


the  solid  rock  upon  which  the  castle  stood ;  and  in  the  foundations 
there  are  large  stones,  similar  in  character  to  those  “  in  the  lower 
portions  of  the  castle  at  Shukif  and  Banias.”1  Those  indications 
point  to  an  older  fortress  than  the  present  castle,  still  they  are  less 
distinct  than  what  one  would  expect  to  find. 

In  its  present  form  Kul’at  er  Rubud  is  a  rectangular  fortress, 
nearly  square,  with  thick  walls  and  flanking  towers  or  bastions. 
An  Arabic  inscription  within  the  walls  of  the  castle  ascribes  its  con¬ 
struction  to  Saladin,  the  renowned  antagonist  of  the  crusaders ;  it 
is,  therefore,  Saracenic  and  comparatively  modern,  Abulfeda,  the 
Arabian  historian  who  flourished  during  the  first  half  of  the  four¬ 
teenth  century,  says,  “  ’Ajlun  is  a  fortress,  and  its  suburb  Rubud  is 
called  el  Ba’utheh.  The  fortress  is  distant  from  the  town  about  a 
horse-race.”  And  thus  “a  singular  transposition  of  names  seems  to 
have  occurred  between  the  two  places.”2  The  castle  is  now  de¬ 
serted  and  partially  in  ruins,  but  in  the  early  years  of  this  century 
it  was  the  residence  of  the  governor  of  the  district  of  ’Ajlun. 

The  village  of ’Ajlun  lies  principally  on  the  right  side  of  Wady 
Jenneh,  and  the  inhabitants  are  mostly  Christians  of  the  Greek  sect. 
The  only  objects  of  interest  about  the  place  are  a  new  building,  in¬ 
tended  As  a  chapel  to  accommodate  a  few  families  who  have  become 
Protestants,  and  this  old  mosk,  with  its  strange  and  rather  dilapi¬ 
dated  square  minaret,  on  the  bank  of  the  brook.  Built  into  the 
walls  are  some  fragments  of  sculpture  and  portions  of  inscriptions, 
and  about  the  mosk  are  a  few  indications  of  antiquity. 

It  is  well  that  we  are  to  reach  a  safe  asylum  at  the  end  of  our 
day’s  ride,  for  there  is  but  a  single  inhabited  village,  through  which 
we  pass  along  the  route  we  are  to  follow,  between  ’Ajlun  and  es  Salt. 

What  was  the  controversy  about  between  you  and  our  guide 
this  morning  before  we  left  ’Ajlun  ? 

The  man  declared  that  he  could  not  accompany  us  alone,  not 
from  any  fear  while  with  us,  but  because  the  country  between  this 
and  es  Salt  was  so  unsafe  that  he  must  have  two  companions  to 
return  with  him.  As  his  assertion  was  confirmed  by  the  Greek 
priest  and  others  I  was  obliged  to  consent,  and  thus  we  have  three 
armed  men  with  us.  Dr.  Merrill,  wishing  to  send  some  of  his  im- 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  375.  2  Rob.  Res.  vol.  iii.  Sec.  App.  p.  166. 


THE  JORDAN  AND  THE  JABOK.— SUCCOTH  AND  WADY  FARI’A.  581 

pedimenta  from  ’Ajlun  to  es  Salt,  experienced  the  same  difficulty, 
and  no  doubt  these  wild  Gilead  mountains  are  sometimes  unsafe. 

Our  guide  is  leading  us  up  the  steep  mountain-side  to  the  south¬ 
east  of  ’Ajlun,  and  as  we  rise  higher  and  higher  the  prospect  over 
the  valley  of  the  Jordan  and  the  country  west  of  it  widens  rapidly, 
and  every  moment  becomes  more  varied  and  impressive. 

Several  villages  begin  to  appear  far  below  us  on  the  plain  of 
the  Ghor,  and  others  upon  the  many-shaped  hills  of  Samaria,  on 
the  western  side  of  the  river;  the  Jordan  itself,  however,  is  not 
visible.  Its  channel  is  sunk  so  deep  below  the  level  of  the  plain 
through  which  it  meanders  that  it  cannot  be  seen  even  from  its 
own  upper  banks.  Its  ever-winding  way,  however,  can  be  traced 
in  many  places  by  the  verdant  fringe  of  willows  and  other  trees 
and  bushes  that  line  its  borders. 

What  is  the  name  of  that  village  below  us  on  the  right,  and 
which  we  saw  from  Kul’at  er  Rubud  ? 

It  is  called  Kefrenjy ;  a  considerable  place,  and  the  only  one  that 
merits  a  passing  notice  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  ’Ajlun. 

Before  passing  into  the  thick  forest  ahead  of  us  let  me  direct 
your  attention  to  the  course  of  the  Zerka  or  Jabbok  across  the  plain 
of  the  Jordan  until  it  unites  with  that  river,  a  short  distance  north 
of  the  ruined  Roman  bridge  near  the  ford  of  ed  Damieh.  Dr.  Merrill 
thoroughly  explored  that  region  in  search  of  Succoth,  and  is  in¬ 
clined  to  locate  it  at  a  conspicuous  mound,  called  Tell  Deir  ’Alla, 
“just  north  of  the  Jabbok”  and  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  he  may  be 
right.1  But  one  would  naturally  expect  that  Jacob  would  hasten  to 
put  the  Jordan  between  him  and  his  brother,  whom  he  had  deceived 
and  whose  resentment  he  might  justly  dread.  Instead  of  recrossing 
the  Jabbok  and  erecting  his  booths  on  the  north  of  it,  in  the  open 
plain,  I  think  that  Jacob  crossed  the  Jordan  and  made  his  winter 
encampment  somewhere  in  Wady  Fari’a  and  on  the  banks  of  the 
little  stream  that  descends  through  that  valley  and  enters  the  Jor¬ 
dan  near  the  Damieh  ford.  The  road  to  Shechem  has  always  fol¬ 
lowed  up  that  valley,  and  no  better  or  safer  place  could  Jacob  have 
desired  than  the  beautiful  Wady  Fari’a. 

A  short  distance  ahead  of  us  is  a  fine  fountain,  called  ’Ain  Tha- 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  387. 


582 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


luth.  It  is  an  hour  from  ’Ajlun,  and  near  it  is  a  ruin  bearing  the 
name  of  Khirbet  Thaluth.  Thus  far  there  are  indications  of  former 
cultivation  along  our  route,  and  the  outlook  westward  is  very  wide 
and  varied.  Kul’at  er  Rubud  is  quite  a  prominent  and  striking 
feature  in  the  distance  far  below  us  to  the  north-west.  We  shall 
come  in  half  an  hour,  through  a  dense  wood,  to  another  fountain, 
called  ’Ain  Um  el  Jalud,  where  there  is  a  Moslem  muzar  dedicated 
to  el  Khudr,  St.  George,  and  around  it  are  many  olive-trees,  whose 
olives  and  oil  are  devoted  to  the  maintenance  of  that  sacred  shrine 
or  saint’s  tomb.  It  is  the  only  one  we  shall  see  to-day. 

We  are  wandering  through  a  veritable  wilderness  in  this  oak 
forest,  and  without  any  visible  road  or  pathway. 

By  following  down  the  stream  from  the  fountain  we  shall  come, 
in  about  half  an  hour,  to  a  well-travelled  road  from  Suf  which  de¬ 
scends  westward  to  the  Ghor,  or  valley  of  the  Jordan,  and  across  it 
to  the  ford  of  ed  Damieh.  Between  the  place  where  we  cross  it  and 
Suf  are  the  three  villages  of  Dibbin,  et  Tekitty,  and  Reimun,  and 
our  guide  says  that  this  large  open  space  in  the  woods  is  called  Um 
el  Jauzeh.  I  remember  it  on  account  of  the  great  thickness  of  the 
strata  in  the  cliffs  on  our  left.  They  are  composed  of  compact  lime¬ 
stone,  and  some  of  the  large  blocks  I  measured  were  more  than 
twenty  feet  thick.  The  guide  warns  us  to  look  well  to  our  safety 
and  that  of  the  loaded  mules  for  the  next  hour,  as  the  ascent 
through  these  woods  is  very  steep.  Road  there  is  none,  and  the 
oak  forest  is  more  dense  and  tangled  than  any  other  in  this  region. 

On  a  former  occasion  those  of  us  on  horseback  escaped  through 
these  woods  without  being  caught  amongst  the  branches  like  Absa¬ 
lom,  but  the  muleteers  were  greatly  troubled  by  the  bewilderment 
of  their  animals,  and  some  of  the  loads  were  overthrown  by  project¬ 
ing  rocks  and  the  low  branches  of  the  trees.  The  only  indication 
of  man’s  presence  in  this  extraordinary  wilderness  is  a  small  ruin,  as 
of  a  tower,  called  Kusr  Nejdeh,  on  the  top  of  the  hill  half  a  mile 
west  of  us.  We  have  now  reached  the  highest  part  of  this  great 
dividing  range  of  the  Gilead  mountains,  and  it  commands  magnifi¬ 
cent  prospects  in  every  direction.  Captain  Warren,  of  the  British 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  says  that  “  this  line  of  hills  is  a  remark¬ 
able  feature  in  the  country,  and  is  somewhat  higher  than  the  Jebel 


VILLAGE  OF  BURMAH.— THE  ZERKA.—  LUXURIANT  WILD  OATS.  583 

Husha  range,”  or  Mount  Gilead,  north-west  of  es  Salt.  From  this 
point  there  is  a  very  steep  descent  of  nearly  an  hour  to  the  vil¬ 
lage  of  Burmeh,  where  we  will  rest  and  lunch. 

This  has,  indeed,  been  a  great  descent,  and  it  has  brought  us 
into  an  entirely  different  climate. 

We  are  here  fairly  within  the  profound  gorge  of  the  Jabbok, 
and  the  climatic  transition  was  far  more  marked  in  April  than  at 
this  season  in  September.  From  shivering  in  the  cold  wind  on  the 
mountain  top,  by  a  single  hour’s  descent  we  found  ourselves  rejoicing 
in  the  balmy  atmosphere  of  this  village  of  Burmeh,  embowered  as 
it  is  by  fruit-trees  and  semitropical  bushes  and  flowers.  To  us, 
at  present,  the  one  thing  most  delightful  is  this  noble  fountain  with 
its  clear,  cold  water.  Burmeh  is  a  prosperous  village,  inhabited  by 
Moslems  and  Christians  of  the  Greek  sect,  and  surrounded  by  olive 
groves,  many  of  the  trees  exceptionally  large,  indicating  a  peaceful 
existence  in  by-gone  generations. 

The  descent  from  Burmeh  to  Mukhadat  en  Nusraniyeh,  the  Ford 
of  the  Christian  Woman,  over  the  Zerka  or  Jabbok  is  more  than  two 
thousand  feet,  and  it  will  take  an  hour  and  a  half  to  accomplish  it. 
We  shall  pass  through  many  olive  groves,  and  for  part  of  the  dis¬ 
tance  the  road  leads  over  sandstone,  the  only  specimen  of  the  kind 
we  have  yet  seen  east  of  the  Jordan.  We  will  find  the  Zerka  com¬ 
paratively  low,  but  in  the  spring,  on  a  former  visit,  it  was  a  formida¬ 
ble  stream  and  very  rapid.  It  had  recently  been  quite  unfordable, 
as  could  be  seen  by  the  grass  and  bushes  lodged  on  the  banks. 

We  spent  the  night  encamped  in  a  level  field  just  below  the  ford. 
It  was  then  covered  with  a  luxuriant  growth  of  wild  oats,  so  like  the 
cultivated  cereal  that  we  at  first  hesitated  to  enter  it ;  but  it  was  of 
nature’s  own  sowing  and  had  no  owner  to  claim  possession.  The  oats 
were  three  feet  high,  and  grew  so  thickly  together  that  our  horses 
could  hardly  wade  through  them.  Of  course  they  revelled  in  such 
exuberant  pasture,  and  the  weary  mules,  after  their  loads  and  pack- 
saddles  had  been  taken  off,  rolled  and  tumbled  about  upon  it  in 
mere  wantonness  of  animal  enjoyment. 

Amongst  the  wild  oats  grew  clover  more  than  two  feet  high, 
with  red  tufts  three  inches  long  and  large  in  proportion,  whilst  the 
rushing,  roaring  river  just  beyond  was  hidden  beneath  impenetrable 


5  §4 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


thickets  of  blooming  oleander  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  high.  We 
found  the  air  oppressively  hot  during  the  first  half  of  the  night,  and 
no  wonder,  for  we  had  descended  from  the  top  of  Mount  Gilead, 
west  of  es  Salt,  to  the  ford — a  descent  of  at  least  three  thousand 
five  hundred  feet.  Mukhadat  en  Nusraniyeh  must  be  nearly  on  a 
level,  if  not  actually  below,  the  surface  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
and  that  extreme  depression  accounts  for  the  luxuriant  and  almost 
tropical  vegetation  in  that  part  of  the  Zerka  valley. 

Soon  after  going  into  camp  we  were  visited  by  the  sheikh  of  a 
Bedawin  encampment  with  a  villanous-looking  following.  But  they 
did  no  harm,  and  after  the  usual  smoking  of  pipes  and  sipping  coffee 
they  quietly  retired  to  their  camp,  pitched  upon  a  shelf  of  the  stu¬ 
pendous  and  overhanging  cliffs  a  short  distance  below  our  tents. 
Just  before  sunset  a  herd  of  black  cattle  suddenly  invaded  our  camp, 
fat  and  frolicsome  and  sufficiently  large  to  remind  us  of  the  famous 
bulls  of  Bashan.  Their  keepers,  half- clad  boys  and  girls,  grinned 
and  laughed  at  us  from  the  cliffs  above,  but  ere  night  set  in  they, 
too,  betook  themselves  with  their  cattle  to  the  Bedawin  encamp¬ 
ment.  Although  we  were  not  particularly  satisfied  with  our  neigh¬ 
bors,  they  did  not  molest  us  during  the  night  nor  pester  us  with 
importunate  demands  for  bakhshish  the  next  morning. 

This  last  steep  descent  has  brought  us  to  the  bank  of  the  Zerka, 
and  we  will  now  cross  the  river  at  the  ford,  not  a  very  formidable 
undertaking  at  this  season  of  the  year. 

The  gorge  of  the  Zerka  is  exceedingly  wild  and  picturesque,  and 
the  cliffs  rise  almost  perpendicularly  to  a  great  height  on  either  side. 

This  mighty  chasm  now  forms  the  boundary  between  the  district 
of  el  Belka  on  the  south  and  that  of  Jebel  ’Ajlun  on  the  north,  as 
in  ancient  times  it  divided  the  kingdom  of  Sihon  from  that  of  Og, 
king  of  Bashan.  The  perennial  source  of  the  Zerka,  or  Blue  River, 
owing  to  the  peculiar  color  of  the  water,  is  near  ’Amman,  and  its 
course  north-east  to  Kul’at  ez  Zerka;  from  there  it  trends  round 
to  the  north-west,  and  above  the  junction  with  Seil  Jerash  its  direc¬ 
tion  is  changed  to  nearly  west  until  it  reaches  the  Jordan  valley, 
when  it  turns  to  the  south-west  and  enters  that  river  a  short  dis¬ 
tance  above  the  ruined  Roman  bridge  near  the  Damieh  ford. 

We  cannot  linger  in  this  remarkable  gorge,  for  there  remain  four 


* 


FERTILE  PLAIN.— FLOWERS  AND  BIRDS.— MUKAM  NEBY  OSH’A.  585 

hours  to  be  travelled  before  we  reach  our  tents  at  es  Salt.  The 
ascent  from  the  valley  of  the  Zerka  is  exceedingly  steep  after  leav¬ 
ing  Mukhadat  en  Nusraniyeh,  but  in  about  an  hour  we  shall  enter 
upon  a  wide  and  nearly  level  plateau,  the  commencement  of  the 
famous  wooded  heights  and  fertile  plain  of  the  Belka.  Much  of 
the  forest  has  been  cleared  away,  leaving  only  picturesque  clumps 
of  oak  and  pine  trees,  here  and  there,  in  places  too  rocky  for  the 
pick  and  the  plough.  It  is  good  land  for  agricultural  purposes,  and 
some  parts  are  covered  with  flourishing  wheat  and  barley  in  the 
spring.  The  fields  which  now  appear  so  burnt  and  bare  are  then 
exuberant  and  verdant,  and  all  aglow  with  an  infinite  number  and 
great  variety  of  wild  flowers  bright  and  gay.  Here,  for  the  first 
time  in  this  region,  we  saw  many  birds :  pigeons,  turtle-doves,  jays, 
blackbirds,  and  thrushes,  and  large  coveys  of  red-legged  partridges. 

It  will  take  more  than  an  hour  to  cross  this  upland  plateau  to  a 
fine  fountain  called  ’Ain  ’Allan,  which  issues  from  a  large  cave 
amongst  the  rocks,  and  is  overshadowed  by  several  green  fig-trees 
laden  with  fruit  in  their  season.  Near  the  fountain  are  the  ruins  of 
a  considerable  village,  to  which  the  name  of  Khirbet  ’Allan  is  given, 
and  another  site,  some  distance  to  the  east,  bears  the  Biblical  name 
of  Sihan — Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites. 

From  ’Ain  ’Allan  a  long  and  tedious  climb  of  an  hour  and  a  half 
will  bring  us  to  the  highest  part  of  the  road  over  this  Gilead  range, 
or  Jebel  Jihad,  and  near  it  is  Khirbet  ez  Zi,  where  are  the  remains 
of  a  few  columns  and  the  ruins  of  some  ancient  buildings.  Had 
we  the  time,  we  might  leave  the  direct  road  to  es  Salt  not  far  from 
there  and  turn  off  westward  to  visit  mukam  en  Neby  Osh’a,  near 
the  highest  point  of  Jebel  Osh’a,  as  that  loftiest  peak  of  this  moun¬ 
tain  range  east  of  the  Jordan  is  called.  The  mukam  is  a  plain 
Muhammedan  structure,  consisting  of  a  vaulted  room  containing 
the  reputed  tomb  of  the  prophet  Hosea,  and  it  is  venerated  by 
Moslems,  Christians,  and  Jews.  The  tomb  is  of  ordinary  masonry, 
about  twenty  feet  long,  three  feet  high,  and  three  feet  broad,  cov¬ 
ered  with  the  usual  colored  cloths  presented  to  the  saint  as  votive 
offerings  by  devout  pilgrims  and  “  true  believers.” 

A  noble  oak-tree  overshadows  the  mukam,  and  around  it  are  the 
graves  of  a  few  Moslem  devotees.  Adjoining  the  building  is  a  large 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


586 

cistern,  and  near  it  is  a  small  spring  of  impure  water.  Formerly  the 
Bedawin,  the  inhabitants  of  es  Salt,  and  others  made  pilgrimages 
to  the  shrine  of  Neby  Osh’a,  and  there  they  sacrificed,  prayed,  and 
feasted,  and  a  fair  was  generally  held  in  the  neighborhood  on  such 
occasions.  But  the  zeal  of  all  sects  has  greatly  declined  in  these 
degenerate  days,  pilgrimages  are  less  frequent,  the  annual  fair  has 
dwindled  to  nothing,  and  es  Salt  has  become  the  commercial  centre 
of  all  this  region  east  of  the  Jordan. 

What  possible  connection  was  there  between  the  prophet  Hosea 
and  that  solitary  and  lofty  summit  of  Jebel  Osh’a  on  Mount  Gilead? 

None  apparently;  nor  is  there  anything  in  the  history  of  that 
prophet  to  invest  his  name  and  memory  with  special  interest  to  the 
Muhammedans  or  the  Bedawin  Arabs  of  the  desert.  The  name 
Osh’a  attached  to  that  mountain -peak,  if  ancient,  probably  refers 
to  Joshua.  Dr.  Porter  suggests  that  of  Elijah,  but  none  of  his  re¬ 
corded  acts  were  connected  with  this  region,  while  the  great  Hebrew 
captain  may  have  made  that  his  central  station  when  engaged  in 
his  military  expeditions  against  Sihon  and  Og,  and  the  memories 
of  such  an  occupation  would  naturally  have  been  preserved 
amongst  the  traditions  of  the  people. 

“  Jebel  Osh’a,”  says  Dr.  Merrill,  “  is  perhaps  the  most  sightly 
place  in  Palestine  after  Mount  Hermon.  Mount  Hermon,  Safed, 
the  hills  behind  Tiberias,  and  the  plateau  which  slopes  towards 
Hattin,  Tabor,  the  hills  about  Nazareth,  those  of  Naphtali,  Ephraim, 
and  Manasseh,  Little  Hermon,  Ebal  and  Gerizim,  Neby  Samwil,  and 
Massada  are  in  sight,  and  in  fact  nearly  every  prominent  point  in 
the  unbroken  range  of  mountains  from  Jebel  esh  Sheikh  [Hermon] 
clear  around  to  the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.  All  the  Jordan 
valley,  more  than  four  thousand  feet  below  us,  is  at  our  feet ;  the 
plain  of  Beisan,  the  tells  at  the  mouth  of  Wady  ’Ajlun  and  Wady 
ez  Zerka,  all  the  Nimrin  and  the  Shittim  plains  and  the  tells  upon 
them,  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan,  the  entire  Dead  Sea,  including  the 
extreme  south  end  and  el  Lisan,  the  rolling  country  of  Moab,  or 
the  ‘Mishor’  of  the  Bible,  the  hills  about  ’Amman,  the  Hauran, 
and  the  mountains  of  Gilead  are  in  full  view. 

“  In  this  wide  and  comprehensive  prospect  the  eye  sweeps  over 
the  country  to  the  north,  the  west,  the  south,  and  the  east — a  sweep 


JEBEL  OSH’A  AND  MOUNT  NEBO. 


587 


of  eighty  to  one  hundred  miles  in  extent.  If  one  utterly  ignorant 
of  the  Bible  record  should  go  east  of  the  Jordan  to  find  the  point 
commanding  the  most  extensive  view  on  all  sides,  he  would  select 
Jebel  Osh’a.  It  is  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand  feet  higher  than 
Mount  Nebo  itself.  ‘The  hill  over  against  Jericho’  could  just  as 
well  be  this  place  as  Jebel  Neba,  and  this  would  meet  the  conditions 
of  the  thirty-fourth  chapter  of  Deuteronomy  better  than  any  other 
point.  These  are  claims  or  facts  which  belong  to  this  mountain, 
independent  of  any  claim  of  Jebel  Neba  [now  generally  identified 
with  Mount  Nebo]  to  be  the  spot  where  Moses  stood.”  1 

From  this  turn  in  the  road  at  the  top  of  the  ridge  above  Khirbet 
ez  Zi,  it  will  take  us  three-quarters  of  an  hour  to  reach  our  tents  at 
es  Salt,  and  by  a  very  steep  descent. 

They  will  be  a  welcome  sight  after  our  fatiguing  ride  of  nearly 
ten  hours  from  ’Ajlun  over  the  loftiest  parts  of  Mount  Gilead. 


1  East  of  the  Jordan,  pp.  194,  279. 


588 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


XVI. 

ES  SALT  TO  ’AMMAN. 

Es  Salt. — Situation  of  the  Town. — Capital  of  the  Belka  and  only  Inhabited  Place  in  that 
District. — Population  of  es  Salt. — Warlike  and  Independent. — Protestant  Church  and 
Schools. — Subterranean  Bath. — Es  Salt  overthrown  by  Wars  and  Earthquakes. — Na¬ 
tive  Houses. — Shops. — The  People  of  es  Salt  resemble  the  Arabs  of  the  Desert. — 
Vineyards  and  Olive-groves. — Fruit-trees  and  Vegetable  Gardens. — Wheat  and  Barley. 
— Products  of  the  Flocks  purchased  from  the  Bedawin. — The  Castle  of  es  Salt. — Daher 
el  ’Omar. — Turkish  Garrison. — Abundance  of  Water. — ’Ain  Jeidur. — Ramoth-gilead. 
— Cities  of  Refuge. — Levitical  City. — One  of  Solomon’s  Purveyors. — Gilead  and  the 
Region  of  Argob. — Ahab,  Jehoshaphat,  and  Ben-hadad. — Ahaziah,  Joram,  and  Hazael. 
— Jehu. — Elisha.  —  “Watchman  on  the  Tower  of  Jezreel.” — “The  Driving  of  Jehu.” 
— Region  around  es  Salt  not  Adapted  to  the  Use  of  Chariots. — Ramoth-gilead  north 
of  the  Jabbok. — Gerasa,  Jerash. — Dr.  Merrill. — Jerash  opposite  to  Shechem. — No  Mar¬ 
kets  south  of  es  Salt. — ’Adwan  Guards  and  Guides. — Scarcity  of  Water. — Wady  Jeidur. 
— Prospect  over  the  Land  of  Gilead. — Rolling  Plain,  deep  Valleys,  and  Oak  Woods. — 
Fertile  Fields  and  Abundant  Harvests. — ’Amman  to  ’Arak  el  Emir. — Roman  Bridge. — 
Large  Pool,  Source  of  the  Jabbok. —  High,  rolling  Plateau.  —  Bedawin  Battle-ground. 
— Khirbet  Sar. — Ancient  Jazer. — Wady  es  Seir. — Oak  Forest. — Rock-tomb  or  Dwell¬ 
ing. — Captain  Warren. — Rock-hewn  Chambers  at  Petra. — Bedawin  Robbers. — Rock- 
bound  Amphitheatre. — ’Arak  el  Emir. — Castle  of  Hyrcanus  described  by  Josephus. — 
Ruins  of  the  Castle. — -“A  Lovely  Landscape.” — Rev.  A.  E.  Northey. — Canon  Tris¬ 
tram. — Great  Stones. — Colossal  Lions. — Ionic  Cornices  and  Egyptian  Capitals. — Rock 
Dwellings  and  Stables  excavated  in  the  Limestone  Cliffs. — Cisterns,  Caves,  and  Up¬ 
right  Stones,  with  Checker  Pattern. — Ruins  of  Public  Buildings  and  Private  Dwellings. 
— Aqueduct  and  Large  Reservoir. — Fossils  and  Curious  Petrifactions. — Oleanders  over 
Thirty  Feet  high. — The  Dead  Sea. — Wady  Sha’ib. —  Bedawin  Encampments. —  The 
Stolen  Pitchfork  and  the  Christian  Guide. — Mukam  of  Neby  Sha’ib. — Votive  Offer¬ 
ings. — Resentful  Wrath  of  a  Moslem  Saint. — Abundance  of  Water  and  Luxuriant  Vege¬ 
tation. —  Golden  Daisies  and  Wild  Lupins.  —  Heavy  Crops  of  Wheat  and  Barley. — 
Flour-mills. — Plain  of  el  Biik’ah. — Favorite  Camping -ground  of  the  Bedawin. — El 
Biik’ah  described  by  Captain  Warren. — Flocks  of  Sheep  and  Goats. — Khirbet  el  Basha. 
— Khirbet  es  Safut. — The  Gate  of  ’Amman. — Aid  el  Hemar. — A  Rough  and  Unculti¬ 
vated  Region. — From  Kul’at  ez  Zerka  to  Yajuz. — Permanent  Fountains  of  the  Zerka. 
— The  Jabbok. — The  Strong  Border  of  Ammon. — Kul’at  ez  Zerka. — The  Haj. — En¬ 
campment  of  Bedawin. — Migration  in  Search  of  Pasture. — Bedawin  Women  moving 


ES  SALT. 


589 


Camp. — Biblical  References  to  taking  down  and  setting  up  Tents  and  Tabernacles. — 
An  Uncultivated  Region.  —  Storks  and  Partridges. — Fine  old  Oaks. — Extensive  Pros¬ 
pect. — Hermon,  Sulkhad,  and  Kuleib  Hauran. — Shouting  Shepherds  and  Barking  Dogs. 
— Bedawin  Encampment. — Forests  of  Oak  and  Terebinth  Trees. — Yajuz. — Exuberant 
Pasture. — Fountains  and  Flocks. — Small  Roman  Temple. — Great  Terebinths. — Large 
Stone  in  the  Trunk  of  a  Tree. — Open  Enclosures  with  Massive  Walls. — Bedawin  Ceme¬ 
tery. — The  Grave  of  Nimr  el  ’Adwan. — Ruins  at  Yajuz. — Large  Disc  or  Millstone. — 
Extensive  Quarries. — Female  Statue  broken  by  the  ’Adwan. — The  Moabite  Stone. — 
Sculptured  Eagles  and  Lions. — Gadda. — El  Jebeiha,  Jogbehah. — Outlook  over  Reu¬ 
ben,  Gad,  and  Manasseh. — Hermon,  Jerash,  and  el  Buk’ah. — Ruins  buried  beneath  the 
Surface  at  el  Jebeiha. — Highly  Cultivated  and  Densely  Populated  Region. — Curious 
Rock  Strata. — Wady  el  Haddadeh. — Noisy  Torrent. — Total  Desolation  and  Utter 
Loneliness  at  ’Amman. — Rabbath  Ammon  and  the  Graeco-Roman  City  of  Philadelphia. 
— The  Site  of  a  Great  Capital. — Situation  of  the  City. — Overthrown  by  Earthquakes. 
— Corinthian  Temple  or  Tomb. — Large  Caravansary,  Church,  and  Mosk. — The  Basilica. 
— Imposing  Structure. — Roman  Bridge. — Banks  of  the  Stream  lined  with  Masonry. — 
Full  of  Fish. — Primitive  Fishing  by  the  Bedawin. — Ruins  of  an  Old  Mill. — The  Great 
Theatre. — Seats  for  Eight  Thousand  Spectators. — The  Forum. — Colonnade  of  over 
Fifty  Corinthian  Columns. — Odeon. — Northern  Wall  of  the  City. — Gate-way  of  the 
City. — Remarkable  Rock-cut  Tomb. — Large  Temple. — Main  Street  lined  with  Col¬ 
umns. — Ruined  Houses  upon  the  Steep  Declivity  of  the  Hill. — “The  Line  of  Confu¬ 
sion,  and  the  Stones  of  Emptiness.” — The  Citadel-hill. — Square  Watch-tower. — Pe¬ 
ripteral  Temple  within  the  Citadel. — Greek  Inscription  in  Large  Letters. — Beautiful 
Church  or  Mosk  within  the  Citadel  described  by  Canon  Tristram  and  Captain  Conder. 
— Massive  Walls  of  the  Citadel. — Large  and  Deep  Cisterns. — Underground  Reservoir. 
--Concealed  Passage. — Antiochus  the  Great. — Biblical  Interest  in  Rabbath  Ammon. — 
The  Iron  Bedstead  of  Og. — Captain  Conder’s  Suggestion  regarding  Og’s  Throne. — In¬ 
dependence  of  Rabbath  Ammon. — The  Siege  of  Rabbath  by  Joab. — Duration  of  the 
Siege. — Capture  of  the  City  of  Waters. — Joab’s  Message  to  David. — The  Citadel  taken 
by  David. — Remarkable  Fulfilment  of  Prophetic  Denunciations. — Droves  of  Camels, 
and  Numerous  Flocks. — Ammon  denounced  by  the  Prophets. — Nothing  but  Ruins  at 
Rabbath,  and  Ammon  a  Perpetual  Desolation. — Ptolemy  of  Egypt. — Philadelphia  men¬ 
tioned  by  Greek  and  Roman  Writers  and  Josephus. — The  Citadel  Besieged  and  Cap¬ 
tured  by  Antiochus  and  Herod  the  Great. — A  City  of  the  Decapolis. — Seat  of  a  Bishop. 
—  Sunday  amongst  the  Ruins  at  ’Amman. — Reproduction  of  Patriarchal  Times. — The 
Solemn  Storks. —  Three  Sabbaths  at  ’Amman. —  Old  Woman  and  her  Daughter. — 
Grain  preserved  in  the  Theatre. — Absence  of  Trees. — A  Plough  for  Firewood. — Nat¬ 
ural  Phenomena. — Disappearance  and  Re-appearance  of  the  Stream  between  ’Amman 
and  Kul’at  ez  Zerka. 

September  27th. 

Es  Salt  is  so  completely  surrounded  by  high  mountains  and 
deep  valleys  that  the  town  cannot  be  seen  until  one  is  right  above 
it,  and  then  it  presents  a  very  striking  and  picturesque  appearance. 
It  is  built  on  both  sides  of  a  narrow  and  precipitous  wady  which 


590 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


descends  rapidly  eastward  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  houses  cling 
to  the  declivities  of  the  steep  and  isolated  hill,  the  summit  of  which 
is  crowned  by  a  modern  Saracenic  castle.  It  is  the  capital  of  the 
Belka,  the  residence  of  a  Turkish  governor,  and  now  the  only  in¬ 
habited  place  in  that  district.  The  population  of  es  Salt  consists 
of  about  two  thousand  five  hundred  Moslems,  and  five  hundred 
Christians  of  the  Greek  sect ;  and  owing  to  their  isolated  position 
amongst  the  Bedawin  east  of  the  Jordan,  the  inhabitants  of  this 
town  are  both  warlike  and  independent. 

Many  of  the  Christians  have  become  Protestants,  and  they  have 
built  a  substantial  church,  with  a  house  adjoining  for  a  parsonage, 
with  rooms  for  schools  and  for  other  religious  purposes.  To  obtain 
a  foundation  for  the  church,  they  dug  through  rubbish  for  more 
than  thirty  feet,  and  then  came  upon  an  ancient  bath,  the  chambers, 
arches,  and  pavement  of  which  were  quite  perfect.  That  indicates 
not  only  great  antiquity,  but  also  numerous  overthrows  by  wars, 
earthquakes,  and  other  catastrophies  by  which  this  narrow  valley 
has  been  filled  up  to  a  surprising  depth. 

The  houses  of  es  Salt  resemble  those  seen  in  many  mountain 
villages  throughout  this  country,  though  there  are  some  of  a  more 
respectable  kind,  and  amongst  them  are  a  few  shops  where  the  arti¬ 
cles  in  most  demand  by  the  Bedawin  are  made  and  sold.  The  ma¬ 
jority  of  the  people  do  not  differ  in  dress,  appearance,  and  manners 
from  their  neighbors,  the  Arabs  of  the  desert,  and  the  women  gene¬ 
rally  wear  a  single,  loose,  blue  cotton  garment,  with  long  flowing 
sleeves,  like  their  Bedawin  sisters  of  the  ’Adwan  and  other  tribes. 
The  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  is  agriculture,  and  the  sur¬ 
rounding  olive-groves,  the  carefully  terraced  hill-sides  covered  with 
extensive  vineyards  producing  large  clusters  of  grapes  and  fine 
raisins,  and  the  fruit  and  vegetable  gardens  of  es  Salt,  are  justly 
celebrated  throughout  all  this  region.  Most  of  the  wheat  and 
barley  grown  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  plains  in  all  directions  be¬ 
longs  to  the  inhabitants  of  es  Salt,  and  some  of  their  fields  are  as 
far  east  as  ’Amman.  From  the  Bedawin  they  purchase  wool,  but¬ 
ter,  skins,  and  other  products  of  their  flocks  and  herds;  but  the 
amount  formerly  furnished  by  them  has  greatly  decreased  in  re¬ 
cent  times. 


CASTLE  OF  ES  SALT.— RAMOTH-GILEAD.  591 

The  castle  on  the  summit  of  the  hill  above  the  town  is  a  very 
conspicuous  object,  but  it  is  in  a  ruinous  condition,  and  only  a 
portion  of  it  is  now  serviceable.  It  was  surrounded  by  a  moat 
excavated  in  the  solid  rock,  and  the  substructions  are  ancient ; 
but  in  its  present  form — a  rectangular  fortress  with  square  towers 
at  the  corners  —  it  is  comparatively  modern.  It  was  repaired,  if 
not  entirely  rebuilt,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  by  Dhaher  el  ’Omar,  the  predecessor  of  the  infamous 
Jezzar  Pasha,  surnamed  the  Butcher,  and  he  resided  in  it  for  sev¬ 
eral  years,  until  finally  driven  out  by  the  united  efforts  of  the  ri¬ 
val  factions  in  the  town.  It  is  now  occupied  by  a  Turkish  garri¬ 
son  whose  martial  music  wakes  up  strange  echoes  amongst  these 
hills  of  Gilead.  Es  Salt  is  abundantly  supplied  with  water,  and 
may  have  owed  its  existence  originally  to  the  large  spring  near 
the  middle  of  the  town.  The  stream  from  it,  together  with  that 
from  the  noble  fountain  of  ’Ain  Jeidur,  in  the  deep  wady  below, 
serves  to  irrigate  the  extensive  fruit  orchards  and  large  vegetable 
gardens  along  the  valley. 

What  evidence  is  there  to  prove  that  es  Salt  occupies  the  site 
of  Ramoth-gilead,  the  second  city  of  refuge  east  of  the  Jordan? 

There  is  no  resemblance  between  the  modern  and  the  ancient 
name  of  the  two  places ;  but  the  situation  of  the  former,  on  the 
declivities  of  a  steep  and  lofty  hill  in  Gilead,  accords  with  the  sup¬ 
posed  position  of  the  latter,  upon  the  “  heights  of  Gilead,”  as  the 
name  Ramoth-gilead  implies.  If  the  Jewish  tradition  be  correct, 
that  the  three  cities  of  refuge  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan  were 
opposite  to  the  three  on  the  west  side  of  that  river,  then  we  must 
look  for  Ramoth-gilead  about  a  day’s  journey  farther  north,  so  as 
to  place  it  opposite  to  Shechem,  the  modern  Nablus.  Besides  be¬ 
ing  appointed  a  city  of  refuge,  Ramoth-gilead  was  allotted  to  the 
Levites,  and  in  the  time  of  Solomon  it  was  the  seat  of  one  of  his 
purveyors.1  “To  him  pertained  the  towns  of  Jair  the  son  of  Ma- 
nasseh,  which  are  in  Gilead,  and  the  region  of  Argob,  which  is  in 
Bashan,  threescore  great  cities  with  walls  and  brazen  bars.”  His 
territory  would  thus  extend  as  far  north  as  the  Lejah,  and  es  Salt 
would,  therefore,  be  too  far  to  the  south  of  the  natural  line  of 
1  Deut.  iv.  43  ;  Josh.  xx.  8  ;  xxi.  38  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  80  ;  1  Kings  iv.  13. 


59 2  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

communication  which  must  have  existed  at  that  time  between 
Jerusalem,  Gilead,  and  “  the  region  of  Argob.” 

Nothing  is  heard  of  Ramoth-gilead  after  the  reign  of  Solomon 
for  about  one  hundred  years,  and  then  Ahab,  the  king  of  Israel, 
proposes  to  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah,  to  “go  up”  and  “take  it 
out  of  the  hand  of  [Ben-hadad  II.]  the  king  of  Syria.”1  The  com¬ 
bined  attack  failed  ;  Ahab  was  mortally  wounded  in  his  chariot, 
“  and  died  at  even.  And  there  went  a  proclamation  throughout 
the  host  about  the  going  down  of  the  sun,  Every  man  to  his  city, 
and  every  man  to  his  own  country.”3  A  few  years  later,  “  Ahaziah, 
the  king  of  Judah,  went  with  Joram,the  son  of  Ahab,  to  war  against 
Hazael,  king  of  Syria  in  Ramoth-gilead.” 3  King  Joram  was  wounded 
by  the  Syrians,  and  went  back  to  be  healed  of  his  wounds  in  Jez- 
reel ;  yet  it  appears  that  he  took  Ramoth-gilead,  and  was  able  to 
keep  it,  for  immediately  after  the  battle  we  read  that  Jehu  and 
“  the  captains  of  the  host  ”  were  in  possession  of  the  city.4  Elisha 
the  prophet  sent  to  Ramoth-gilead  and  anointed  Jehu  king  of  Is¬ 
rael.  “So  Jehu  rode  in  a  chariot,  and  went  to  Jezreel.  And  there 
stood  a  watchman  on  the  tower  in  Jezreel,  and  he  spied  and  said, 
I  see  a  company,  and  the  driving  is  like  the  driving  of  Jehu  the  son 
of  Nimshi;  for  he  driveth  furiously.”5 

In  all  those  Biblical  notices  of  the  battles  around  Ramoth-gilead 
mention  is  made  of  chariots;  not  only  do  they  take  part  in  the 
contests,  but  the  kings  and  the  captains  come  and  go  in  chariots. 
Those  battles  could  not  have  been  fought  at  es  Salt,  nor  even  in 
its  immediate  vicinity,  for  the  region  for  several  miles  around  is 
too  rough  and  mountainous  for  the  use  of  chariots,  and  this  fact, 
amongst  others  already  mentioned,  tends  to  invalidate  the  claim 
of  es  Salt  to  be  the  modern  representative  of  the  ancient  Ramoth- 
gilead.  These  objections  to  es  Salt  have  led  to  the  belief  that  we 
must  look  elsewhere  for  the  site  of  Ramoth-gilead,  and  to  the  con¬ 
clusion  that  it  must  have  been  north  of  the  river  Jabbok. 

Ramoth-gilead  has  been  placed  by  some  at  Gerasa,  a  city  of  the 
Decapolis,  and  the  modern  Jerash;  and  by  numerous  citations  from 
the  Bible,  the  Talmud,  and  other  authorities,  Dr.  Merrill  has  sought 

1  I  Kings  xxii.  3,  4.  2  1  Kings  xxii.  29-36.  3  2  Kings  viii.  28. 

4  2  Kings  ix.  14,  15,  and  5.  6  2  Kings  ix.  1-10,  16-20. 


NO  MARKETS  SOUTH  OF  ES  SALT. 


593 


to  prove  that  the  identification  is  correct.  The  region  around 
Jerash  accords  better  than  that  in  the  vicinity  of  es  Salt  with  the 
requirements  of  some  of  the  important  events  that  occurred  at 
Ramoth-gilead.  Jerash  “would  be  suitable  for  a  city  of  refuge,” 
says  Dr.  Merrill,  “  because  it  was  on  one  of  the  main  routes  which 
would  be  kept  open,  according  to  the  command  in  Deuteronomy 
xix.  3.  For  the  same  reason  it  would  be  an  appropriate  point  at 
which  to  station  a  commissariat  officer  who  was  to  command  East¬ 
ern  Gilead  and  Bashan.  There  chariots  could  be  used,  as  we  learn 
they  were  extensively  in  two  notable  campaigns,”  and  the  ancient 
Jewish  testimony  would  be  verified  respecting  the  cities  of  refuge, 
for  Jerash  is  almost  exactly  opposite  to  Shechem  or  Nablus.1 

We  make  rather  a  late  start;  what  is  the  cause  of  the  delay? 

South  of  es  Salt  we  shall  not  find  a  market  where  our  exhausted 
supply  of  provisions  can  be  replenished,  and,  therefore,  our  cook 
has  been  busy  since  early  morning  purchasing  from  the  miserable 
shops  in  the  town  whatever  was  available  for  his  department.  But 
as  the  ride  to  ’Amman  is  only  one  of  five  or  six  hours,  the  deten¬ 
tion  will  occasion  us  no  serious  inconvenience. 

We  are  now  under  the  protection  of  the  ’Adwan,  and  Goblan, 
the  sheikh  of  that  tribe,  has  sent  his  son,  Fahd,  and  his  cousin, 
’Ali,  to  act  as  our  guards  and  guides  from  es  Salt  through  the 
region  of  the  Belka,  which  they  claim  as  their  special  domain. 

Let  us  stop  and  water  our  horses  at  this  noble  fountain  of 
’Ain  Jeidur,  and  fill  our  water  bottles;  for  though  in  the  spring 
there  is  far  too  much  water  along  some  parts  of  the  route  for 
the  comfort  of  either  horse  or  rider,  all  ephemeral  streams  are 
now  dried  up,  and  we  will  not  find  a  drop  of  water  until  we 
reach  the  Jabbok,  which  flows  between  the  ruins  of  ’Amman. 

Having  climbed  the  steep  path  which  winds  its  way  over  slip¬ 
pery  limestone  rocks  up  the  profound  gorge  of  Wady  Jeidur,  and 
reached  this  elevated  plateau  above  and  east  of  es  Salt,  the  pros¬ 
pect  over  the  southern  portion  of  “  the  land  of  Gilead  ”  appears  to 
be  boundless,  stretching  away  southward  to  the  horizon. 

I  have  traversed  large  parts  of  that  vast  region,  which  appears 
from  here  like  a  great  rolling  plain,  without  an  inhabited  village 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  290. 


594 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


or  even  a  ruin  in  sight.  The  country,  however,  is  far  from  level. 
Deep  valleys  descend  in  various  directions,  north  and  east  to  the 
Jabbok,  and  west  and  south-west  to  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  the  hill-sides,  in  some  places,  are  covered  with  noble  oak  woods. 
The  soil  is  generally  fertile,  and  broad  fields  of  wheat  and  barley 
promise  abundant  harvests.  On  one  occasion  I  passed  through  the 
region  from  ’Amman  to  ’Arak  el  Emir,  on  my  way  to  the  latter 
place.  The  path  led  southward  from  ’Amman,  through  the  green 
vale  of  the  Jabbok,  for  about  a  mile,  and  then  turned  westward  at 
a  point  where  some  ancient  ruins  attract  attention.  About  half  a 
mile  farther  on  up  the  valley  the  stream  of  the  Jabbok  is  crossed 
by  a  very  low  and  broad  Roman  bridge  of  three  arches. 

Another  mile  brought  us  to  the  large  pool  where  the  Jabbok 
rises  silently  out  of  the  bed  of  the  wady.  Around  the  pool  are  the 
foundations  of  ancient  walls,  and  west  of  it  the  valley  is  dry,  even 
in  the  spring  of  the  year.  That  pool,  therefore,  is  the  true  fount¬ 
ain-head  and  the  real  source  of  the  Jabbok,  and  it  is  only  about 
two  miles  to  the  south-west  of  ’Amman.  From  the  valley  we  as¬ 
cended  the  western  hills,  and  continued  our  ride  over  a  high  rolling 
plateau  stretching  for  many  miles  to  the  south  and  east,  but  tree¬ 
less  and  entirely  deserted.  It  has  been  “  the  battle-ground  of  the 
Bedawin  tribes  in  that  region  for  several  generations.”  After  cross¬ 
ing  that  plateau  we  came  to  an  inconsiderable  ruin  called  Khirbet 
Sar,  where  are  “  the  remains  of  a  mausoleum  with  arches,  also  a 
square  tower  of  hard  flinty  stone.”  Dr.  Merrill  and  others  identify 
Khirbet  Sar  with  the  ancient  Jazer  mentioned  in  the  thirty-second 
chapter  of  Numbers  and  elsewhere,  and  the  plateau  west  of  ’Amman 
with  “the  land  of  Jazer,”  “which  the  children  of  Reuben  and  Gad 
asked  for  because  it  was  a  place  for  cattle.”1 

Immediately  beyond  Khirbet  Sar  we  began  to  descend  into 
Wady  es  Seir  by  a  very  steep  path,  through  a  magnificent  forest 
of  large  oak-trees.  That  valley  is  very  beautiful,  and  the  mount¬ 
ains  rise  higher  and  higher  on  either  side,  covered  to  their  sum¬ 
mits  with  thick  groves  of  evergreen  oaks,  terebinths,  and  other 
trees.  Having  reached  the  lively  stream  at  the  bottom  of  the 
valley,  we  followed  along  its  banks  for  several  miles  until  our  afc- 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  pp.  404,  405,  484. 


ROCK  TOMB  OR  CHAMBER.— CASTLE  OF  HYRCANUS.  595 

tention  was  called  to  what  appeared  to  be  the  front  of  a  house, 
with  a  door  and  several  windows,  all  hewn  in  the  perpendicular 
cliff  high  up  the  south  side  of  the  wady.  We  had  not  the  time 
to  ascend  to  it,  but  Corporal  Phillips,  who  was  sent  by  Captain 
Warren  to  examine  it,  while  encamped  near  Khirbet  Sar,  gives 
the  following  description  of  it : 

“The  rock  is  scarped,  and  there  are  seven  windows  —  the  four 
upper  ones  have  a  cross-bar  to  them  cut  out  of  the  rock,  the  three 
below  are  plain.  There  is  a  narrow  door  at  the  bottom  ;  inside, 
the  chamber  is  about  twelve  feet  square,  and  divided  into  two  by  a 
wall  running  up  the  centre;  there  were  originally  three  floors,  of 
which  only  two  cornices  remain  for  supporting  the  joists;  on  the 
upper  one  pieces  of  wood  are  now  resting,  on  which  the  shepherds 
make  their  beds.  On  each  floor  are  seven  row's  of  pigeon-holes 
cut  in  the  walls  on  every  side;  they  are  triangular  in  form.”  Cap¬ 
tain  Warren  calls  it  “a  rock-tomb,”  but  it  differs  essentially  from 
all  such  tombs  in  this  country,  and  its  remarkable  facade,  seen  at 
a  distance,  bears  a  certain  resemblance  to  that  of  the  rock-hewn 
chambers  at  Petra.  It  was  occupied  by  some  Bedawin  Arabs, 
whose  wild  appearance  and  suspicious  actions  were  not  very  as¬ 
suring,  and  our  guide  supposed  that  they  were  robbers. 

About  an  hour  farther  on  in  the  valley  below  that  singular 
rock-tomb  or  dwelling,  the  mountain  recedes  on  the  north  side  of 
the  wady,  leaving  a  large  open  space  in  the  form  of  an  amphithea¬ 
tre,  commanding  a  wide  prospect  westward,  and  surrounded  on  the 
north,  east,  and  south  by  wooded  hills,  cavernous  cliffs,  and  jagged 
crags  of  limestone  rock.  That  rock- bound  amphitheatre  or  ele¬ 
vated  platform  is  about  two  thousand  five  hundred  feet  above  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  the  rugged  site  is  now  called  ’Arak  el  Emir,  the 
crag  of  the  prince.  The  south-western  part  of  it  was  once  occu¬ 
pied  by  “  the  strong  castle”  of  Hyrcanus,  a  Jewish  prince  of  the 
Maccabean  family,  who  “retired  beyond  Jordan  and  there  abode, 
because  of  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  his  brethren.”  He  built  a 
castle  at  ’Arak  el  Emir,  and  there  “  he  ended  his  life  by  slaying 
himself  with  his  own  hand.” 

We  are  indebted  to  Josephus  for  all  we  know  about  that  castle, 
the  construction  of  which  he  thus  describes :  “  Hyrcanus  erect- 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


596 

ed  a  strong  castle,  and  built  it  entirely  of  white  stone,  to  the  very 
roof;  and  had  animals  of  a  prodigious  magnitude  engraved  upon  it. 
He  also  drew  around  it  a  great  and  deep  canal  of  water.  He  also 
made  caves  of  many  furlongs  in  length,  by  hollowing  a  rock  that 
was  over  against  him,  and  then  he  made  large  rooms  in  it,  some 
for  feasting,  and  some  for  sleeping  and  living  in.  He  introduced 
also  a  vast  quantity  of  waters,  which  ran  along  it,  and  which  was 
very  delightful  and  ornamental  in  the  court.  But  still  he  made 
the  entrances  at  the  mouth  of  the  caves  so  narrow  that  no  more 
than  one  person  could  enter  by  them  at  once ;  and  the  reason 
why  he  built  them  after  that  manner  was  a  good  one  ;  it  was  for 
his  own  preservation,  lest  he  should  be  besieged  by  his  brethren, 
and  run  the  hazard  of  being  caught  by  them.  Moreover,  he  built 
courts  of  greater  magnitude  than  ordinary,  which  he  adorned  with 
vastly  large  gardens.  And  when  he  had  brought  the  place  to  this 
state  he  named  it  Tyre.  This  place  is  between  Arabia  and  Judea, 
beyond  Jordan,  not  far  from  the  country  of  Hesbon.”1 

Did  you  find  that  the  existing  remains  at  ’Arak  el  Emir  cor¬ 
responded  to  the  description  of  them  given  by  Josephus? 

The  great  canal  which  Hyrcanus  drew  around  the  palace  may 
yet  be  found  buried  under  the  accumulated  rubbish,  and  the  caves 
are  still  there  in  the  rocks  over  against  the  palace  ;  but  the  state¬ 
ment  that  they  were  many  furlongs  in  length  is  a  gross  exaggera¬ 
tion.  The  ruins  of  the  palace  itself  are  considerable.  It  stood  upon 
a  raised  platform  in  the  south-western  part  of  the  rocky  amphithea¬ 
tre,  “in  the  middle  of  a  walled  enclosure  of  ten  or  twelve  acres, 
of  which  the  traces  can  still  be  seen.  The  position  and  scenery 
around  are  beautiful,  and  Hyrcanus  was  a  wise  man  to  choose  so 
charming  a  spot  for  his  enforced  retirement.  The  glen  to  the 
north-east,  above  Wady  Seir,  the  cliffs,  the  sides  of  the  hills  cov¬ 
ered  with  oaks  and  terebinths,  with  the  undulating  verdant  slopes 
below  [and  the  purling  stream  flowing  through  the  midst,  fringed 
with  dark-green  oleander-bushes  in  full  bloom],  make  a  lovely  land¬ 
scape,”  peculiarly  characteristic  of  this  region  east  of  the  Jordan.2 

“The  entrance  gate-way  [of  the  palace  was]  built  of  large  stones 

1  Ant.  xii.  4,  11. 

2  Expedition  East  of  the  Jordan.  By  the  Rev.  A.  E.  Northey. 


PALACE  AT  ’ARAK  EL  EMIR.— LIONS  OF  COLOSSAL  SIZE.  597 

squared  and  finished  with  the  Jewish  bevel.  [‘The  frieze  of  this 
portal  is  Ionic,  and  is  formed  of  enormous  slabs  of  stone.  One  of 
which  was  twenty  feet  by  ten.’] 1  The  aperture  of  the  gate  was 
twelve  feet  wide ;  one  stone  measured  eleven  feet  in  length  by  five 
feet  in  width.  From  this  gate-way  to  the  castle  was  a  raised  cause¬ 
way,  with  some  [large]  perforated  stones  [as  if  for  bars  or  rails] 
placed  on  it  at  intervals.”  The  palace  itself  measures  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty -five  feet  from  north  to  south,  and  sixty -five 
feet  from  east  to  west.  It  faced  the  east,  and  had,  according  to 
Canon  Tristram,  “a  colonnade  in  front,  and  there  are  many  frag¬ 
ments  of  pillars,  some  fluted  and  others  plain,  strewn  about.  Only 
a  portion  of  the  front  wall  has  stood  the  test  of  more  than  two 
thousand  years,  but  this  is  in  wonderful  preservation.  It  is  com¬ 
posed  of  great  slabs.  One  in  situ  measured  fifteen  feet  [long],  by 
ten  feet  high  ;  another,  prostrate,  was  twenty  feet  long. 

“These  stones  have  been  bound  together,  not  by  lime  or  clamps, 
but  by  numerous  square  knobs  or  bolts,  left  in  the  different  sides 
of  the  stone,  which  fitted  tightly  into  corresponding  sockets  cut  to 
receive  them  in  the  next  block.  Many  loop-holes  for  archery  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  defence  of  the  place.  About  twenty  feet  from  the 
basement  runs  a  beading  of  Doric  ornaments,  and  above  this  is 
a  colossal  frieze,  some  twelve  feet  high,  formed  of  enormous  slabs, 
with  lions  sculptured  in  alto-relievo  of  colossal  size.  [They  are 
about  six  feet  high  and  nine  feet  long.]  Over  these  has  been  a 
Doric  entablature  and  frieze,  but  this  has  been  thrown  down,  as  also 
have  been  many  of  the  lions.  It  seems  probable  that  earthquakes 
alone  have  caused  their  overthrow,  for  human  agency  could  scarce¬ 
ly  have  overturned  without  destroying  them.  The  building  must 
have  been  a  strange  medley  architecturally,  for  we  noticed  many 
Ionic  cornices  and  Egyptian  capitals  of  the  Ptolemaic  order  with 
the  palm  leaf.”2 

About  half  a  mile  from  Kusr  el  ’Abd,  the  palace  of  the  black 
slave,  as  the  castle  is  now  called,  are  the  rock-dwellings  and  sta¬ 
bles  which  Hyrcanus  caused  to  be  excavated  in  the  limestone  cliffs. 
“  Great  chambers,”  says  Mr.  Northey,  “  have  been  hollowed  out,  per¬ 
haps  originally  natural  cavities,  but  greatly  enlarged  and  shaped  by 
1  Land  of  Israel,  p.  534.  2  Land  of  Israel,  pp.  534,  535. 


598 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


COLOSSAL  LIONS  ON  THE  FACADE  OF  THE  PALACE  OF  IIYRCANUS. 


artificial  means.  One  which  we  measured  was  forty-five  by  thirty- 
five  feet,  and  about  twenty  feet  high;  another  fifty-four  feet  by 
thirty-six  feet,  and  twenty-eight  feet  high.  To  each  of  these  cham¬ 
bers  there  were  two  openings :  one  a  kind  of  square  window,  twelve 
feet  high  by  six  feet  wide;  the  other  a  rough,  square  door -way 
below.  At  the  side  of  the  entrances  was  an  inscription  in  ancient 
Samaritan,  the  same  in  both  cases.  Beyond  these  was  another 
chamber,  longer,  narrower,  and  lower,  which  had  been  used  as  a 
stable.  It  is  ninety-six  feet  in  length  ;  round  the  sides  is  a  range 
of  mangers  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  about  three  feet  high. 

“  Close  by  is  a  round  cistern,  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  as  well  as 
many  other  caves  and  passages,  the  entrance  to  some  of  which  was 
purposely  made  by  Hyrcanus  as  difficult  as  possible.  Two  large 
square  stones,  standing  up  edgeways,  with  a  checker  pattern  on 
them,  puzzled  us,  as  they  have  puzzled  every  one  who  has  seen 
them.”  Below  those  caverns  in  the  cliffs  is  a  large  platform  or 


EXCAVATED  LIMESTONE  CLIFFS  AT  ’ARAK  EL  EMIR. 


599 


an  elevated  ter¬ 
race,  on  which 
there  are  the  re¬ 
mains  of  public 
edifices  and  the 
ruins  of  private 
residences,  most 
of  which  appear 
to  have  been 
surrounded  by 
a  wall ;  and  a 
flight  of  steps, 
cut  in  the  rock, 
led  down  from 
that  terrace  to¬ 
wards  Wady  es 
Seir.  On  the 
hill -side  to  the 
south-west,  be¬ 
tween  those  re¬ 
mains  and  the 
castle,  are  the 
ruins  of  houses, 
and  fragments  of 
a  few  columns, 
and  the  traces 
of  an  aqueduct. 
“  Here,”  accord¬ 
ing  to  Dr.  Mer¬ 
rill,  “  was  one  of 
the  largest  res¬ 
ervoirs  in  the 
country ;  it  was 
almost  a  lake, 
and  when  full 
of  water,  even 
ships  could  easi- 


6oo 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


ly  have  floated  in  it.  Nowhere  else  have  I  seen  a  wall  of  sucn 
strength  as  the  one  to  the  south  and  east  of  this  reservoir.”1 

The  cliffs  in  which  those  excavations  were  made  abound  with 
various  kinds  of  fossils  in  perfect  preservation,  and  one  might  col¬ 
lect  specimens  enough  at  ’Arak  el  Emir  to  fill  a  considerable  cabi¬ 
net  ;  for  the  rocks,  and  some  of  the  blocks  of  stone  amongst  the 
ruins,  are  literally  a  mass  of  curious  petrifactions.  I  can  corrobo¬ 
rate  Mr.  Northey’s  description  of  the  oleanders  in  that  vicinity, 
both  as  to  size,  abundance,  and  beautiful  flowers.  Along  Wady 
Sha’ib,  midway  between  ’Arak  el  Emir  and  es  Salt,  I  saw  oleanders 
which  had  grown  into  large  trees.  Some  were  nearly  two  feet  in 
circumference,  and  more  than  thirty  feet  high. 

From  the  top  of  the  ridge  north-west  of  ’Arak  el  Emir,  we  had 
an  impressive  view  of  the  Dead  Sea,  which  appeared  surprisingly 
near,  though  in  reality  it  was  more  than  two  thousand  five  hundred 
feet  below  us.  From  that  magnificent  outlook  we  had  a  long  and 
winding  descent  into  Wady  Sha’ib,  which  we  followed  northward  for 
several  miles,  and  then  climbed  the  lofty  mountain  south  of  es  Salt. 
’Arak  el  Emir  is  nearly  four  hours  distant  from  es  Salt,  most  of 
the  way  through  a  rough,  wild,  and  deserted  region.  We  passed 
several  small  encampments  of  Bedawin,  but  there  is  not  an  inhab¬ 
ited  village  nor  important  ruin  along  the  entire  route. 

Our  guide  found  a  pitchfork  in  one  of  the  caverns  at  ’Arak 
el  Emir,  where  tibn,  or  straw,  is  stored  by  the  Bedawin,  which  he 
took  possession  of  without  scruple.  But  when  we  came  near  the 
first  Arab  encampment  he  was  afraid  that  some  of  them  would 
claim  it  and  give  him  a  thrashing.  He  begged  to  be  allowed  to 
conceal  the  pitchfork  in  one  of  the  loads  on  our  mules,  but  that  I 
would  not  permit  him  to  do,  so  he  left  us  and  made  a  long  detour 
to  escape  observation.  He  had  not  expected  to  find  any  Bedawin 
camps  along  that  unfrequented  pathway. 

It  was  impossible  to  convince  him  that  he  was  guilty  of  theft ; 
he  stoutly  maintained  that  he  had  a  right  to  appropriate  to  his 
own  use  all  such  stray  plunder.  The  guide  was  a  Christian  from 
es  Salt,  and  yet,  when  we  came  to  the  Muhammedan  Mukam  of 
Neby  Sha’ib,  in  the  wady  of  the  same  name,  where  votive  offerings 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  107. 


WATER  AND  VEGETATION.— PLAIN  OF  EL  BUK’AH.  6oi 

to  the  saint,  and  ploughs,  ox -yokes,  goads,  and  other  agricultural 
implements  lay  around  the  sacred  tomb  without  any  protection, 
he  did  not  dare  to  steal  a  single  article.  The  resentful  wrath  of 
that  Moslem  saint  is  greatly  feared  by  all  sects,  and  no  one  will 
venture  to  take  anything  left  for  safe-keeping  at  his  tomb. 

The  grave  of  Neby  Sha’ib  has  no  building  over  it,  nor  is  it 
protected  by  a  wall  or  an  enclosure  of  any  kind,  and  it  is  nearly 
concealed  by  weeds  and  bushes,  which  grow  in  Wady  Sha’ib  with 
surprising  luxuriance,  owing,  mainly,  to  the  abundance  of  water. 
In  all  directions  noisy  brooks  come  tumbling  down  the  tributary 
ravines,  and  swell  the  stream  in  the  valley  into  a  roaring  mountain 
torrent.  I  have  rarely  seen  vegetation  more  luxuriant  than  in  that 
region.  For  long  distances  we  had  to  force  our  way  through  patches 
of  golden  daises,  wild  lupins,  and  thorny  thistles  nearly  as  high  as 
our  horses,  and  so  thickset  as  to  quite  perplex  them. 

The  crops  of  wheat  and  barley  in  many  places  were  as  heavy 
as  any  I  ever  saw  either  in  this  country  or  elsewhere.  In  the 
valley  below  and  south  of  es  Salt  there  are  numerous  flour-mills 
driven  by  the  stream  from  the  noble  fountains  which  burst  forth 
on  all  sides  in  that  vicinity,  and  the  region  between  ’Arak  el  Emir 
and  that  town  is  very  beautiful  and  romantic,  and  it  is  not  sur¬ 
prising  that  “  the  children  of  Reuben  and  the  children  of  Gad,” 
who  “  had  a  very  great  multitude  of  cattle,”  when  they  saw  the 
land  should  have  eagerly  coveted  possession  of  it.1 

We  have  now  been  riding  two  hours  and  a  half  from  es  Salt, 
and  may  rest  a  while  and  lunch  under  the  shelter  of  that  solitary 
and  conspicuous  terebinth-tree  ahead  of  us,  the  only  one  of  its 
size  in  this  part  of  our  route.  When  I  passed  this  way  in  the 
spring,  much  of  the  country  was  flooded  with  water,  and  that 
beautiful  plain  of  el  Buk’ah,  many  hundred  feet  below  us  on  the 
left,  and  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  high  mountains,  looked  like  a 
lake  with  large  islands  in  some  parts  of  it.  Owing  to  the  abun¬ 
dance  of  water  and  the  rich  pasture,  el  Buk’ah  is  a  favorite  camp- 
ing-ground  of  the  surrounding  Bedawin.  Captain  Warren  passed 
through  it  on  his  way  to  Jerash  from  Wady  es  Seir. 

“  The  view  from  these  hills  to  the  north,”  he  says,  “  is  remarka- 


1  Numb,  xxxii.  i. 


602 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


ble ;  fifteen  hundred  feet  below  us  is  an  oval,  depressed  plain,  nine 
miles  long  and  six  broad,  giving  about  forty-five  square  miles  of  the 
richest  meadow-land.  It  appears  to  be  the  dried-up  bed  of  a  lake 
whose  waters  have  cut  their  way  to  the  Zerka,  years  ago,  by  wadies 
on  the  north-west  side.”  He  found  “the  plain  well  cultivated  in 
parts,  and  elsewhere  it  swarms  with  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats.” 
There  are  several  ruins  on  and  around  el  Buk’ah,  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  of  which  are  Khirbet  el  Basha,  “  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the 
plain,”  and  Khirbet  es  Safut,  “on  the  side  of  the  hill  to  the  east.” 
At  the  former  are  “  the  remains  of  an  extensive  village  or  town  of 
soft  stone,  and  some  vaults,”  and  “the  principal  object”  still  re¬ 
maining  in  the  latter  “  is  a  gate-way,  eight  feet  high  and  seven  feet 
six  inches  wide,  with  a  lintel  over  it,  called  the  Gate  of  ’Amman  ; 
there  are  bevelled  stones  about.” 

El  Buk’ah  is  now  dry,  and  the  vegetation  on  that  depressed 
plain  has  been  withered  by  the  long  summer  heat.  The  same  is 
true  in  regard  to  the  region  on  our  right,  called  Ard  el  Hemar, 
which  is  clothed  with  luxuriant  pasture  in  the  spring ;  and  the 
road,  now  so  dusty,  is  then  almost  impassable  from  deep  mud. 

Our  ride  for  the  last  hour,  since  leaving  the  large  tree  above  the 
plain  of  el  Buk’ah,  has  been  quite  featureless ;  but  picturesque  hills 
begin  to  appear  to  the  north  and  in  the  east,  and  vary  the  mo¬ 
notony.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  country  on  our  left  ? 

Most  of  it  is  a  rough,  barren,  and  uncultivated  region.  In  com¬ 
pany  with  Dr.  Selah  Merrill,  archaeologist  of  the  American  Palestine 
Exploration  Society,  I  came  through  it  from  Kul’at  ez  Zerka,  some 
twelve  miles  north-east  of  ’Amman,  where  the  river  Zerka,  or  Jab- 
bok,  trends  round  westward  on  its  way  to  unite  with  the  Jordan. 
We  had  spent  the  preceding  night  encamped  on  a  pretty  grassy 
meadow  near  some  large  fountains,  the  second  permanent  source 
of  the  Zerka.  Below  the  fountains  the  river  winds  round  the  base 
of  the  ridge  on  which  the  castle  of  ez  Zerka  is  situated,  and  then 
begins  its  headlong  descent  of  three  thousand  feet  to  the  Ghor, 
through  abrupt  and  lofty  mountains. 

The  Jabbok  has  always  formed  the  natural  boundary  of  the  dis¬ 
tricts  north  and  south  of  it  down  to  the  present  day.  In  the  time 
of  Moses  it  was  “  the  border  of  the  children  of  Ammon  [which] 


KUL’AT  EZ  ZERKA.— BEDAWIN  CAMP.  603 

was  strong;”  and  it  now  separates  the  district  of  the  Belka  from 
that  of  Jebel  ’Ajlun.  Kul’at  ez  Zerka  stands  on  the  top  of  the  hill, 
some  distance  north  of  those  fountains,  and  is  one  of  the  stations 
of  the  Haj,  or  Muhammedan  pilgrims,  to  Mecca.  The  Haj  had 
been  there  a  short  time  previous  to  our  visit,  and  had  so  effectually 
swept  up  every  article  of  food  and  provender  that  we  could  not 
obtain  any  barley  for  the  horses  nor  even  an  egg  for  ourselves. 

There  was  a  large  encampment  of  Bedawin  on  the  bank  of  the 
river  below  our  tents,  and  I  was  quite  interested  in  their  movements 
the  next  morning.  The  “  elders  ”  having  decided,  apparently,  to 
emigrate  in  search  of  better  pasture,  the  men  set  off  with  about 
eighty  camels ;  but  neither  they  nor  their  animals  carried  any  of  the 
camp  equipage.  Immediately  after  their  departure,  however,  the 
women  in  the  camp  broke  out  into  bustling  and  noisy  activity.  As 
if  by  magic  the  tents  fell  to  the  ground,  were  bundled  up  and  placed 
on  the  few  camels  left  for  that  purpose,  and  in  an  inconceivably 
short  time  the  whole  caravan  passed  up  the  river  and  disappeared. 
1  had  often  heard  that  the  Bedawin,  when  alarmed  by  the  approach 
of  an  enemy,  could  vanish,  tents  and  all,  in  a  few  minutes;  and 
though  not  hastened  by  any  fear  of  danger,  I  was  glad  to  have  seen 
the  feat  thus  accomplished.  The  women  did  the  whole  work,  while 
those  “  lords  of  creation,”  their  masters,  sauntered  off  in  utter  un¬ 
concern.  There  appeared  to  be  very  little  baggage  of  any  kind  to 
be  cared  for,  and  no  doubt  the  women  got  on  all  the  better  for 
the  absence  of  their  lazy  lords. 

Biblical  writers  have  drawn  some  affecting  imagery  from  some¬ 
what  similar  scenes.  Thus  Jeremiah  exclaims:  “Destruction  upon 
destruction  is  cried  ;  for  the  whole  land  is  spoiled :  suddenly  are 
my  tents  spoiled,  and  my  curtains  in  a  moment.”  1  And  again  : 
“  My  tabernacle  is  spoiled,  and  all  my  cords  are  broken :  my  chil¬ 
dren  are  gone  forth  of  me,  and  are  not :  there  is  none  to  stretch 
forth  my  tent  any  more,  and  to  set  up  my  curtains.”  2  Our  own 
tabernacles,  also,  soon  disappeared  from  the  green  meadow  by  the 
river,  taking  a  different  route  to  Yajuz,  some  four  hours  to  the  west 
of  Kul’at  ez  Zerka.  There  was  no  lack  of  paths  for  some  distance 
in  the  direction  that  we  took,  made,  I  suppose,  by  camels  and  flocks 

1  Jer.  iv.  20.  2  Jer.  x.  20. 


604 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


coming  down  to  the  Zerka  for  water.  Our  guides — the  same  sheikhs 
who  accompany  us  now — paid  no  attention  to  them,  however,  but 
climbed  up  rocky  ridges  and  plunged  into  deep  ravines,  with  a  reck¬ 
lessness  which  sometimes  we  hesitated  to  follow. 

That  part  of  Ammon’s  inheritance  never  was,  and  never  could 
be,  cultivated,  nor  was  there  any  indication  of  man’s  presence  and 
work  for  several  miles.  What  the  storks,  which  so  solemnly  range 
over  those  barren  hills,  find  to  eat  I  cannot  imagine ;  nor  what 
entices  thither  the  partridges,  that  cackle  from  the  steep  cliffs, 
unless  it  be  the  hope  of  escape  from  man,  their  natural  enemy. 
In  about  two  hours  a  steep  climb  raised  us  above  the  surrounding 
country  into  a  well-wooded  region  of  fine  old  oaks,  and  opened  out 
a  prospect  of  vast  extent.  We  saw  not  only  the  ruins  of  Jerash 
but  the  high  castle  -  crowned  tell  of  Sulkhad,  the  volcanic  cone  of 
el  Kuleib,  in  Jebel  ed  Druse,  and  many  other  places  of  interest  on 
the  distant  plain  of  el  Hauran,  and  beyond  it  the  snowy  summit  of 
Hermon  far  away  to  the  north. 

After  leaving  that  commanding  stand -point  on  the  top  of  the 
ridge,  the  country  began  to  assume  a  less  forbidding  aspect.  The 
shout  of  the  shepherds  and  the  barking  of  their  dogs  gave  notice 
that  we  were  approaching  a  Bedawin  encampment.  The  dogs 
came  charging  down  upon  us  with  loud  uproar ;  but  the  bark  of 
an  Arab  dog  is  worse  than  his  bite,  and  upon  second  thought, 
concluding  that  discretion  was  the  better  part  of  valor,  they  kept 
at  a  respectful  distance  and  finally  fled  at  our  advance. 

From  that  encampment  we  descended  into  a  well-wooded  valley, 
which  inclines  towards  the  south-west.  The  country  improved 
rapidly,  and  it  was  quite  refreshing  to  ride  through  fine  forests  of 
oak  and  terebinth  trees.  After  riding  four  hours  from  Kul’at  ez 
Zerka  we  stopped  to  rest  under  the  wide-spreading  branches  and 
the  “  shadowing  shroud”  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  tere¬ 
binths  I  have  ever  seen,  and  our  horses  regaled  themselves  upon 
the  exuberant  pasture  around  the  trickling  fountain  of  Yajuz. 

Yajuz  is  a  singular  place,  with  a  name  quite  unknown  to  fame; 
but  the  ruins  scattered  about  the  shallow  valley  for  a  mile  or  more 
are  of  considerable  importance.  Near  the  large  terebinth  -  trees 
there  are  three  fountains,  or  rather  holes  in  the  ground,  into  which 


OPEN  ENCLOSURES  AND  LARGE  TEREBINTHS  AT  YAJUZ.  60 5 

the  water  collects  in  sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the  numerous 
flocks  that  gather  about  them.  On  the  lower  side  of  the  fountain 
farthest  south  once  stood  an  ornamental  structure  of  some  sort, 
probably  a  small  temple.  From  the  number  and  size  of  the  blocks, 
the  fragments  of  columns,  capitals,  cornices,  lintels,  and  carved 
stones  with  various  designs,  it  is  evident  that  the  edifice  was  of 
Roman  construction  and  of  the  Corinthian  order  of  architecture. 

But  the  most  remarkable  structures  about  Yajuz  are  the  massive 
walls  of  three  large,  open  enclosures  a  short  distance  to  the  north¬ 
east  of  the  fountains.  All  three  are  overshadowed  by  terebinths 
of  very  great  size,  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  in  circumference,  and  of 
rare  beauty  of  outline.  Some  of  the  trees  spring  from  the  bottom 
of  the  walls,  and  the  largest  among  them  has  grown  around  and 
lifted  up  from  its  position  to  a  considerable  height  above  the 
ground  a  stone  about  two  feet  square  and  weighing  at  least  half 
a  ton.  Those  enclosures  seem  to  be  far  too  wide  to  have  been 
roofed  or  vaulted  over.  The  central  of  the  three  is  about  one 
hundred  and  forty  feet  square,  and  the  walls  were  built  of  large 
and  well -cut  blocks  of  stone  laid  up  without  mortar.  The  other 
two  enclosures  are  smaller,  and  more  of  the  surrounding  walls  re¬ 
main  standing  in  their  original  position. 

I  have  nowhere  else  seen  any  structures  similar  to  those,  and 
the  character  of  the  work  seems  to  indicate  that  they  are  more 
modern  than  the  ancient  town.  The  interior  space  is  now  mainly 
occupied  by  the  graves  of  the  Bedawin.  The  great-grandfather  of 
our  guides,  a  celebrated  sheikh,  died  under  one  of  those  terebinth- 
trees,  and  his  grave  is  still  well  preserved,  with  its  inscription,  in 
an  open  field  a  little  south  of  the  central  enclosure.  The  “family” 
of  our  Bedawin  guides  owns  the  land  in  common  at  Yajuz,  and 
Sheikh  Fahd  performed  the  customary  religious  ceremony  at  the 
grave  of  his  great  ancestor,  whose  name  was  Nimr  el  ’Adwan. 

There  is  a  fourth  enclosure  on  the  hill-side,  about  forty  rods  to 
the  eastward  of  the  three  others.  It  is  smaller,  but  built  of  the 
same  large  blocks  of  stone,  and  like  them  it  is  overshadowed  by 
great  terebinth -trees.  The  ruins  of  the  town  itself  cover  a  large 
space  on  both  sides  of  the  shallow  valley  which  declines  gradually 
towards  the  south-east.  The  houses  on  the  left  side  are  prostrate, 


6o6 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


but  on  the  opposite  slope  of  the  hill  many  of  them  are  still  stand¬ 
ing,  and  all  were  vaulted  over,  though  in  a  rough  and  irregular 
manner.  In  one  I  found  a  Bedawin  family  living,  the  only  resident 
inhabitants  of  that  once  large  town ;  other  houses  are  used  to  store 
tibn  and  grain.  Short  columns  lie  here  and  there  among  the  ruins, 
and  the  outline  of  what  may  have  been  a  small  church  can  still 
be  traced.  Rock -cut  tombs  of  various  forms  abound,  and  there 
are  many  chambers  sunk  in  the  face  of  the  rock  as  if  for  the 
storing  of  grain ;  but  there  are  no  inscriptions  on  the  ruins  to 
throw  any  light  upon  the  history  of  that  remarkable  place. 

Dr.  Merrill  found  reservoirs  at  Yajuz,  “with  substantial  roofs 
supported  upon  arches also  “  the  remains  of  one  temple  and  two 
churches.”  He  saw  a  large  disc  or  millstone,  eight  feet  in  diame¬ 
ter,  lying  in  one  of  the  extensive  quarries,  and  “a  great  many 
square  stones  laid  out  ready  for  use;  but  for  some  reason  they 
were  left,  and  remained  untouched  to  the  present  day.”1 

Besides  Sheikh  Fahd  we  had  with  us  two  other  sheikhs  of  the 
’Adwan  ;  and  they  turned  over  a  large  block  of  stone  to  show  us 
the  battered  outline  of  a  human  figure  sculptured  upon  it,  in  regard 
to  which  they  gave  the  following  account :  The  figure  was  that  of 
a  woman,  appropriately  draped  and  of  life-size.  It  was  quite  per¬ 
fect  when  first  discovered,  but  the  sheikhs  themselves  broke  it  up 
and  mutilated  it,  after  the  famous  Moabite  stone  had  been  simi¬ 
larly  dealt  with  by  the  Beni  Sakhr  at  Dihban  or  Dibon.  In  excuse 
for  that  act  of  vandalism  they  said  that  they  had  heard  that  a  well- 
known  person  in  Jerusalem  had  negotiated  with  a  sheikh  of  their 
tribe  to  carry  away  that  statue,  without  the  permission  of  the  other 
sheikhs.  Fearing  a  quarrel  among  themselves  similar  to  that  be¬ 
tween  the  Beni  Sakhr  about  the  Moabite  stone,  they  went  to 
Yajuz  in  the  night  and  broke  up  and  mutilated  the  statue. 

Our  guides  were  of  the  party,  and  they  showed  us  the  head,  the 
feet,  and  part  of  an  arm,  all  of  which  had  belonged  to  that  statue. 
They  also  turned  over  other  large  blocks  of  stone,  upon  one  of 
which  was  an  eagle  with  outstretched  wings,  and  on  two  others 
were  the  sculptured  figures  of  lions  in  tolerable  preservation.  Those 
sculptured  fragments  only  increase  the  interest  in  Yajuz,  and  it  is 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  pp.  273,  274. 


EL  JEBEIHA,  JOGBEHAH.— CURIOUS  ROCK  STRATA.  607 

to  be  hoped  that  future  explorers  will  be  able  to  discover  the 
ancient  name  and  former  history  of  that  remarkable  town. 

Yajuz,  then,  has  not  been  identified  with  any  Biblical  site? 

I  believe  not ;  in  fact  but  few  travellers  have  either  seen  or 
mentioned  it.  Dr.  Merrill  thinks  “  there  are  good  reasons  for  re¬ 
garding  this  place  as  the  ancient  Roman  town  Gadda,”  mentioned 
in  the  Tabula  Peutingeriana  as  thirteen  miles  from  Philadelphia  or 
Rabbath-amman,  the  present  ’Amman.1 

About  an  hour’s  ride  west  of  Yajuz,  on  the  road  to  es  Salt, 
are  the  ruins  of  another  Roman  town.  The  site  is  now  called  el 
Jebeiha,  which  at  once  suggests  the  name  Jogbehah,  a  fenced  city 
built  by  the  children  of  Gad  before  they  accompanied  their  breth¬ 
ren  to  the  conquest  of  the  country  west  of  the  Jordan.2  The 
situation  of  the  town,  on  a  broad  hill-top,  is  a  very  fine  one,  com¬ 
manding  a  magnificent  outlook  over  a  large  part  of  the  territory 
of  Reuben,  Gad,  and  Manasseh.  Hermon,  in  the  far-off  distance, 
and  the  ruins  of  Jerash  nearer  at  hand  are  again  visible,  and  the 
beautiful  little  plain  of  el  Buk’ah  lies  almost  at  one’s  feet.  Though 
far  older  than  Yajuz,  the  ruins  at  Jebeiha  are  mostly  buried  beneath 
the  surface,  and  there  are  very  few  remains  above  ground.  Foun¬ 
dations  of  buildings,  numerous  low,  massive  vaults,  and  demijohn¬ 
shaped  cisterns  are  found  here  and  there  on  the  top  of  the  hill, 
but  the  remains  are  not  so  extensive  as  those  at  Yajuz. 

As  we  descend  towards  ’Amman  we  shall  see  many  indications 
that  this  region  was  once  highly  cultivated  and  densely  inhabited, 
but  none  of  the  existing  ruins  of  ancient  towns  and  dilapidated 
towrers  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  merit  even  a  passing  notice, 
so  we  will  not  turn  aside  to  examine  them. 

We  have  entered  a  winding  wady,  which  sinks  deeper  and  deep¬ 
er  every  moment  below  the  general  level  of  the  country,  and  the 
cliffs  on  either  side  present  a  very  curious  appearance. 

The  rock  strata  have  been  upheaved,  distorted,  twisted,  and 
crumpled  like  the  leaves  of  a  dog-eared  book.  We  are  near  the 
end  of  our  day’s  ride,  and  high  up  on  our  left  you  can  see  the 
massive  walls  of  the  castle  at  ’Amman.  This  valley  is  called 
Wady  el  Haddadeh,  and  there  is  a  similar  one  on  the  north-west 
1  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  227.  2  Numb,  xxxii.  35. 


6o8 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


side  of  the  citadel-hill,  where  the  strata  are  equally  contorted  and 
remarkable.  In  the  spring,  water  trickles  from  under  the  rocks 
and  cliffs  in  this  valley,  and  the  little  rills  soon  swell  into  a  noisy 
torrent,  rushing  eastward  to  join  the  pretty  river  that  flows  through 
the  ruins  at  ’Amman.  We  shall  find  our  tents  pitched  on  the 
north-west  side  of  the  river,  and  nearly  opposite  the  great  thea¬ 
tre,  one  of  the  principal  attractions  of  the  place. 

No  one  can  visit  ’Amman  without  being  deeply  impressed  with 
its  total  destruction  and  utter  loneliness.  I  have  come  to  it  from 
different  directions,  and  the  impression  is  always  the  same.  The 
traveller  sees  nothing  along  the  way  hither  that  can  in  the  slight¬ 
est  degree  prepare  his  mind  for  the  melancholy  desolation  and 
oppressive  silence  that  brood  over  the  prostrate  ruins  of  this  once 
“  royal  city.”  There  is  still  time  before  dark  to  take  a  general 
survey  of  the  ruins  of  this  “  city  of  waters,”  and  to  visit  the  cita¬ 
del  on  the  summit  of  the  hill  directly  above  it. 

Of  the  “  Rabbath  of  the  children  of  Ammon,”  where  the  iron 
bedstead  of  Og  was  kept,  there  are  no  remains  above  ground  to 
be  examined.  What  the  astonished  traveller  now  sees  belonged 
to  the  Graeco -Roman  city  of  Philadelphia.  There  is  no  doubt, 
however,  as  to  the  identity  of  the  place  itself  with  both  those 
ancient  cities ;  and  it  is  marked  out  by  nature  for  the  site  of  a 
great  capital.  These  are  some  of  its  advantages :  a  strong  posi¬ 
tion,  shut  in  by  high  mountains  and  surrounded  by  deep  valleys; 
an  abundance  of  good  water  flowing  through  a  narrow  vale  from 
the  south-west  to  the  north-east,  with  a  sufficient  space  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  stream  for  edifices  of  all  kinds,  public  and  pri¬ 
vate  ;  while  a  large  isolated  hill,  some  three  hundred  feet  high, 
overhangs  it  on  the  north-west  and  north,  affording  on  its  sum¬ 
mit  a  broad  platform  for  a  large  and  almost  unassailable  citadel, 
and  fertile  hills  and  broad  plains  lie  around  it  in  all  directions  to 
supply  its  inhabitants  with  many  of  the  necessaries  of  life. 

Philadelphia  occupied  not  only  the  narrow  vale  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  little  river,  but  most  of  the  private  dwellings,  erected  upon 
arched  vaults,  rose  tier  above  tier  up  the  steep  slope  of  the  citadel- 
hill.  Many  of  those  vaults  are  nearly  perfect,  but  the  houses  have 
all  been  thrown  down  by  successive  earthquake  shocks,  and  the 


RUINED  TEMPLE  OR  TOMB. 


entire  hill -side  is  one  confused  mass  of  shapeless  ruins.  Com¬ 
mencing  our  survey  of  the  ruined  city  from  the  extreme  south¬ 
west,  the  first  structure  that  especially  attracts  our  attention  is 
a  tomb  or  small  temple.  It  stands,  isolated,  in  the  midst  of  this 
green  meadow,  through  which  glides  the  little  river  of  ’Amman. 
The  temple  was 
square,  with  mas¬ 
sive  walls,  and  Co¬ 
rinthian  pilasters 
at  the  corners,  sur¬ 
mounted  by  an 
elaborate  cornice, 
most  of  which  has 
fallen.  It  was  cir¬ 
cular  within,  and 
had  shell -shaped 
niches  and  arched 
windows  profuse¬ 
ly  and  elegantly 
carved.  An  orna¬ 
mental  frieze  sup¬ 
ported  a  domed 
roof,  but  it  was 
thrown  down  long 
ago,  and  only  a  few 
layers  of  well -cut 
stone  of  the  lower 
tiers  of  masonry 
now  remain. 

On  the  rising  ground  at  the  northern  end  of  the  meadow  are 
several  large  edifices,  the  walls  of  which  are  partly  standing.  The 
first  is  a  rectangular  building  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
long  and  one  hundred  and  twenty- five  feet  wide,  and  near  it  is 
another  nearly  two  hundred  feet  long  and  one  hundred  and  twen¬ 
ty  feet  wide.  It  was  divided  into  two  unequal  parts  by  a  wall,  and 
had  three  entrances  and  four  windows,  with  rounded  arches ;  and 
near  the  north-west  corner  there  is  a  square  tower  with  a  spiral 
S  2 


RUINED  TEMPLE  OR  TOMB. 


6io 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


stairway  within  of  thirty-three  steps.  From  the  top  of  it  there  is 
a  fine  view  of  the  valley  of  ’Amman,  with  its  striking  ruins  and 
pretty  stream,  for  a  mile  or  more  towards  the  north.  The  first  of 


EXTERIOR  OF  AN  IMPOSING  STRUCTURE. 


those  buildings  may  have  been  a  great  caravansary,  and  the  second 
was  probably  a  large  church,  afterwards  converted  into  a  mosk. 
Between  those  buildings  and  the  stream  are  the  prostrate  walls 
of  other  edifices  difficult  to  explore  or  describe. 

East  of  the  mosk,  and  built  upon  the  bank  above  the  stream, 
is  the  basilica.  Within,  it  was  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
long  and  eighty  feet  wide,  and  it  had  a  nave  and  two  side  aisles, 
with  a  small  apse  at  the  east  end.  The  interior  of  the  basilica 
appears  to  have  been  frescoed  or  plastered,  to  judge  from  the 
many  small  holes  in  the  stones  in  that  portion  of  the  apse  and 
side  walls  which  still  remains  standing.  Externally  the  basilica 
must  have  resembled  a  strong  fortress,  for  the  eastern  wall  was 


IMPOSING  STRUCTURE. 


6 1 1 

very  massive,  and  rose  to  a  great  height  above  the  stream.  North 
of  the  basilica  are  the  remains  of  a  building  with  pointed  arches, 
and  beyond  it  are  the  ruins  of  the  most  imposing  structure  at 
Amman.  It  consists  of  curved  walls,  round  towers,  and  angular 
bastions  of  great  thickness  and  strength,  towering  above  the  left 
bank  of  the  stream,  and  completely  dominating  the  entire  city. 

Near  one  of  the  round  towers  is  an  arched  passage  which 
served  to  convey  the  winter  torrent  from  Wady  el  Haddadeh 
through  the  town  and  under  the  walls  to  the  river.  From  the 
existing  remains  and  the  crumbling  ruins  of  another  round  tow¬ 
er,  this  structure  appears  to  have  extended  for  some  distance  far¬ 
ther  north,  and  along  the  bank  of  the  stream.  Externally  the 
walls  were  constructed  of  well-dressed,  bevelled  stones,  and  with¬ 
in,  there  were  semicircular  and  arched  recesses  with  two  rows  of 


INTERIOR  OF  AN  IMPOSING  STRUCTURE. 

niches  between,  and  there  are  numerous  small  holes  along  the 
walls,  above  and  below  the  niches,  for  the  support  of  the  stucco 
or  plaster,  which  covered  a  part,  at  least,  of  the  surface  of  the  en¬ 
tire  structure.  Two  columns  without  capitals  still  remain  standing 


612 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


ROMAN  BRIDGE,  AND  BANKS  OF  THE  STREAM. 


% 

nearly  opposite  the  highest  part  of  the  structure,  and  the  shafts 
of  three  others  are  a  short  distance  to  the  right,  but  they  have 
been  moved  out  of  the  perpendicular  by  the  shock  of  earthquakes. 

Farther  north  is  the  round  arch  of  a  Roman  bridge  still  span¬ 
ning  the  stream.  It  is  a  plain  semicircle  of  single  stones,  with¬ 
out  abutments  or  parapets,  and  appears  to  have  been  the  only 
one  in  the  city.  The  numerous  blocks  of  stones,  and  fragments 
of  columns  lying  in  the  bed  of  the  stream,  however,  afford  easy 
stepping-stones,  so  that  it  is  not  difficult  to  get  across  in  many 
places.  The  banks  of  the  stream  both  above  and  below  the 
bridge  were  lined  with  masonry,  and  vaulted  over  in  some  places ; 
but  if  the  bed  of  it  was  ever  paved,  the  winter  torrents  have  long 
since  carried  away  the  stones  with  which  the  pavement  was  con¬ 
structed.  The  stream  is  full  of  minnows  and  small  fishes,  which 
the  Bedawin  sometimes  catch  by  throwing  stones  at  them — a  very 
primitive  way  of  fishing. 


THEATRE  AND  ODEON 


Let  us  cross  the  bridge  and  visit  the  great  theatre  nearly  a  quar¬ 
ter  of  a  mile  to  the  north-east  of  it.  The  wall  which  lined  the  right 
bank  of  the  stream  is  almost  perfect,  and  here  on  our  left  are  the 
ruins  of  an  old  mill,  and  beyond  them  the  shapeless  remains  of  some 
undefined  structure.  This  theatre  is  the  largest  and  best  preserved 
of  its  kind  in  the  country.  It  was  almost  entirely  excavated  in 
the  side  of  the  hill,  and  partly  hewn  out  of  the  overhanging  cliff, 
and  the  seats  or  benches  were  made  of  trap-rock,  which  never  dis¬ 
integrates.  The  front  of  the  theatre  was  about  three  hundred  feet 
long,  and  the  walls,  including  the  corridors,  nearly  ninety  feet  thick. 


THEATRE  AND  ODEON  AT  ’AMMAN. 


Within,  the  arena  was  over  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  long  and 
about  one  hundred  feet  in  diameter.  There  were  more  than  forty- 
three  rows  of  benches,  rising  upward  from  the  arena  in  grand  and 


614 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


ever  widening  semicircles,  divided  into  sections  by  several  flights 
of  steps,  and  separated  into  three  tiers  by  broad  passages  which 
communicated  with  arched  corridors  running  round  the  entire 
semicircular  structure  under  the  seats  in  each  tier. 

Resting  thus  against  the  hill,  says  Mr.  Northey,  “nothing  can 
exceed  the  grandeur  of  the  large  theatre,  crowned  by  the  rocks  out 
of  which  its  semicircle  has  been  hewn.  With  its  tiers  of  seats,  its 
passages,  corridors,  galleries,  and  vestibules,  it  must  have  been  a 
splendid  building,  capable  of  holding  eight  thousand  persons.” 

In  front  of  the  theatre  was  the  forum,  over  three  hundred  feet 
in  length  and  about  two  hundred  feet  broad,  surrounded  by  a  col¬ 
onnade  of  fifty  or  more  Corinthian  columns.  Eight  of  those  col¬ 
umns  are  still  standing,  with  their  entablature,  opposite  the  south¬ 
western  wall  of  the  theatre,  and  parts  of  four  others,  at  an  angle  to 
them,  extend  along  the  south  side  of  the  forum.  Nearly  opposite 
the  north-western  wall  of  the  theatre,  and  fronting  the  north-east¬ 
ern  part  of  the  forum,  was  the  Odeon.  Portions  of  the  walls  and 
the  three  entrances  in  front,  with  their  lintels  and  round  arches, 
remain,  but  the  roof  has  fallen,  the  semicircular  interior  is  a  mass 
of  shapeless  ruins,  and  the  benches  are  buried  under  heaps  of  rub¬ 
bish  and  piles  of  square  stones.  The  Odeon,  however,  is  the  best- 
preserved  ruin  at  ’Amman,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  a  good 
specimen  of  a  small  theatre  in  the  Corinthian  style  of  architecture. 

The  northern  wall  of  the  city  extended  from  cliff  to  cliff  about 
forty  rods  north  of  the  Odeon,  and  the  gate -way  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  stream  is  well  defined.  It  led  out  of  the  street  of 
columns  which  ran  parallel  to  the  cliffs  of  the  citadel-hill,  and  not 
far  from  the  hill  itself.  Half  a  mile  farther  north,  near  the  spot 
where  the  ravine  on  the  northern  side  of  the  citadel-hill  unites  with 
the  river  vale,  is  a  remarkable  tomb  having  an  ornamental  fagade 
not  unlike  that  of  a  triumphal  arch,  with  small  side  entrances ;  but 
the  interior  is  merely  a  large,  rock- cut,  sepulchral  chamber  with 
several  sarcophagi  in  situ  arranged  along  the  sides. 

We  will  now  recross  the  bridge  and  climb  the  steep  hill  above 
the  city,  in  order  to  examine  the  remains  of  the  citadel  and  the 
ruins  of  some  remarkable  structures  upon  its  summit.  This  com¬ 
paratively  level  space  on  the  left,  between  the  bridge  and  the 


RUINED  TEMPLE 


615 


citadel -hill,  is  strewn  with  confused  masses  of  ruins,  but  none  of 
them  appear  to  be  of  any  importance.  On  the  right,  and  close  to 
the  foot  of  the  hill,  are  the  ruins  of  a  large  temple.  Part  of  the 
rear  wall,  ornamented  by  a  large  square  niche,  with  a  smaller,  shell¬ 
shaped  one  above  it,  and  surmounted  by  a  beautiful  cornice  with 
elegant  broken 
pediments,  sup¬ 
ported  by  two  Co¬ 
rinthian  columns 
with  their  entabla¬ 
tures,  still  remains 
standing.  That 
temple  faced  the 
east,  and  in  front 
of  it  are  the  brok¬ 
en  shafts  of  a  few 
columns.  With  its 
portico  and  spa¬ 
cious  court  that 
temple  appears  to 
have  extended  al¬ 
most  to  the  main 
street,  lined  with 
columns  and  run¬ 
ning  northwards, 
on  an  elevated  ter¬ 
race,  parallel  with 
the  river,  until  it 
reached  the  north 
gate  of  the  city. 

Look  well  to  your  footsteps  as  we  ascend  the  steep  hill-side,  so 
completely  covered  with  the  remains  of  prostrate  houses,  lest  you 
stumble  over  the  ruined  walls  or  tumble  into  one  of  the  broken 
vaults  upon  which  many  of  the  private  residences  of  this  ancient 
city  were  built.  Like  those  at  es  Salt,  these  houses  rose  tier  above 
tier,  the  roofs  of  those  below  forming  the  courts  of  the  ones  above 
them,  and  so  on  up  this  steep  declivity  to  the  top  of  the  hill. 


REAR  WALL  OF  A  LARGE  TEMPLE. 


6i6 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


But  they  have  all  been  thrown  down  in  an  overwhelming  mass 
by  the  shock  of  earthquakes,  and  nothing  now  remains  of  them 
but  some  foundations  and  a  few  side  walls.  As  in  the  case  of  el 
Busrah  or  Bozrah,  so  here  “  judgment  has  come”  upon  Rabbath- 
ammon,  and  the  Lord  has  stretched  “  out  upon  it  the  line  of  con- 
.fusion,  and  the  stones  of  emptiness.”  1 

And  now  that  we  have  reached  the  watch-tower  or  guard-house 
on  the  top  of  the  ridge,  you  can  see  that  the  hill  extends  from 
south-west  to  north-east  and  is  almost  a  mile  in  length,  with  a 
broad,  irregular  platform  on  the  summit  having  somewhat  the  shape 
of  a  right  angle.  The  deep  Wady  Haddadeh  protects  it  on  the 
south-west,  and  it  is  defended  by  a  profound  ravine  on  the  north¬ 
west  and  north.  The  only  available  point  of  attack  or  approach 
is  along  the  narrow  neck  of  land  which  connects  it  with  the  hill 
farther  west.  Broad,  level  fields  extend  northward  from  the  ditch 
or  moat  near  the  north-east  angle  of  that  platform,  along  the  top 
of  the  ridge,  and  the  surface  declines  rapidly  to  the  river  vale,  about 
half  a  mile  beyond  the  north  wall  of  the  city.  This  square  watch- 
tower  stands  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  platform  and  overlooks  the 
entire  city,  the  river,  and  the  valley  nearly  three  hundred  feet  below. 
A  short  distance  west  of  it  we  shall  find  the  foundations  and  pros¬ 
trate  columns  of  a  large  and  noble  temple. 

“According  to  our  measurements,”  says  Dr.  Merrill,  this  temple 
“was  fifty  feet  wide  by  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet  long.  It  had 
four  columns  at  each  end  and  eight  on  each  side,”  and  was,  there¬ 
fore,  a  peripteral  temple  surrounded  by  twenty  columns.  They 
were  “  forty-five  feet  high,  and  the  capitals  were  of  rich  Corinthian 
work.  The  columns  were  six  feet  in  diameter,  and  on  the  end  of 
two  sections  was  engraved,  in  very  large  letters,  [a  Greek  word 
which]  signifies  ‘from  a  present,  or  gift,’  showing  that  the  column 
was  a  contribution  from  some  wealthy  or  benevolent  person. 
Around  the  entire  building  there  appears  to  have  extended  an 
architrave  which  was  three  feet  wide,  and  under  a  portion  of  it  at 
least  was  a  Greek  inscription,  beautifully  carved,  in  two  lines,  the 
single  letters  being  six  inches  in  length.  The  stones  composing 
this  architrave  were  badly  broken  when  the  building  fell,  and  some 

1  Isa.  xxxiv.  II. 


PERIPTERAL  TEMPLE  WITHIN  THE  CITADEL.  617 


PERIPTERAL  TEMPLE  WITHIN  THE  CITADEL. 


of  them  are  covered  in  the  earth,  while  others,  half  buried,  project 
from  the  ground;  the  inscription  [upon  the  architrave]  is  much 
mutilated  and  can  be  copied  only  in  fragments.”  1 

This  low,  square  structure,  a  short  distance  to  the  north-west 
of  the  temple,  and  half  buried  by  a  mass  of  rubbish,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  a  church  or  a  mosk.  It  was  first  described  in  detail 
by  Canon  Tristram  as  “  a  perfect  Greek  church  of  the  late  Byzantine 
type,”  and  it  has  since  been  carefully  examined  by  Captain  Conder, 
of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  “The  beautiful  little  Moslem 
building  on  the  citadel  hill,”  he  says,  “is  one  of  the  most  interest¬ 
ing  monuments  of  the  town.  It  appears  to  be  an  erection  all  of 
one  period,  although  the  south  wall  has  been  injured  and  perhaps 
partly  rebuilt.  The  building  measures  eighty-five  and  a  half  feet 
north  and  south  by  eighty  and  a  half  feet  east  and  west.  It  has 
a  central  court,  thirty- three  feet  square,  and  an  arched  chamber 
leads  back  from  each  side  of  the  court,  measuring  about  eighteen 
feet  either  way.  There  are  four  other  chambers  in  the  four  corners, 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  pp.  264,  265. 


6 1 8 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


and  on  the  north-west  was  a  staircase  to  the  roof.  The  total 
height  is  twenty -seven  feet,  and  it  [does]  not  appear  that  the 
central  court  had  ever  been  roofed  in. 

“The  interest  of  this  building  consists  in  the  architectural  style 
of  its  details.  Each  alcove,  or  chamber,  opening  into  the  court  has 
a  fine  arch  of  peculiar  shape,  being  very  nearly  semicircular,  but 
having  that  same  slightly  elliptical  form  at  the  top  which  can  be 
recognized  in  the  arches  of  the  Dome  of  the  Rock  at  Jerusalem. 
On  each  side  of  the  arch  is  a  panel  decorated  with  bas-reliefs  in 
stone.  These  represent  arches  supported  on  slender  coupled  pil¬ 
lars.  The  arch  in  this  case  is  represented  of  horseshoe  form  and 
decorated  with  a  dog-tooth  moulding.  It  stands  on  a  sort  of 
cornice  supported  by  three  small  sculptured  arches,  each  with 


DECORATED  ARCHES  IN  THE  CHURCH  OR  MOSK  ON  THE  CITADEL-HILL. 


dwarf  twin -pillars.  Above  the  large  arch  is  a  second  order  of 
these  arches,  also  on  dwarf  twin  -  pillars.  The  spaces  under  all 
these  arches,  between  the  pillars,  are  elaborately  ornamented  with 
geometric  designs  which  have  a  somewhat  Byzantine  appearance. 
The  existence  of  a  mosque  in  the  valley,  with  round  arches,  seems 


WALLS  OF  THE  CITADEL.— UNDERGROUND  RESERVOIR.  619 

to  show  that  the  Moslems  already  were  building  here  in  or  before 
the  ninth  century,  when  they  first  began  to  use  the  pointed  arch, 
and  as  there  is  no  distinctly  pointed  arch  in  the  building  under 
consideration,  we  shall  in  the  first  instance  be  inclined  to  ascribe 
its  erection  to  the  same  period.”  1 

Beyond  this  singular  and  interesting  structure,  to  the  north  and 
west,  are  the  remains  of  the  massive  walls  that  protected  the  citadel 
in  that  direction.  It  appears  to  have  occupied  the  entire  summit 
of  the  hill,  from  the  rock-cut  moat  on  the  north-east  to  this  steep 
escarpment  on  the  west,  and  at  those  two  only  accessible  points 
of  approach  it  was  very  strongly  fortified.  The  walls  are  almost 
entire  and  are  very  thick.  They  were  constructed  of  large  blocks 
of  masonry  without  cement,  and  the  foundations  were  laid  along 
and  “a  little  below  the  crest  of  the  hill,  and  appear  not  to  have 
risen  much  above  the  level  of  its  summit.” 

There  were  several  large  and  deep  cisterns,  besides  the  temple 
and  other  structures,  enclosed  within  the  walls  of  the  citadel,  and 
it  was  almost  entirely  dependent  upon  them  for  its  supply  of  water. 
“  Immediately  north  of  the  citadel,”  says  Captain  Conder,  “we  found 
a  great  underground  reservoir,  having  at  its  mouth  a  concealed 
passage,  which  might  perhaps  have  once  led  to  the  interior  of  the 
fortress.  This  passage  may  be  that  of  which  Polybius  speaks  as 
being  used  by  the  defenders  of  the  citadel  during  the  siege  by 
Antiochus  the  Great  in  218  B.C.  The  secret  was  betrayed  by  a 
prisoner,  which  led  to  the  surrender  of  the  garrison.”2 

Leaving  the  citadel  near  the  south-western  angle  of  the  wall, 
and  just  above  the  narrow  neck  of  land  which  connects  it  with 
the  hill  farther  west,  we  will  descend  into  Wady  Haddadeh  and 
find  our  way  as  best  we  can  over  and  among  broken  columns  and 
ruined  houses  back  to  our  tents  on  the  left  bank  of  Moiet  ’Amman, 
as  the  river  is  now  called. 

September  27th.  Evening. 

The  chief  Biblical  interest  in  Rabbath  -  ammon  centres  about 
its  capture  by  Joab  and  David;  but  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Am¬ 
monites  in  the  time  of  Moses,  several  centuries  before  the  reign 
of  David.  Its  name  appears  in  subsequent  history  and  prophecy, 
1  Heth  and  Moab,  p.  1 57-1 59.  2  Heth  and  Moab,  p.  156. 


620 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


and  in  such  connections  as  clearly  to  imply  that  it  had  regained 
its  independence,  and  had  again  become  the  chief  city  of  the  Am¬ 
monite  nation.  For  centuries  after  it  disappears,  and  during  sev¬ 
eral  succeeding  centuries  it  re-appears  as  Philadelphia,  but  its  an¬ 
cient  name  was  never  lost;  and  here,  amid  the  ruin  and  desolation 
of  the  Graeco -Roman  city,  and  after  a  lapse  of  more  than  three 
thousand  years,  we  find  its  original  name  of  Rabbath  -  ammon  still 
preserved  in  the  modern  Arabic  one  of  ’Amman. 

In  “the  story  of  the  conquest  of  Og,  king  of  Bashan,”  we  find 
the  first  mention  of  “  Rabbath  of  the  children  of  Ammon  ”  as  the 
place  where  the  iron  bedstead  of  that  giant  king  was  to  be  seen  : 
“  nine  cubits  was  the  length  thereof,  and  four  cubits  the  breadth 
of  it,  after  the  cubit  of  a  man.”1  Concerning  that  remarkable 
couch,  Captain  Conder  suggests  that  the  word  “  iron  ”  may  refer 
to  a  throne  rather  than  a  bedstead,  and  that  there  may  have  been 
“  a  possible  connection  between  Og’s  throne  and  some  rude  stone 
monument”  at  Rabbath;  and  he  says:  “It  was,  therefore,  very 
striking  to  find  a  single  enormous  dolmen  standing  alone  in  a  con¬ 
spicuous  position  near  Rabbath  Ammon,  and  yet  more  striking 
that  the  top  stone  measured  thirteen  feet,  or  very  nearly  nine 
cubits  of  sixteen  inches,  in  length.  The  extreme  breadth  was  eleven 
feet.  It  seemed  to  me  possible  that  it  is  to  this  solitary  monu¬ 
ment  that  the  name  ‘  Og’s  throne  ’  might  be  attached,  and  I  here 
give  the  suggestion  for  what  it  is  worth.”3 

The  Ammonites  were  the  descendants  of  Lot,  the  nephew  of 
Abraham,  and  the  kinsmen  of  the  children  of  Israel.  The  He¬ 
brews,  therefore,  did  not  molest  them  nor  conquer  their  territory, 
and  Rabbath  appears  to  have  remained  independent  down  to  the 
time  of  David.  The  Ammonites,  however,  ultimately  became  the 
aggressors,  and  the  immediate  cause  of  the  siege  of  Rabbath  by 
Joab  was  the  shameful  treatment  of  David’s  ambassadors,  sent 
“to  comfort  the  king  of  the  children  of  Ammon  ”  on  the  death  of 
his  father.  King  Hanun  “  took  David’s  servants,  and  shaved  off 
the  one  half  of  their  beards,  and  cut  off  their  garments,  and  sent 
them  away.  When  David  heard  of  it,  he  sent  Joab,  and  all  the 
host  of  the  mighty  men”  against  the  Ammonites.  Joab  defeated 

1  Deut.  iii.  n.  2  Heth  and  Moab,  pp.  155,  156. 


SIEGE  AND  CAPTURE  OF  RABBATH  BY  JOAB  AND  DAVID.  621 

them  and  returned  to  Jerusalem  ;  and  the  following  year  he  and 
all  Israel  were  sent  by  David,  “at  the  time  when  kings  go  forth  to 
battle,  and  they  destroyed  the  children  of  Ammon,  and  besieged 
Rabbah.  But  David  tarried  still  at  Jerusalem.”1 

It  is  evident,  from  the  record  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
chapters  of  2d  Samuel,  that  the  siege  must  have  lasted  about 
two  years,  or  at  least  until  after  the  birth  of  Solomon.  During 
all  that  time  the  citadel  could  obtain  water  from  the  river  be¬ 
low;  but  when  Joab  had  captured  the  lower  town,  or  “the  City 
of  Waters,”  that  supply  was  cut  off,  and  as  many  of  the  inhabi¬ 
tants  had  no  doubt  escaped  to  the  citadel,  the  increase  of  people 
would  quickly  exhaust  the  cisterns,  and  compel  a  speedy  surren¬ 
der.  Joab  understood  that,  and  therefore  sent  word  to  David  to 
come  and  take  it,  “  Lest,”  said  he,  “  I  take  the  city,  and  my  name 
be  called  upon  it,”  as  in  the  marginal  reading. 

From  the  intimations  in  the  Biblical  narrative,  we  conclude  that 
there  were  two  cities,  one  along  the  river  vale,  “  the  City  of  Wa¬ 
ters,”  and  the  other  upon  the  summit  of  the  hill  above  it,  and  that 
it  was  this  last  which  David  came  to,  and  fought  against  and  took. 
It  was  the  great  citadel  where  the  king  dwelt,  and  included  a  large 
and  populous  city,  and  not  merely  a  castle  defended  by  a  strong 
garrison.  The  king’s  crown,  “  the  weight  whereof  was  a  talent  of 
gold,  was  set  on  David’s  head,  the  spoil  of  the  city  in  great  abun¬ 
dance  was  brought  forth,”  and  after  cruelly  torturing  the  inhabi¬ 
tants,  “David  and  all  the  people  returned  unto  Jerusalem.”2 

Four  centuries  later  we  find  that  Rabbath  -  ammon  had  not 
only  recovered  from  the  effects  of  that  conquest,  but  had  again 
become  the  capital  of  the  Ammonite  nation.  Some  of  the  de¬ 
nunciations  of  the  prophets  against  it  have  been  fulfilled  in  a 
manner,  and  to  an  extent  which  strikes  the  traveller  with  aston¬ 
ishment.  “  Therefore  the  days  come,  saith  the  Lord,  that  Rabbah 
of  the  Ammonites  shall  be  a  desolate  heap.  Wherefore  gloriest 
thou  in  the  valleys,  thy  flowing  valley,  saying,  Who  shall  come 
up  unto  me?  Behold  ye  shall  be  driven  out  every  man  right 
forth;  and  none  shall  gather  up  him  that  wandereth.”3  “And  I 
will  make  Rabbah  a  stable  for  camels,  and  the  Ammonites  a  couch- 
1  2  Sam.  X.  i,  2,  4,  5,  7-14  ;  xi.  1.  2  2  Sam.  xii.  26-31.  3  Jer.  xlix.  2,  4,  5. 


622 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


in g  place  for  flocks:  and  ye  shall  know  that  I  am  the  Lord.”1 
Though  we  see  few  camels  at  ’Amman,  the  interior  of  some  of 
the  buildings  on  the  citadel -hill  is  still  occupied  by  them,  and 
the  square  tower  above  “the  City  of  Waters”  is  so  filthy  from 
the  flocks  folded  in  it,  that  one  can  scarcely  venture  into  it,  and 
the  surrounding  region  is  at  times  covered  with  large  droves  of 
camels  and  numerous  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats. 

Many  of  those  prophetic  denunciations  referred  not  merely  to 
the  capital  city,  but  also  to  the  entire  people  and  land  of  Am¬ 
mon.  “  Behold,  therefore,  I  will  stretch  out  mine  hand  upon  thee, 
and  will  deliver  thee  for  a  spoil  to  the  heathen  ;  and  I  will  cut 
thee  off  from  the  people,  and  I  will  cause  thee  to  perish  out  of 
the  countries:  I  will  destroy  thee:  and  thou  shalt  know  that  I 
am  the  Lord.”2  “The  Ammonites  [shall]  not  be  remembered 
amongst  the  nations ;  and  Ammon  shall  be  a  perpetual  desola¬ 
tion.”3  Those  prophetic  threatenings  have  been  fulfilled  to  the 
very  letter.  Nothing  but  ruins  are  found  here  by  the  amazed 
explorer.  Not  even  an  inhabited  village  remains,  and  not  a  sin¬ 
gle  Ammonite  exists  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 

About  three  centuries  later  Rabbath  -  ammon  was  rebuilt  by 
Ptolemy  II.  of  Egypt,  and  called,  after  him,  Philadelphia,  and  it 
is  mentioned  under  that  name  by  Greek  and  Roman  writers  and 
Josephus.  During  the  wars  between  the  Syrian  and  Egyptian 
successors  of  Alexander  the  Great  the  possession  of  it  was  fierce¬ 
ly  contended,  and  with  varying  success.  Antiochus  the  Great  be¬ 
sieged  and  captured  it  in  the  third  century  before  Christ,  and 
Herod  the  Great  carried  the  citadel  by  assault,  a  few  years  be¬ 
fore  the  commencement  of  our  era.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans 
Philadelphia  was  one  of  the  cities  of  the  Decapolis ;  and  after 
the  establishment  of  Christianity  it  became  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
and  thus  continued  until  the  Muhammedan  conquest,  in  the  sev¬ 
enth  century.  From  that  time  this  place  is  rarely  mentioned, 
even  by  Arabian  writers,  until  modern  travellers  began  to  visit  it 
in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  and  astonished  the  world 
with  descriptions  of  its  remarkable  ruins. 


1  Ezek.  xxv.  5. 

3  Ezek.  xxv.  10  ;  Zeph.  ii.  9, 


s  Ezek.  xxv.  7. 


THREE  SUNDAYS  AT  ’AMMAN. — A  PLOUGH  FOR  FIREWOOD.  623 

Sunday,  September  28th.  Evening. 

The  quiet  rest  of  this  Sabbath-day  amidst  the  ruins  at  ’Am¬ 
man  will  be  remembered  as  amongst  the  most  agreeable,  impres¬ 
sive,  and  instructive  experiences  in  our  pilgrimage  through  these 
Biblical  and  historical  lands.  Everything  around  us,  animate  and 
inanimate,  suggests  the  ancient,  and  recalls  the  manners  and  cus¬ 
toms  of  extinct  tribes  and  nationalities.  Men,  women,  and  chil¬ 
dren,  in  costume,  in  features,  in  language,  and  in  actions,  seem  to 
be  a  veritable  reproduction  of  primitive  and  patriarchal  times. 

And  the  same  is  true  of  the  animals,  of  the  camels  and  the 
asses  with  their  old-fashioned  saddles,  and  the  flocks  and  the 
herds  with  their  shepherds  and  their  dogs.  Even  the  birds  are 
Biblical,  for  the  solemn  stork,  which,  according  to  Jeremiah,  “  know- 
eth  her  appointed  times”  for  migration,  has  already  reached  this 
point.1  They  congregate  every  evening  in  great  numbers  about 
these  ruins,  and  the  top  of  the  minaret  and  of  the  high  walls  in 
that  vicinity  are  covered  with  them. 

I  have  spent  three  Sabbaths  here.  On  my  first  visit  there  was 
not  a  single  inhabitant,  and  the  day  was  much  quieter  than  the 
present  one.  Years  after,  on  my  second  visit,  there  was  only  a 
poor,  blind,  and  wretched  old  woman  and  her  daughter  hid  away 
in  one  of  the  vaults  of  the  great  theatre.  She  kept  the  keys  of 
the  chambers  under  the  seats,  in  which  grain  had  been  deposited 
for  safe-keeping  by  the  ’Adwan,  and  very  few  flocks  came  here  to 
drink.  This  year  there  has  been  but  little  rain,  the  brooks  and 
many  of  the  fountains  are  already  dry,  and  hence  not  only  the 
Bedawin  and  their  camels  and  flocks,  but  even  the  storks  and  other 
birds  are  compelled  to  come  here,  and  during  the  autumn  this  gen¬ 
erally  forsaken  vale  will  be  full  of  life,  noise,  and  confusion. 

An  incident  in  our  experience  yesterday  indicated  most  em¬ 
phatically  the  entire  absence  of  trees  in  this  region.  The  charcoal 
which  we  brought  with  us  had  been  exhausted,  and  after  trying 
in  vain,  by  offering  a  large  bakhshish  to  the  boys  who  gathered 
about  the  tents,  to  procure  something  combustible  with  which  to 
prepare  our  dinner,  the  cook  was  obliged  to  purchase  a  plough  from 
a  fellah  and  cut  it  up  for  firewood.  Such  misuse  of  an  agricultural 

1  Jer.  viii.  7. 


624 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


implement,  so  necessary  to  the  very  existence  of  the  farmer  himself, 
never  before  occurred  in  all  my  travels  in  this  country,  nor  have  I 
ever  heard  of  a  similar  expedient.  The  last  fragments  of  that  ill- 
fated  plough  will  serve  to  boil  the  kettle  for  to-morrow  morning’s 
tea,  and  it  appears  that  we  must  migrate  or  dispense  altogether 
with  cooking,  for  there  is  not  another  plough  to  be  found. 

To-morrow  our  ride  will  be  a  long  one,  through  the  wide  open 
plains  of  the  fertile  Belka  to  ’Aiyun  Musa,  the  Fountains  of  Mo¬ 
ses,  in  the  valley  below  the  summit  of  Jebel  Neba,  or  Mount  Nebo. 
Had  we  the  time  we  might  have  made  an  excursion  to  the  place 
where  this  pretty  little  stream  disappears  entirely,  and  then  fol¬ 
lowed  along  the  banks  to  where  the  waters  re -appeared  again. 
Burckhardt,  when  he  was  here  in  1812,  was  informed  that  this 
stream  disappeared  and  re-appeared  three  times  between  ’Amman 
and  Kul’at  ez  Zerka,  and  I  have  had  the  opportunity  to  confirm 
the  correctness  of  that  statement. 

The  last  time  I  was  here,  in  company  with  Dr.  Merrill,  we  started 
down  the  valley  on  our  way  to  Kul’at  ez  Zerka,  about  twelve  miles 
distant.  Soon  after  leaving  these  ruins  we  noticed  that  the  volume 
of  water  in  the  stream  was  gradually  diminishing,  and  in  half  an 
hour  after  that  the  bed  of  the  stream  was  as  dry  as  the  road. 
About  a  mile  farther  on  the  water  began  to  re-appear  in  the  same 
gradual  manner  as  it  had  disappeared.  And  that  subsidence  of  the 
waters  beneath  the  small  stones  in  the  bed  of  the  stream  and  their 
subsequent  re-appearance  was  repeated  three  times  before  we  came 
to  the  great  fountains  of  the  Jabbok  near  Kul’at  ez  Zerka,  which 
the  Bedawin  call  Ras  ez  Zerka,  the  head-waters  of  that  river. 

The  rock  strata  must  be  of  a  very  peculiar  character  to  enable 
the  water  of  so  considerable  a  stream  to  sink  away  by  insensible 
degrees  until  the  bed  of  it  was  quite  dry. 

I  have  noticed  similar  phenomena  occurring  in  small  brooks,  but 
I  never  before  saw  a  large  stream  thus  die  away  and  rise  again. 
F'or  the  last  hour  before  we  arrived  at  the  fountains  of  the  Zerka 
the  stream  was  quite  as  large  as  at  ’Amman,  and  it  was  evident, 
from  the  marks  along  the  banks,  that  during  the  winter  this  stream 
from  ’Amman  does  not  all  disappear  below  the  surface. 


’AMMAN  TO  ’AYUN  MUSA. 


625 


XVII. 

’AMMAN  TO  ’AYUN  MUSA. 

Noisy  Rooks. — Solemn  Storks. — Ascent  to  the  Plain  south  of  ’Amman. — No  Roads  and 
no  Fences. — The  Land  of  the  Ammonites. — Jephthah’s  Victorious  Campaign. — Aroer 
to  Minnith. — Tyre  supplied  with  Wheat  from  Minnith. — No  Inhabited  Place  upon  the 
Belka. — Abu  Nugla. — Excursion  to  Miishatta. — The  sterile  Desert. — Luxuriant  Wheat. 
— Camps  of  the  Beni  Sakhr. — Commotion  in  the  Camp. — Uneasy  Guides. — Rualla  Bed¬ 
awin. — Blood  Feud. — Haj  Road  to  Mecca. — Route  of  the  Egyptian  Haj. — En  Niikhl. — 
“  The  Wilderness  of  the  Wanderings.” — Khan  Miishatta. — Massive  Enclosing  Wall  de¬ 
fended  by  Twenty-five  Towers. — Octagonal  Towers. — The  Fagade. — Elegant  Sculpture, 
unparalleled  by  that  of  any  Age  or  Nation. — Twenty-two  Animals  and  fifty-five  Birds 
carved  in  Stone. — Entrance  Gate-way. — The  Middle  Division  of  the  Enclosure. — Cham¬ 
bers  for  the  Guard  and  Garrison. — Court. — Triple  Gate  of  the  Palace. — Court. — Entrance 
Gate-way  to  the  Audience-chamber. — The  Audience-chamber. — Side  Chambers. — Walls, 
Vaults,  and  Domes  constructed  of  Brick. — Large  Size  and  Extraordinary  Number  of  the 
Bricks. — Bedawin  Tribal  Marks. — Rude  Arabic  Characters. — Desolate  and  Lonely  Site. 
— Material  and  Workmen  transported  from  a  Distance. — The  wonderful  Palace  of  Mush- 
atta  discovered  by  Canon  Tristram. — Mr.  James  Fergusson. — Chosroes  II. — Shahr  Barz. 
— Dr.  Merrill. — Miishatta,  a  Church  and  Convent. — Miishatta  never  finished. —  Its  Origin 
and  Purpose  unknown. — The  Wintering  Place. — But  little  Debris  and  less  Destruction. 
— Dread  of  the  Rualla  Bedawin. — The  Haj  Road  and  the  Advance  of  the  Hebrews 
along  the  Eastern  Frontiers  of  Edom  and  Moab. — Entrance  into  the  Territory  of  Sihon. 
— The  Amorites  and  Moabites. — Reuben  and  Gad. — The  Boundaries  of  Moab  and  of 
the  Amorites. — A  rolling  Country. — Green  Wheat-fields. — Quails  and  Gazelles. — The 
Jackal  and  the  Fox. — Temple  and  Church  at  Madeba. — A  large  Reservoir. — Ziza. — 
Tanks  and  Cisterns. — Ruined  Houses. — Remains  of  Temples  and  Public  Buildings. — 
Roman  Suburb  at  Madeba. —  Colonnade. — Biblical  History  of  Medeba. — “The  Plain 
of  Medeba.” — Great  Battle  in  the  Time  of  David. — Thirty-two  thousand  Chariots. — 
Joab  and  Abishai  defeat  the  Amorites  and  Syrians. — Medeba  taken  by  Sihon. — Capt¬ 
ured  and  re-captured  by  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites. — Secular  History  of  Medeba. — 
The  Nabatheans. — Slaughter  of  a  Wedding -party  near  Medeba. — John  Maccabeus. — 
Hyrcanus  I.  besieged  Medeba. — A  Plistory  of  Conquest,  Bloodshed,  and  Sieges. — Me¬ 
deba  the  Seat  Of  a  Bishop. — The  Besom  of  Destruction. —  Devastating  Bedawin. — 
Traces  of  old  Roads. — Ancient  Names  of  Persons  and  Places  well  known  by  the  roam¬ 
ing  Denizens  of  the  Desert. —  Monuments  of  Remote  Antiquity. — The  Dolmens. — 
Pillars  of  Witness  and  Votive  Monuments. — Stone  Circles,  Menhirs,  Disc-stones,  and 

T  2 


62  6 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


rock-cut  Tombs. — Menhirs  alluded  to  in  the  Bible. — Disc-stones. — Agricultural  Capa¬ 
bility  of  the  Belka. — The  Region  between  Madeba  and  Abu  Nugla. — The  Beni  Sakhr. 
— Thousands  of  Camels. — The  numberless  Camels  of  the  Midianites. — Fifty  thousand 
Camels  taken  from  the  Hagarites. — Golden  Ear-rings  of  the  Ishmaelites. — The  Bed- 
awin  Lineal  Descendants  of  the  Hagarites. — Ornaments  and  Garments  similar  to  those 
of  the  Midianites. — The  Wheat  in  the  Valleys  more  luxuriant  than  on  the  Plain. — 
Cretaceous  Limestone  Ridges. — A  double  Supply  of  Rain-water. — Arabic  Proverbs 
and  Biblical  Utterances. — A  high  Appreciation  of  Water.  —  Surprising  Number  of 
Cisterns  excavated  in  the  Cretaceous  Rock. — The  ’Adwan  and  the  Broken  Cisterns. — 
Extensive  View  over  Ancient  Moab. — Iverak. —  Dibon. — The  Moabite  Stone. — King 
Mesha. — Two  hundred  thousand  Lambs  and  Rams. — Baal-meon. — Ruins  at  Ma’in 
described  by  Canon  Tristram. — Beth-meon. — Biblical  History  of  Beth-meon. — One  of 
the  High-places  of  Baal. —  Balak  and  Balaam. — The  Birthplace  of  Elisha. —  Ma’m  a 
shapeless  Mass  of  Ruins. — Threshing-floors. — Bedawin  taking  Wheat  out  of  a  deep 
Cistern. — Grain  concealed  from  hostile  Tribes. — Entrance  to  a  deep  Pool  of  Water 
reluctantly  disclosed. — No  Wood  to  boil  the  Kettle. — The  Zerka  Ma’in. — Excursion 
to  Callirrhoe. — Bedawin  Encampment. — Camels  and  Flocks  of  Sheep  and  Goats. — 
Fresh  Cheese. — “  Houses  of  Hair.” — A  pretty  Pastoral  Scene. — A  magnificent  View 
of  the  Dead  Sea. —  Changeable  Color  of  the  Water. — A  hopeless  Wilderness. — Tre¬ 
mendous  Gorge  of  the  Zerka  Ma’in. — Lieutenant  Conder’s  Description  of  the  Gorge 
and  the  Hot  Springs  of  Callirrhoe. — “  The  Black  Grackle.” — The  Hot  Sulphur  Springs 
of  Callirrhoe.  —  The  Stream  from  the  Zerka  Ma’in.  —  Pools  full  of  Fish. — Tunnel 
through  Tufaceous  Sulphur. — A  thermal  Bath  at  140°  Fahrenheit. — The  Mules  found 
by  Anah  in  the  Wilderness. — Anah  discovers  Callirrhoe. — Visit  of  Herod  the  Great 
to  Callirrhoe. — Baaras. — Fountains  of  Hot  Water  described  by  Josephus. — Medicinal, 
and  good  for  Strengthening  the  Nerves. — “  Mines  of  Sulphur  and  Alum.” — John  the 
Baptist  beheaded  in  the  Castle  of  Machasrus.  —  Herod’s  Supper,  and  the  Dancing  of 
Herodias’s  Daughter.  —  “  The  Head  of  John  the  Baptist  in  a  Charger.” — War  between 
Aretas  and  Herod. — “  The  Destruction  of  Herod’s  Army  a  Punishment  from  God.” — 
Vain  Attempt  to  reach  the  Shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  from  the  Sulphur  Springs  of  Callir¬ 
rhoe. — The  Ibex. — Stupendous  Cliff  of  Columnar  Basalt. — A  gigantic  Organ. — Kufeir 
Abu  Bedd. — Disc-stones  in  Moab. — Mensef  Abu  Zeid. — Two  large  Wolves. — Shefa 
Neba,  the  Crest  of  Nebo.  —  Sahl  Neba. — Jebel  Neba,  “  the  Mountain  of  Nebo.” — 
Elevated  Plateau  of  the  Belka,  and  great  Depression  of  the  Shittim  Plain. — Preserva¬ 
tion  of  ancient  Biblical  Names. — The  unchanged  Name  of  Nebo. — View  from  Jebel 
Neba. — El  Muslubiyeh. — The  grassy  Ravine  between  Jebel  Neba  and  Jebel  Siaghah. 
— Ruined  Temple  on  Jebel  Siaghah. — The  City  of  Nebo. — View  from  the  Ruins  on 
Jebel  Siaghah. — The  Headland  or  Ras  of  Siaghah. — “The  Mountain  of  Nebo,  and 
the  Top  of  Pisgah.” — Here  Moses  must  have  stood. — The  View  of  the  Promised  Land. 
— The  Outlook  from  Ras  Siaghah. — The  Names  Neba  and  Siaghah,  and  Nebo  and 
Pisgah. — Siaghah  an  Arabic  Form  of  the  Hebrew  Pisgah. — Descent  to  ’Ayun  Musa. — 
Approach  of  the  Hebrews  to  the  Land  of  Promise. — “  The  Mountains  of  Abarim.” — 
Descent  of  the  Israelites  to  “the  Plains  of  Moab.” — Balak  and  Balaam. — Balaam’s 
Sublime  Conceptions  regarding  the  God  of  Israel. — Thrice  seven  Altars  and  twice  as 
many  Sacrifices. — Jebel  Neba  the  first  Station. — Balaam’s  Parable. — “  The  Field  of 


NOISY  ROOKS.— SOLEMN  STORKS.— PLAIN  OF  EL  BELKA.  627 

Zophim.” — The  Grassy  Vale  between  Jebel  Neba  and  Jebel  Siaghah. — The  Parable 
of  Balaam. — “  The  Top  of  Peor.” — The  Summit  of  Siaghah. — Balaam’s  Parable. — 
Wrath  of  Balak,  and  Flight  of  Balaam. — What  “the  Son  of  Beor  saw  and  said.” — 
Balaam  an  Unprincipled  Man. —  Slain  in  Battle  fighting  against  Israel. —  Obstinate 
and  Puzzling  Questions. 

September  29th. 

LEAVING  ’Amman  at  this  early  hour,  there  is  nothing  stirring 
among  these  solitary  ruins  except  that  colony  of  noisy  rooks  in  the 
crannies  of  the  cliff  that  overhangs  the  river  opposite  the  Basilica. 

They  are  always  there,  and  loudly  express  their  alarm  and  resent¬ 
ment  of  all  passing  intruders.  In  the  spring  the  high  walls  of  the 
ruins  in  that  neighborhood  are  the  favorite  roosting- place  of  the 
storks.  It  is  then  one  of  the  diversions  of  the  place  to  watch  those 
large  and  long-legged  birds  flocking  thither  at  evening  from  the 
surrounding  region,  and  to  witness  the  quarrelling  amongst  them¬ 
selves  for  the  most  comfortable  spot  upon  which  to  roost.  They 
rarely  nest  in  this  part  of  the  country,  but  migrate  for  that  purpose 
to  the  extreme  north  of  Syria  and  to  Asia  Minor;  still  many  of 
them  prolong  their  stay  here  until  the  end  of  the  summer,  and  are 
seen  in  small  companies  roaming  through  the  fields  and  over  the 
plains,  seeking  in  silent  and  solemn  gravity  for  their  proper  food. 

What  may  that  be  ? 

Earthworms,  grubs,  grasshoppers,  insects,  snails,  mice,  and  frogs. 
Storks  are  by  no  means  fastidious  as  to  their  diet,  and  they  even 
kill  lizards  and  small  snakes,  and  devour  them  greedily. 

Having  after  this  long  ascent  reached  the  general  level  of  the 
country  south  of  ’Amman,  we  must  turn  to  the  south-west,  and 
direct  our  course  towards  Jebel  Neba.  For  most  of  the  day  we 
shall  follow  no  road,  nor  do  we  need  any.  The  great  plain  of  the 
Belka  stretches  away  westward  and  southward  farther  than  the 
range  of  vision  ;  nor  is  there  wall,  hedge,  or  enclosure  of  any  kind 
to  interfere  with  the  perfect  freedom  of  our  travel.  Although  this 
fertile  plateau  must  have  been  thickly  inhabited  by  the  Ammonites, 
in  the  days  of  their  prosperity,  they  have  left  but  few  indications 
of  their  presence,  and  there  is  not  even  a  tree  within  sight  to  attract 
attention  or  relieve  the  oppressive  solitude. 

Very  different  must  this  land  of  the  Ammonites  have  been 
when  Jephthah  made  his  victorious  campaign  against  the  king  of 


628 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Ammon,  more  than  eleven  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  He 
conquered  twenty  cities  in  this  very  limited  territory  from  Aroer, 
supposed  to  be  the  ruin  called  ’Aireh,  north-west  of  ’Amman,  to 
Minnith,  possibly  Minyeh,  east  of  Hesban.1  Minnith  appears  to 
have  supplied  Tyre  with  a  superior  kind  of  wheat  in  the  time  of 
Ezekiel,  and  it  is  fair  to  conclude  that  it  was  somewhere  on  this 
wheat-growing  plain  of  the  Belka ;  and  it  may  have  given  its  name 
to  all  the  wheat  that  was  taken  to  Tyre  from  this  region.2 

That  supposition  is  sufficiently  probable  to  impart  additional 
interest  to  this  broad,  apparently  boundless,  and  treeless  plain,  over 
which  we  seem  to  be  wandering  at  will. 

The  objective  point  of  this  day’s  ride  is  Jebel  Neba,  Mount 
Nebo,  which  rises  to  a  moderate  elevation  on  the  south-western 
border  of  the  Belka.  We  shall,  therefore,  cross  this  great  plain 
diagonally  from  north-east  to  south-west,  and  along  that  line  there 
is  not  an  important  ruin  nor  a  single  inhabited  place,  and  we  have 
entire  liberty  to  select  any  course  that  best  suits  our  purpose.  By 
inclining  to  the  south  of  the  direct  line  from  this  to  Nebo,  we  shall 
pass  Khirbet  Abu  Nugla,  or  Abu  Nukla,  el  ’Al,  and  Hesban,  on  the 
right,  and  near  enough  to  Madeba  and  Ma’in,  on  the  left,  to  obtain 
a  view  of  them  and  of  the  land  of  Moab  beyond  the  Zerka  Ma’in, 
southward  to  the  river  Arnon.  Several  years  ago  our  party  spent 
a  night  at  Abu  Nugla,  to  which  deserted  place  we  had  come  from 
Madeba  in  order  to  find  water  and  to  shorten  the  ride  to  Mushatta, 
about  five  hours  to  the  south  of  ’Amman. 

Abu  Nugla  is  not  a  ruined  village,  nor  is  there  a  single  house  in 
sight;  and  only  a  number  of  rock-cut  cisterns  are  found  there,  from 
one  of  which  we  obtained  an  abundant  supply  of  cool,  sweet  water. 
We  had  for  our  guides  Fahd  and  ’Ali,  and  three  other  sheikhs  of 
the  ’Adwan.  As  none  of  them  had  ever  been  to  Mushatta,  they 
could  not  tell  how  long  it  would  take  to  get  there,  nor  how  many 
hours’  ride  it  would  be  from  there  to  ’Amman,  where  we  intended 
to  spend  the  next  night.  In  that  uncertainty  we  took  an  early 
breakfast,  and  leaving  the  muleteers  and  servants  with  one  of  the 
'Adwan  sheikhs  to  make  their  way  to  ’Amman  direct,  we  set  off 
southward  to  re-discover  the  now  famous  palace  at  Mushatta. 

1  Judges  xi.  33.  2  Ezek.  xxvii.  17. 


THE  STERILE  DESERT.— CAMPS  OF  THE  BENI  SAKHR.  629 

We  had  a  striking  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which  the  fertile 
land  fades  away  into  the  sterile  desert.  For  the  first  half  hour 
we  passed  through  luxuriant  wheat,  there  being  no  road,  and  then 
ascended  a  low  rocky  ridge,  from  which  the  plain  rolled  away  east¬ 
ward  and  southward  to  the  horizon.  For  the  next  hour  the  soil 
was  capable  of  cultivation,  and  much  of  the  land  must  occasionally 
be  sown  with  wheat.  That  part  of  the  plain  of  el  Belka  was  dotted 
over  with  the  camps  of  the  Beni  Sakhr,  and  the  smoke  from  their 
early  fires  rose  only  a  few  feet  above  the  tents,  and  spreading  widely 
over  them,  had  all  the  appearance  of  a  silvery  cloud  gleaming  in 
the  morning  sunlight ;  but  a  gentle  breeze  from  the  south  soon 
dissipated  that  bright  and  beautiful  illusion. 

Our  guides  were  not  quite  at  ease  after  we  left  their  own  terri¬ 
tory  and  entered  upon  that  of  the  Beni  Sakhr.  As  we  passed  by 
one  of  the  large  encampments  of  that  tribe  there  appeared  to  be 
a  hurried  gathering  of  Bedawin  engaged  in  an  angry  discussion. 
Men  on  foot  and  on  horseback  were  coming  from  all  sides,  and 
there  was  a  general  commotion  in  the  camp.  One  of  our  sheikhs 
cantered  off  to  meet  a  horseman  with  a  long  spear  as  he  passed 
speeding  towards  the  noisy  assembly,  and  he  reported  that  the 
dispute  was  about  some  family  quarrel  amongst  the  Beni  Sakhr 
themselves,  and  with  which  we  had  no  concern. 

After  passing  beyond  the  range  of  the  Beni  Sakhr  the  guides 
suddenly  called  a  halt,  and  taking  our  glasses  made  an  anxious 
survey  of  the  region  to  the  south-east.  We  had  reached  the  debat¬ 
able  frontier  between  the  Beni  Sakhr  and  the  Rualla  Bedawin,  a 
large  tribe  occupying  the  desert  farther  east,  and  who  for  the  time 
being  were  “  at  war”  with  both  the  ’Adwan  and  the  Beni  Sakhr. 
Our  sheikhs  finally  decided  that  what  they  supposed  to  be  an  en¬ 
campment  of  the’ir  enemies  was  merely  a  clump  of  bushes  on  the 
hill-side,  and  we  resumed  our  ride  in  that  direction.  I  asked  Sheikh 
Fahd  what  would  have  occurred  to  us  all  in  case  there  had  really 
been  some  of  those  formidable  Rualla  in  sight. 

“  We  should  have  had  to  depend  upon  the  speed  of  our  horses,” 
said  he,  “  and  fled  back  to  the  camp  of  the  Beni  Sakhr,  for  the 
Rualla  are  very  powerful.  That  tribe  are  more  than  a  match  for 
the  ’Adwan  and  the  Beni  Sakhr  combined,  and  while  the  existing 


630 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


blood  feud  remains  unsettled  neither  we  ourselves  nor  any  travel¬ 
ler  could  pass  east  of  the  Haj  road  without  great  risk.” 

The  peculiar  parallel  and  well-worn  tracks,  which  we  soon  after 
crossed,  were  made  by  the  caravan  of  the  Haj  on  its  way  to  Mecca. 
There  are  more  than  twenty  of  such  trails,  running  close  together, 
as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  in  either  direction.  I  have  seen  the 
same  thing  on  the  route  of  the  Egyptian  Haj,  which  I  crossed  on 
my  way  from  Sinai,  near  the  castle  of  en  Nukhl,  in  the  middle  of 
“the  Wilderness  of  the  Wanderings.”  When  there  is  nothing  to 
prevent  the  caravan  from  spreading  out,  the  camels  select  different 
paths  and  thus  advance  with  a  broad  and  imposing  front.  Of  course 
they  must  all  follow  in  single  file  when  passing  through  narrow 
ravines,  and  then  their  progress  is  much  retarded. 

Sheikh  ’Ali,  who  had  cantered  up  to  the  top  of  the  hill  ahead 

of  us,  motioned  that  the  place  we  had  come  to  see  was  farther  to 

the  south,  and  we  therefore  changed  our  course  accordingly.  Soon 
after  rising  the  hill  we  reached  Mushatta,  after  a  pleasant  ride  of 
about  four  hours  from  Abu  Nugla.  The  so-called  palace  stands 
upon  the  open  desert,  and  entirely  alone  in  that  arid  and  treeless 
wilderness.  As  we  approached  it  from  the  north  and  on  a  higher 
level,  it  had  the  appearance  of  a  ruined  caravansary  of  great  size  ; 
and  in  fact  it  is  called  Khan  Mushatta  by  the  Bedawin.  Such  is 
the  first  impression,  nor  is  it  modified  until  one  passes  around  the 
external  wall  to  the  main  entrance  on  the  south  side. 

Mushatta  is  an  extraordinary  and  unique  structure,  unlike  any 

other  ruin  with  which  to  compare  it  in  this  country.  It  consists 

of  an  open  square  area,  surrounded  by  a  massive  wall,  about  five 
hundred  feet  in  length  on  all  its  four  sides,  and  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  feet  high,  and  the  space  thus  enclosed  was  divided  longi¬ 
tudinally,  from  south  to  north,  into  three  parts,  the  central  being 
the  largest.  The  wall  is  built  of  well-cut  but  not  very  large  blocks 
of  limestone,  and  was  defended  by  twenty-five  towers.  Those  at 
the  four  corners  or  angles  are  circular,  the  flanking  towers  on  either 
side  of  the  entrance  are  octagonal,  and  those  along  the  side  walls 
are  semicircular.  The  facade  extends  for  about  one  hundred  and 
eighty  feet  between  the  first  semicircular  towers  on  the  right  and 
left  of  the  main  entrance,  and  of  course  includes  the  two  octagonal 


KHAN  MUSHATTA— THE  WINTERING-PLACE. 


631 


flanking  towers.  The  latter  are  entirely  covered  with  most  intri¬ 
cate,  elaborate,  and  admirably  executed  sculpture,  which  is  con¬ 
tinued  over  the  face  of  the  wall  beyond  each  of  them  for  about 
seventy  feet  to  the  east  and  west. 


KHAN  MUSHATTA — THE  WINTERING-PLACE. 


It  can  be  truly  said  of  the  fagade  that  it  is  “  adorned  with  a 
richness  and  magnificence  unparalleled,  and  scarcely  exceeded  in 
the  architecture  of  any  age  or  nation.”  The  wall  of  the  facade,  in 
its  present  condition,  is  about  twenty  feet  high,  and  along  the  face 
of  it  ran  an  elegant  zigzag  moulding,  at  least  ten  feet  high,  in  bold 
relief,  with  large  bosses  in  the  centre  of  the  triangular  segments, 
or  sections,  above  and  below  the  moulding.  Within  and  about 
those  sections  every  available  space  has  been  covered  with  fret¬ 
work  of  great  beauty  and  variety  of  design — -vines,  fruit,  birds, 
animals,  and  even  men.  In  the  midst  of  that  graceful  stone  tracery 
of  blending  foliage  and  fruit  birds  are  seen  in  the  act  of  pecking 
at  the  fruit,  and  there  are  a  variety  of  animals,  some  of  which  are 
represented  as  drinking  from  stone  vases. 

On  that  part  of  the  fagade  west  of  the  gate-way  are  lions,  pan- 


632  THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 

thers,  lynx,  several  with  wings,  buffaloes,  gazelles,  and  some  other 
animals.  Among  those,  but  mostly  above  them,  are  many  kinds 
of  birds,  such  as  peacocks,  pigeons,  partridges,  and  smaller  birds — 
twenty-two  animals  and  fifty-five  birds  in  all.  There  are  also  figures 
of  men  on  the  side  of  the  tower  west  of  the  entrance,  and  one  on 
the  wall  beyond  it,  but  they  are  somewhat  defaced.  The  ornament¬ 
al  work  of  the  gate-way  is  of  the  same  character  as  that  on  the  zig¬ 
zag  moulding ;  but  it  is  not  so  elaborate  as  that  on  the  octagonal 
towers,  or  upon  the  fagade  on  either  side  of  them.  There  are  no 
birds  and  but  two  animals  on  the  wall  east  of  the  entrance,  but 
a  space  as  large  as  that  on  the  west  side,  and  corresponding  to 
it,  is  covered  with  blended  vines,  fruits,  and  flowers  in  endless, 
variety,  and  beautifully  carved. 

It  is  very  evident  that  the  fagade,  and  indeed  the  entire  struct¬ 
ure,  at  Mushatta  was  not  only  never  finished,  but  it  can  be  said 
that  it  was  not  even  fairly  commenced.  The  gate-way  on  the  south 
seems  to  have  been  the  only  entrance,  and  within  the  enclosure  the 
middle  division,  two  hundred  feet  wide  and  five  hundred  feet  long, 
was  apparently  the  only  one  intended  for  occupation.  It  was  di¬ 
vided  into  three  sections,  the  central  being  the  largest,  and  that 
around  and  beyond  the  entrance  was  the  smallest.  In  that  section 
there  were  sixteen  chambers,  probably  intended  for  the  accommo¬ 
dation  of  the  guard  and  garrison  ;  but  nothing  seems  to  have  been 
added  to  the  foundations,  which  are  just  level  with  the  surface. 
The  middle  section  was  an  open  court,  nearly  two  hundred  feet 
square,  but  without  any  rooms  or  chambers,  and  no  traces  of  foun¬ 
dations.  The  third  and  last  section  is  somewhat  smaller,  and  was 
entirely  occupied  by  the  so-called  palace  itself. 

The  entrance  to  the  palace  was  from  the  south,  through  a  wide 
and  lofty  central  gate -way,  with  two  smaller  side  entrances.  The 
fallen  arches  of  that  triple  gate  lie  prostrate  in  regular  order  in  front 
of  the  entrance,  apparently  overthrown  by  an  earthquake  shock. 
The  massive  square  buttresses  and  pillars  from  which  those  arches 
sprung,  and  upon  which  they  rested,  are  still  standing,  and  the  carv¬ 
ing  on  their  capitals  resembles  that  upon  the  outside  of  the  main 
gate-way  between  the  flanking  towers.  Beyond  the  triple  gate  is  a 
large  open  court,  about  sixty  feet  wide  and  seventy-five  feet  long, 


OCTAGONAL  TOWER  AT  MUSHATTA 


THE  SO-CALLED  PALACE  OF  MUSHATTA.  633 

with  several  vaulted  chambers  on  either  side,  communicating  with 
interior  passages,  courts,  and  various  other  chambers. 

At  the  end  of  the  open  court  was  another  wide  gate  with  mas¬ 
sive  square  pilasters,  whose  capitals  are  more  elaborately  orna¬ 
mented  than  those  of  the  triple  gate-way.  That  entrance  led  into 
what  was  probably  the  grand  audience-chamber  of  the  palace.  It 
had  large  semicircular  recesses,  or  alcoves,  on  the  sides  and  at  the 
farther  end  opposite  the  entrance,  and,  including  them,  it  was  about 
fifty  feet  square.  The  audience  -  chamber  appears  to  have  had  a 
domed  or  arched  roof,  with  side  vaults  over  the  three  alcoves.  To 
the  right  and  left  of  the  entrance  are  doors  leading  to  courts  and 
passages  communicating  with  lofty  vaulted  chambers,  which  extend 
on  either  side  of  the  audience-chamber,  and  beyond  it  to  the  north 
wall  of  the  main  enclosure ;  and  behind  the  audience-chamber  are 
similar  vaulted  chambers,  which  are  entered  by  arched  door-ways 
on  the  right  and  left  of  the  rear  alcove. 

With  the  exception  of  the  triple  gate -way  and  the  entrance  to 
the  audience-chamber,  the  walls,  vaults,  and  domes  of  the  so-called 
palace  at  Mushatta  were  constructed  of  brick  or  tiles.  The  walls 
were  of  great  thickness,  and  about  twenty-five  feet  high,  and  the 
bricks  of  which  they  were  built  rested  upon  a  foundation  of  three 
courses  of  well -cut  stones.  Many  of  the  bricks  are  about  a  foot 
square  and  three  inches  thick.  They  were  well  burnt  and  laid  in 
mortar,  and  the  amount  of  them  is  truly  surprising.  The  palace, 
also,  was  never  finished,  and  the  stones  are  covered  with  the  tribal 
marks  of  the  Bedawin.  Hundreds  of  such  signs  and  brief  sentences 
in  rude  Arabic  characters  are  seen  all  over  the  walls  of  the  cham¬ 
bers,  and  also  on  those  of  the  main  enclosure.  Such  marks  and 
scrawls  are  of  no  special  historic  importance,  and  there  is  apparent¬ 
ly  nothing  about  the  twenty-five  or  more  chambers  of  the  palace  to 
indicate  that  they  were  intended  for  the  dwelling  apartments,  or 
even  the  hunting-lodge  of  a  royal  prince. 

The  site  certainly  has  nothing  to  recommend  it  for  a  palatial 
residence.  Situated  on  the  open  plain,  with  higher  ground  about 
it,  surrounded  by  a  flat,  arid  desert,  entirely  destitute  of  water,  with 
no  human  habitation  in  sight  for  many  a  weary  mile,  far  from 
any  highway  —  what  could  have  been  the  motive  that  led  to  its 


•634 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


construction?  and  from  whence  came  the  building  material?  The 
compact  limestone  is  different  from  the  rock  of  the  surrounding 
region ;  and  the  brick,  of  which  there  is  such  an  extraordinary 
amount,  must  have  been  moulded  and  burnt  far  away  from  that 
neighborhood.  In  fact,  the  entire  material  and  all  the  workmen 
must  have  been  transported  thither  from  a  great  distance ;  and  to 
what  end,  for  what  purpose,  and  by  whom  ? 

Canon  Tristram,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  discovery  and 
detailed  description  of  the  wonderful  “  palace  at  Mushatta,”  accepts 
the  opinion  of  Mr.  James  Fergusson,  “referring  it  to  the  Sassanian 
dynasty  of  Persian  kings,  and  to  the  history  of  Chosroes  II.,  and 
fixing  the  date  to  be  A.D.  614.”  1  Dr.  Merrill  finds  “that  Chosroes 
was  never  in  Palestine,”  and  is  “almost  certain  that  Chosroes  did 
not  build  the  Mushatta  palace.”  “  It  is,  moreover,  very  doubtful,”  he 
says,  “  if  it  was  built  by  Shahr  Barz,”  the  general  of  Chosroes.2  And 
he  adds:  “During  the  latter  part  of  this  period  [extending  from 
the  second  to  the  fifth  centuries  of  the  Christian  era],  when  the 
Byzantine  artists  were  the  finest  in  the  world,  when  Christianity 
was  tending  towards  monasticism,  and  when,  for  the  East  Jordan 
country  at  least,  wealth  abounded,  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose 
that  one  of  the  Christian  emperors  built  at  Mushatta  a  church  and 
convent  on  a  magnificent  scale.”  3 

We  examined  the  ruins  at  Mushatta  together,  and  I  find,  on 
looking  over  my  notes,  taken  on  the  spot,  that  such  an  idea — of  a 
large  convent  and  church — was  constantly  suggested  by  the  peculi¬ 
arities  of  that  vast  structure ;  and  the  arrangement  of  the  courts, 
passages,  chambers,  alcoves,  etc.,  accords  with  such  a  theory  as  that 
of  Dr.  Merrill.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  object  in  it3  construc¬ 
tion,  however,  it  was  never  realized.  The  architects  and  builders 
dropped  the  work  half  finished,  and  fled,  leaving  unsolved  “  the  ori¬ 
gin  of  one  of  the  most  interesting  ruins  to  be  found  in  any  part  of 
the  world.”  But  we  can  also,  like  Dr.  Merrill,  feel  “  quite  confident 
that  more  detailed  measurements  and  observations,  accompanied  by 
excavations,  will  throw  light  upon  a  question  which  it  would  be 
most  gratifying  to  have  solved.”  4 

1  Land  of  Moab,  p.  2>o8. 

3  East  of  the  Jordan,  pp.  262,  263. 


2  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  260. 
4  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  263. 


I 


DREAD  OF  THE  RUALLA.—  ADVANCE  OF  THE  HEBREWS.  635 

Mushatta  is  merely  the  Arabic  name  for  a  place  which  may  be 
occupied  in  the  winter,  but  those  ruins  can  now  only  afford  a  miser¬ 
able  shelter  to  the  Bedawin,  with  their  flocks  and  herds,  during  the 
rainy  season.  There  is,  therefore,  but  little  rubbish  in  or  about  the 
place,  and  the  intricate  and  elegant  carving  has  suffered  less  from 
vandal  hands  than  that  in  any  other  ruin  in  the  country.  The  walls 
have  not  been  pulled  down  and  the  stones  carried  away  to  adja¬ 
cent  villages,  for  there  are  none  in  that  region,  and  therefore  even 
the  bricks,  which  might  be  easily  transported,  remain  undisturbed. 

Our  Bedawin  sheikhs  were  in  such  dread  of  the  Rualla  that  they 
urged  us  to  depart  from  that  neighborhood.  Indeed  some  of  them 
mounted  their  horses  and  started,  and  we  were  obliged  to  follow 
them,  although  we  would  have  liked  to  spend  days  instead  of  hours 
studying  the  details  of  that  extraordinary  structure.  After  leaving 
Mushatta  for  ’Amman,  we  followed  the  Haj  road  northward  for 
several  miles.  Those  many  compact  and  parallel  paths  testify  to 
the  earnest  and  persistent  enthusiasm  of  the  Muhammedan  world. 
Age  after  age,  for  a  thousand  years  and  more,  those  pilgrim  cara¬ 
vans  have  trod  their  weary  way  along  that  dreary  road  and  toiled 
through  the  burning  desert  to  Mecca  and  the  venerated  Caaba  in 
far-distant  Arabia.  That  strange  caravan  route  has  always  been 
invested,  in  my  mind,  with  peculiar  interest.  It  indicates,  south  of 
Mushatta,  I  suppose,  the  general  course  which  the  Hebrews  followed 
on  their  journey  to  this  region  from  Ezion-gaber,  when  they  “  turned 
and  passed  by  the  way  of  the  wilderness  of  Moab.”  1 

Refused  permission  to  pass  through  the  land  of  Edom,  they 
must  have  inclined  eastward  for  many  miles  to  get  beyond  the  ter¬ 
ritory  of  the  Edomites,  before  they  could  turn  northward,  and  that 
would  bring  them  near  the  present  Haj  road  to  Mecca,  which,  no 
doubt,  follows  the  most  practicable  route  along  the  eastern  frontier 
of  Edom  and  Moab.  When,  therefore,  the  Hebrews  had  reached 
a  point  in  their  journey  northward,  somewhere  in  the  wilderness 
south-west  of  Mushatta,  they  probably  turned  westward,  and  en¬ 
tered  the  fertile  region  between  the  territory  of  Moab  and  that  of 
“  Sihon,  the  Amorite  king  of  Heshbon.”  The  Amorites  had  con¬ 
quered  much  of  the  original  possessions  of  the  Moabites,  as  we  learn 

1  Deut.  ii.  8. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


636 

from  the  twenty- second  chapter  of  Numbers  and  elsewhere.  At 
the  command  of  the  Lord,  Moses  did  not  hesitate  to  attack  them, 
and  having  defeated  “  Sihon  and  all  his  people,”  he  took  their  cities. 
Nor  were  they  restored  to  the  Moabites,  but  the  whole  territory  of 
the  Amorites  was  allotted  to  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad. 

We  must  now  be  traversing  that  very  region,  but  I  suppose  it  is 
nearly  impossible  to  ascertain  the  boundaries  of  those  tribes. 

The  river  Arnon  appears  to  have  been  the  natural  boundary  be¬ 
tween  them  on  the  south,  but  their  possessions  seem  to  have  been 
singularly  intermixed,  and  places  may  have  frequently  changed  own¬ 
ers,  sometimes  being  subject  to  the  Moabites  and  at  others  to  the 
Amorites,  and  subsequently  to  the  Hebrews. 

After  four  hours  of  steady  riding  southward  from  ’Amman,  we 
must  be  in  the  territory  of  Reuben,  for  Elealeh  and  Mebeba,  which 
belonged  to  that  tribe,  are  a  few  miles  to  the  west  and  south-west 
of  us.  We  shall  pass  by  the  former  to-morrow,  but  it  would  now 
lead  us  too  far  out  of  our  way  to  visit  the  latter.  We  will  there¬ 
fore  ride  to  the  top  of  that  hill  a  short  distance  ahead  of  us  on 
the  left,  from  which  we  can  get  a  distant  view  of  it. 

From  our  present  stand-point  Mabeba,  situated  on  its  tell,  and 
extending  down  on  to  the  plain,  presents  quite  an  imposing  ap¬ 
pearance,  and  it  must  have  been  an  important  city. 

We  came  to  it  from  Ma’in  in  an  hour  and  a  half,  our  Bedawin 
sheikhs  leading  us  over  a  beautiful  rolling  country  and  through 
green  wheat -fields  in  the  broad  vales  that  lay  between  the  two 
places.  Quails  started  up  from  under  the  feet  of  our  horses,  flew 
for  a  few  rods,  and  then  dropped  down  into  the  wheat  as  if  they 
had  been  shot.  The  ’Adwan  guides  and  some  of  our  party  gave 
chase  to  fleet  gazelles,  but  failed  to  overtake  them  ;  and  a  guilty- 
looking  jackal  and  a  terrified  fox  had  to  run  for  their  lives.  We 
went  first  to  examine  a  ruin  upon  the  hill  west  of  the  city.  You 
can  distinctly  see  the  two  columns  which  still  remain  standing  be¬ 
fore  the  western  entrance  to  that  edifice.  They  are  about  twenty 
feet  high,  and  the  shafts  swell  out  in  the  middle  ;  the  capitals,  one 
Corinthian,  the  other  Ionic,  and  the  entablature,  merely  a  large 
block  of  rough  stone,  have  evidently  been  placed  there  at  a  later 
period.  The  edifice  to  which  the  columns  belonged  may  have  been 


LARGE  RESERVOIR.— ZIZA.— ROMAN  RUINS.  637 

a  large  temple,  which  was  afterwards  transformed  into  a  church. 
The  exterior  walls  have  all  disappeared,  but  the  foundations  of  the 
apse  at  the  east  end  can  be  clearly  traced. 

Between  the  hill  on  which  that  church  stood  and  the  city  in  the 
shallow  vale  is  a  large  reservoir  or  tank.  It  is  about  three  hundred 
and  thirty  feet  long  from  east  to  west,  and  three  hundred  and  twelve 
feet  broad  from  north  to  south,  measuring  from  the  inside.  It  is 
over  fifteen  feet  deep  fro’m  the  top  of  the  wall  to  the  soil  which 
now  covers  the  bottom,  and  which  is  often  planted  with  tobacco. 
At  the  south-east  and  north-east  corners  stone  steps  led  down  to 
the  water,  and  on  the  latter  corner  was  a  strongly  built  tower, 
probably  for  the  defence  of  the  reservoir.  The  wall  is  in  excellent 
preservation,  and  is  about  twenty  feet  high  and  twelve  feet  thick; 
but  on  the  east  side  at  the  base  it  is  over  eighteen  feet  wide,  dimin¬ 
ishing  to  twelve  feet  at  the  top,  and  further  strengthened  by  a  mas¬ 
sive  embankment,  as  it  was  exposed  on  that  side  to  the  heaviest 
pressure  from  the  great  body  of  water  within  the  reservoir. 

A  strong  dam  was  carried  across  the  shallow  valley  southward 
to  lead  the  water  into  the  tank  during  the  rainy  season.  It  has 
long  since  been  washed  away,  and  the  reservoir  is  now  always 
empty.  It  would  require  but  little  expense  to  put  that  large 
reservoir  into  complete  repair,  and  thus  secure  an  abundant  sup¬ 
ply  of  water,  not  only  for  all  necessary  domestic  purposes  but  also 
to  irrigate  the  fertile  fields  below  it  to  the  south-east.  That  tank 
is  larger  and  much  more  substantially  built  than  the  one  at  Ziza, 
a  place  to  the  south-east  of  Madeba,  which  we  saw  to  the  south  of 
our  route  to  Mushatta.  There  are  several  tanks  and  numerous 
cisterns  in  the  town  itself,  some  of  which,  still  containing  water, 
were  roofed  over  and  were  about  thirty  feet  deep. 

The  houses  of  the  inhabitants  appear  to  have  covered  the  entire 
mound-like  hill  upon  which  the  city  was  built,  nor  were  there  many 
open  spaces  or  public  buildings  within  the  walls  of  the  town.  The 
existing  remains,  of  apparently  Roman  origin,  are  chiefly  on  the 
north-east  of  the  tell  and  outside  of  the  city  proper.  There  are  to 
be  seen  the  ruins  of  a  few  small  temples  and  several  important 
buildings,  as  the  amount  and  character  of  the  prostrate  remains 
abundantly  testify.  The  eastern  gate  of  that  Roman  suburb  was 


638 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


constructed  of  large  well-squared  blocks,  and  a  colonnade  ran  west¬ 
ward  from  it  to  the  main  group  of  temples  and  other  edifices. 
Many  of  the  bases  of  the  columns  are  still  in  their  original  position, 
and  the  ruins  in  that  quarter  are  evidently  of  a  later  period  than 
those  of  the  old  town.  Amongst  the  ruins  are  great  vaults  of  very 
deep  cisterns,  some  of  which  still  hold  water  in  the  rainy  season. 
Long  lines  of  large,  well-cut  stones  extend  in  various  directions, 
and  seem  to  enclose  nothing,  and  the  edifices  to  which  they  be¬ 
longed  may  never  have  been  completed. 

Madeba  furnishes  one  of  the  most  striking  examples  of  the  te¬ 
nacity  with  which  the  ancient  names  have  adhered  to  their  original 
sites.  The  name  has  remained  identically  the  same  since  the  age 
of  Moses,  a  period  of  about  three  thousand  five  hundred  years,  and 
the  first  mention  of  it,  in  Numbers  xxi.  30,  implies  that  it  was  a 
well-known  place  long  before  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  Law -giver. 
According  to  Joshua,  xiii.  9  and  16,  the  city  was  assigned  to  Reu¬ 
ben,  and  mention  is  also  made  of  “the  plain  of  Medeba.”  Stand¬ 
ing  on  the  top  of  its  ruin-covered  tell  one  can  realize  the  appropri¬ 
ateness  of  that  topographical  designation.  Madeba  is  surrounded 
by  a  plain,  varied  indeed  by  long  wave-like  swells  which  roll  away 
to  the  horizon,  but  still  a  plain  of  considerable  extent.  Upon  that 
plain  in  the  time  of  David  the  great  battle  was  fought  between  the 
Ammonites,  with  their  Syrian  confederates,  and  “all  the  host’'  of 
Israel,  commanded  by  Joab  and  his  brother  Abishai.  The  Syrians, 
with  their  “  thirty  and  two  thousand  chariots,”  were  defeated,  and 
fled  from  before  Joab,  and  the  Ammonites  were  chased  into  the 
city  by  Abishai ;  but  Medeba  itself  was  not  captured,  and  the  in¬ 
ference  is  that  it  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Ammonites.1 

Medeba  originally  belonged  to  the  Moabites,  but  it  was  taken 
from  them  by  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites.2  He  was  defeated  by 
the  Hebrews  on  their  approach  from  “  the  Wilderness  of  the  Wan¬ 
dering,”  and  all  his  land  was  confiscated  ;  but  it  is  not  certain  that 
Medeba  was  ever  actually  occupied  by  the  Israelites.  The  Am¬ 
monites  held  it  during  the  reign  of  David,  and  the  Moabites  appar¬ 
ently  regained  possession  of  it  in  the  time  of  Isaiah.3  After  that 
Medeba  is  not  mentioned  again  in  the  Bible.  In  the  second  cent- 
1  1  Chron.  xix.  1-15.  3  Numb.  xxi.  30.  3  Isa.  xv.  2. 


SECULAR  HISTORY  OF  MEDEBA.— UNCHANGED  ANCIENT  NAMES.  639 

ury  before  the  Christian  era  Medeba  belonged  to  the  Nabatheans ; 
and  we  read  of  a  grand  wedding-party  issuing  from  the  city,  with 
the  bride  and  a  great  train,  as  befitted  “  the  daughter  of  one  of  the 
great  princes  of  Chanaan.”  But  the  bride  and  groom  and  all  their 
friends,  “with  drums,  and  music,  and  many  weapons,”  were  set  upon 
by  Jonathan  and  Simon  Maccabeus,  and  a  great  slaughter  was  made 
of  them,  and  all  their  spoils  were  taken,  in  revenge  for  the  blood  of 
John,  their  brother,  whom  the  Nabatheans  had  captured  and  carried 
off,  with  all  that  he  had,  to  Medeba.1  Josephus  informs  us  that 
Hyrcanus  I.  took  Medeba  after  a  siege  of  six  months,  “  and  that 
not  without  the  greatest  distress  of  his  army.”2 

Thus  the  history  of  Medeba,  from  the  earliest  times  before 
Moses  and  the  Hebrew  conquest  down  to  the  Roman  period  and 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  has  been  distinguished  by  con¬ 
quests,  battles,  revolutions,  bloody  massacres,  and  long  sieges ;  and 
it  has  had  its  full  share  in  the  misfortunes  of  this  region  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  During  the  early  centuries  of  our  era  it  was  a  place  of 
some  importance  and  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  whose  name  appears  in 
the  records  of  some  of  the  Eastern  Councils.  Since  then  the  Mu- 
hammedan  conquerors  with  their  besom  of  destruction  have  swept 
over  it,  and  now  the  devastating  tribes  of  Bedawin  spread  their 
tents  upon  its  great  plain  and  about  its  crumbling  ruins. 

Although  ancient  roads  lead  in  various  directions  from  Madeba, 
some  of  which  —  probably  Roman  —  can  still  be  traced  by  parallel 
lines  of  curb -stones,  yet  the  Bedawin  follow  none  of  them,  but 
strike  across  the  plain  and  through  the  green  wheat-fields  in  the 
direction  they  wish  to  take,  without  any  paths  whatever.  And  it  is 
quite  startling  to  hear  from  those  ignorant  denizens  of  the  desert 
the  identical  names  of  persons,  such  as  Sihon,  and  of  places,  like 
Medeba,  which  they  bore,  and  by  which  they  were  known  in  this 
region,  three  thousand  five  hundred  years  ago,  and  which  have 
been  perpetuated  unchanged  down  to  the  present  day. 

The  ruins  of  the  temples  and  other  public  edifices  at  Madeba 
are  comparatively  modern.  Are  there  no  ancient  remains  in  this 
region  of  a  Moabite  or  Hebrew  origin? 

The  most  remarkable  monuments  of  remote  antiquity  found  in 


1  1  Macc.  ix.  36-42. 


2  Ant.  xiii.  9,  I.  B.  J.  1,  2,  6. 


640 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


many  parts  of  this  country,  especially  in  Moab,  Gilead,  and  the 
region  east  of  the  Jordan  as  far  north  as  the  sources  of  that  river 
under  Hermon,  are  the  dolmens;  and  they  have  been  seen  and 
described  by  nearly  all  travellers  through  that  part  of  Syria.  The 
most  common  form  of  the  dolmen  consists  of  two  rough,  unhewn 
blocks  of  rock  laid  parallel,  or  at  an  obtuse  angle  to  each  other, 
with  a  third  flat,  table-like  rock  placed  upon  them.  The  side  blocks 
vary  in  length  and  height  from  one  to  six  feet,  and  the  flat  rock 
above  them  from  three  feet  in  length,  with  proportionate  breadth 
and  thickness,  to  thirteen  feet  by  eleven  feet,  and  two  feet  thick. 
No  ornamentation  or  inscriptions  have  been  discovered  upon  the 
dolmens,  and  they  are  rarely  found  on  the  top  of  mounds  or  hills; 
but  they  stand  mostly  on  the  hard  surface  of  the  native  rock,  upon 
the  sloping  sides  of  mountains  and  hills,  in  great  valleys,  and,  occa¬ 
sionally,  in  low  places  and  concealed  spots. 

When,  by  whom,  and  for  what  purpose  those  dolmens  were 
erected,  and  in  such  numbers — for  there  are  hundreds  of  them — are 
questions  to  which  no  very  satisfactory  answers  have  yet  been  given. 
That  they  are  extremely  ancient  all  admit ;  but  they  were  probably 
not  tombs,  for  there  is  no  evidence  that  they  were  ever  used  as 
sepulchres.  It  -has  been  conjectured  that  they  were  connected  with 
religious  rites  as  altars  and  for  sacrificial  purposes ;  but  there  is  no 
indication  of  fire  about  them,  and  if  they  were  ever  sprinkled  with 
the  blood  of  victims,  or  smeared  with  oil,  all  traces  of  such  offerings 
have  long  since  disappeared.  There  is  no  probability  that  they 
were  made  by  the  Ammonites  or  Moabites,  the  descendants  of  Lot, 
and  they  certainly  were  not  erected  by  the  Hebrews.  The  natu¬ 
ral  inference  seems  to  be  that  they  were  the  pillars  of  witness  and 
votive  monuments  of  a  pre- historic  race  or  people  who  dwelt  in 
this  land  anterior  to  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs,  and  set  up 
to  confirm  a  solemn  covenant,  commemorate  an  important  event,  or 
to  acknowledge  and  propitiate  some  unknown  god. 

Besides  dolmens  there  are  other  ancient  monuments  in  Moab — 
rude  stone  circles,  cairns,  menhirs,  disc-stones,  and  rock-cut  tombs 
with  loculi  and  well-preserved  sarcophagi ;  but  all  these  are  com¬ 
paratively  modern  when  compared  with  the  dolmens.  The  stand¬ 
ing  stones,  called  menhirs,  from  three  to  ten  feet  high,  more  or  less 


ANCIENT  MONUMENTS.— THE  BELKA.— THOUSANDS  OF  CAMELS.  64 1 

squared  and  otherwise  manipulated,  are  isolated  pillars,  and  are  sup¬ 
posed  to  have  been  objects  of  superstitious  customs  and  religious 
reverence  among  the  people  in  ancient  times.  They  are  alluded  to 
in  the  Bible,  more  or  less  distinctly,  and  that  imparts  additional 
interest  to  them.  The  discs  resemble  large  millstones  set  up  on 
end,  and  are  about  ten  feet  in  diameter  and  from  two  to  four  feet 
thick,  and  some  of  them  have  a  round  or  square  hole  in  the  centre 
of  the  disc.  They  indicate  a  great  advance  in  mechanical  skill 
above  the  constructors  of  dolmens,  who  appear  to  have  had  no 
kind  of  tool  whatever,  and  must  have  handled  those  great  blocks 
of  stone  with  extreme  difficulty. 

No  one  can  obtain  an  adequate  conception  of  this  plain  of 
Moab,  the  modern  Belka,  and  of  its  agricultural  capabilities,  with¬ 
out  traversing  it  in  various  directions — east,  west,  north,  and  south. 

Our  ride  to-day  across  it  diagonally  has  furnished  a  constant 
confirmation  of  that  statement.  Hour  after  hour  we  have  travelled 
through  it,  until  its  boundless  expanse  and  its  treeless  and  feature¬ 
less  uniformity  have  become  positively  fatiguing,  and  its  general 
fertility  exceedingly  wearisome. 

The  region  between  Madeba  and  Abu  Nugla  is  of  the  same 
character.  The  distance  is  about  twelve  miles,  and  the  direction 
nearly  north.  We  followed  our  ’Ad wan  sheikhs  through  the  wheat- 
fields  and  over  the  rolling  plain,  making  our  own  pathway  as  we 
proceeded,  and  we  soon  found  ourselves  in  the  midst  of  scenes  quite 
new  and  surprising.  Far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  the  plain  was 
covered  with  droves  of  camels  belonging  to  the  Beni  Sakhr  Bed- 
awin,  whose  proper  range  is  south  of  the  Zerlca  Ma’in,  but  who 
were  then  at  peace  with  the  ’Adwan,  and  could  roam  over  that  part 
of  their  territory  with  their  flocks  and  camels.  Those  of  the  Beni 
Sakhr  whom  we  saw  with  the  camels  were  morose  and  taciturn,  and 
they  did  not  even  return  our  salutations.  I  was  glad,  however,  to 
pass  through  the  midst  of  such  scenes,  which  transport  one  back 
to  patriarchal  times  more  distinctly  and  impressively  than  any¬ 
thing  else  in  this  country.  I  tried  to  count  the  camels,  but  after 
reaching  a  thousand  I  gave  it  up  ;  there  were  certainly  over  five 
thousand  of  them  in  sight,  both  old  and  young. 

We  need  not  wonder  that  the  terrified  Hebrews,  in  the  time  of 


642 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Gideon,  said  that  the  camels  of  the  Midianites  and  the  Amalekites 
“  were  without  number,  as  the  sand  by  the  sea  side  for  multitude 1 
nor  does  the  statement  in  1  Chron.  v.  20,  21  seem  incredible,  that 
the  united  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan,  when  they  made  war  with  the 
Hagarites,  and  “  cried  to  God  in  the  battle  and  were  helped,  took 
away  of  their  camels  fifty  thousand.”  The  Hagarites  were  nomads, 
and  roamed  over  this  eastern  country,  and  they  were  more  numer¬ 
ous  and  certainly  more  wealthy  than  the  present  Bedawin. 

The  ear-rings  of  the  Ishmaelites  whom  Gideon  “subdued” 
amounted,  in  weight,  to  “  a  thousand  and  seven  hundred  shekels 
of  gold  ;  besides  ornaments,  and  collars,  and  purple  raiment  that 
was  on  the  kings,  and  besides  the  chains  that  were  about  their 
camels’  necks.”2  But  though  poorer  than  the  Hagarites  of  old, 
the  modern  Bedawin  may  be  their  lineal  descendants,  and  there  is 
quite  enough  of  resemblance  between  them  to  throw  much  light 
upon  the  narratives  in  the  ancient  Scriptures.  And  if  we  could  fre¬ 
quent  the  tents  of  the  Wulid  ’Aly,  and  those  of  the  powerful  tribes 
of  the  ’Anazeh,  we  would  no  doubt  find  ornaments  and  garments 
similar  to  those  worn  by  the  Midianites  in  the  time  of  Gideon. 

I  noticed,  as  we  rode  along,  that  the  wheat  growing  in  the  val¬ 
leys  was  generally  much  more  luxuriant  than  that  on  the  open 
plain — a  circumstance  easily  explained,  and  one  which  this  region 
through  which  we  are  now  passing  affords  a  constant  succession  of 
illustrative  examples.  About  one -third  of  the  land  is  composed 
of  long  low  ridges  of  cretaceous  limestone,  having  shallow  fertile 
vales  between.  The  rich  soil  has  been  washed  down  from  the  tops 
and  sides  of  those  ridges,  leaving  an  upper  crust  of  rock  sufficiently 
hard  to  shed  off  the  rain,  and  the  double  supply  of  water  thus 
obtained  gives  to  the  wheat  in  the  vales  below  its  exceptionally 
luxuriant  growth.  That  fact  originated  a  very,  significant  Arab 
proverb.  They  say  of  a  person  remarkably  fortunate,  “  His  land 
drinks  its  own  waters  and  those  of  others  also.”  Such  expressions 
could  only  be  used  by  a  people  living  in  a  similar  region,  and  to 
whom  water  was  a  prime  necessity.  To  that  extent  they  corrobo¬ 
rate  and  illustrate  many  Biblical  utterances  and  poetic  allusions 
which  imply  an  equally  high  appreciation  of  water. 

1  Judges  vii.  12.  2  Judges  viii.  26. 


EXCAVATED  CISTERNS.— VIEW  OVER  MOAB.— MOABITE  STONE.  643 

As  those  rocky  ridges,  culminating  in  mounds  or  tells,  are  the 
general  and  characteristic  feature  of  Moab,  and  as  we  now  find  the 
ruins  of  ancient  cities  upon  them,  that  topic  will  bear  an  additional 
remark  or  two.  Below  the  upper  hard  crust  of  the  rock  there 
is  generally  a  soft  cretaceous  formation,  in  which  cisterns  are  ex¬ 
cavated  with  very  little  labor  or  expense;  hence  their  surprising 
number.  Not  only  is  every  tell  upon  which  ruins  are  found  honey¬ 
combed  with  them,  but  such  cisterns  are  excavated  in  the  hill-sides, 
in  the  valleys,  and  on  the  plains,  far  from  the  site  of  any  city. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  not  one  of  all  the  hundreds  of  those 
cisterns  was  made  by  the  present  dwellers  in  the  land.  The  ’Adwan 
have  neither  mechanical  skill  nor  energy  enough  to  keep  even  the 
existing  ones  in  repair;  and  our  guide,  Sheikh  Fahd,  admits  that 
many  cisterns  that  held  water  twenty  years  ago  are  now  broken. 
After  the  rainy  season  a  very  large  part  of  this  region  is  abandoned 
by  the  Bedawin,  owing  principally  to  the  lack  of  water,  and  in  time 
the  whole  of  this  plain  of  Moab  will  be  forsaken  by  them. 

We  have  now  reached  a  part  of  the  plain,  on  our  way  to  Nebo, 
which  commands  an  extensive  view  southward  over  a  large  portion 
of  ancient  Moab.  Beyond  the  profound  gorge  of  the  Zerka  Ma’in 
the  ruins  of  Dibon,  at  Dhiban,  are  plainly  made  out ;  and  far  away 
southward  is  the  elevated  plateau  where  Sihon  reigned  when  the 
Hebrews  came  and  overthrew  his  kingdom.  The  view  extends 
towards  Kerak,  though  that  city  itself  cannot  be  seen.  That  entire 
region  was  once  densely  inhabited,  and  the  sites  of  many  Biblical 
and  historical  towns  have  been  identified  and  described  by  modern 
explorers.  Dibon  has  been  recently  brought  into  prominence  by 
the  discovery  there  of  the  now  famous  Moabite  stone  with  its  long 
inscription  concerning  King  Mesha,  the  “sheep-master,”  mentioned 
in  2  Kings  iii.  4  as  having  “rendered  unto  the  king  of  Israel  ”  two 
hundred  thousand  lambs  and  rams,  with  the  wool.  On  this  side 
of  the  Zerka  Ma  in  the  ruins  at  Ma’in  are  plainly  visible,  the  sup¬ 
posed  site  of  Baal-meon,  one  of  the  towns  which  “  the  children  of 
Reuben  built”  before  they  passed  over  into  the  land  of  Canaan. 

I  was  at  Ma’in  with  Dr.  Merrill,  and  we  made  an  excursion  from 
there  to  the  hot  springs  of  Callirrhoe.  Ma’in  occupies  the  sides 
and  summits  of  three  or  four  low  hills  above  and  east  of  the  wide 


644 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


and  shallow  vale  which  declines  towards  the  Zerka  Ma’in.  Though 
covering  a  larger  space  than  Madeba,  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
city  are  not  so  well  preserved,  presenting  only  the  appearance  of 
a  mass  of  shapeless  ruins.  “  The  remains  are  of  the  ordinary  type,” 
says  Canon  Tristram  —  “foundations,  fragments  of  walls,  lines  of 
streets,  old  arches,  many  carved  stones,  caves,  wells,  and  cisterns  in¬ 
numerable.  Some  curious  cavernous  dwellings,  built  up  with  arches 
and  fragments  of  old  columns,  are  still  occasionally  used  by  the 
Arabs  as  folds  and  sleeping-places.”  1 

The  Reubenites  took  it  from  the  Moabites,  rebuilt  or  fortified  it, 
and  probably  changed  its  name  to  Beth-meon.2  It  subsequently 
reverted  to  the  Moabites;  and  Jeremiah,  in  his  denunciation  of 
Moab,  includes  it  “among  the  cities  of  the  land  of  Moab  upon 
which  judgment  is  come.”  3  Its  destruction,  along  with  the  other 
cities  of  Moab,  “  the  glory  of  the  country,”  was  foretold  by  Ezekiel 
nearly  nine  hundred  years  after  the  Hebrews  took  possession  of  it 
in  the  time  of  Moses.4  It  has  been  supposed  that  “  the  high  places 
of  Baal,”  to  which  Balak  brought  Balaam  “  that  he  might  see  the 
utmost  part  of  the  people”  of  Israel  and  curse  them  from  thence, 
was  at  Ma’in  or  in  its  immediate  neighborhood.  But  if  the  Hebrews 
were  then  encamped  on  “  the  plains  of  Moab,”  over  against  Jericho, 
Balaam  must  have  travelled  about  ten  or  twelve  miles  farther  to¬ 
wards  the  north-west  before  he  could  see  them  at  all.  Ma’in  is 
mentioned  by  Eusebius  as  the  birthplace  of  Elisha,  and  as  being  a 
large  village  in  Moab  called  Balmano  in  his  day.  Under  the  blight¬ 
ing  influence  of  Islam  it  has  sunk  into  a  shapeless  mass  of  ruins, 
without  one  solitary  inhabitant  remaining. 

We  encamped  in  the  shallow  vale  near  the  west  side  of  the 
city.  In  the  threshing  season  that  place  must  present  a  very  lively 
scene,  for  the  whole  area  was  marked  off  into  threshing-floors.  A 
little  farther  away  some  Bedawin  were  filling  their  sacks  with  wheat 
from  a  deep  cistern  which  they  had  uncovered.  The  owners  often 
conceal  their  grain  in  such  wells,  and  if  a  raid  is  made  upon  them 
by  a  hostile  tribe  those  hidden  treasures  remain  undiscovered. 
There  are  many  cisterns  among  and  around  the  ruins,  but  it  was 

1  Land  of  Moab,  p.  304. 

3  Jer.  xlviii.  20-24. 


2  Numb,  xxxii.  38. 
4  Ezek.  xxv.  9. 


THE  ZERKA  MAIN. — BEDAWIN  ENCAMPMENTS.— THE  DEAD  SEA.  645 

some  hours  before  any  one  could  be  induced  to  show  the  entrance 
to  a  deep  underground  pool,  and  the  quality  of  the  water  was  not 
of  the  best.  Neither  was  there  wood  enough  in  the  vicinity  to 
make  the  kettle  boil,  so  our  men  were  scattered  abroad  towards 
night,  like  Israel  in  Egypt,  gathering  stubble.  During  the  after¬ 
noon  I  looked  down  into  the  tremendous  gorge  of  the  Zerka  Ma’in, 
which  is  some  distance  south  of  Ma’in.  That  is  one  of  the  two 
principal  rivers  of  Moab,  and  it  finds  its  way  westward  through  im¬ 
penetrable  gorges,  frightful  chasms,  and  the  wildest  of  wild  ravines 
down  to  the  hot  sulphur  springs  of  Callirrhoe,  and  thence  between 
perpendicular  and  impassable  cliffs  to  the  Dead  Sea. 

We  devoted  an  entire  day  to  an  excursion  to  Callirrhoe  and 
back  to  our  camp  at  Ma’in.  Understanding  that  we  had  a  long 
and  fatiguing  ride  to  accomplish,  we  left  our  tents  at  early  dawn, 
and  started  with  our  ’Adwan  sheikhs  for  a  large  Arab  encampment, 
which  we  reached  in  half  an  hour.  Sheikh  Fahd  engaged  the  chief 
of  the  tribe  to  accompany  us,  and  his  local  knowledge  was  of  special 
value  during  the  day.  The  camp  of  Sheikh  ’Eed  was  pitched 
around  the  head  of  a  shallow  vale,  forming  an  oblong  enclosure, 
within  which  the  camels  and  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats  were  folded 
during  the  night.  The  camp  presented  a  lively  appearance  in  the 
early  morning  —  women  and  children  all  busy  milking  the  flocks 
and  leading  them  forth  to  their  dewy  pasture  upon  the  surrounding 
hill -sides.  We  noticed  many  small  cakes  of  fresh -made  cheese 
placed  on  the  tops  of  their  sable  tents — or  “houses  of  hair,”  as  the 
Bedawin  call  them — to  dry,  out  of  the  reach  of  their  hungry  dogs. 

It  was  a  pretty  pastoral  scene,  and  the  region  was  quite  pict¬ 
uresque — the  ridges  covered  with  small  trees  and  bushes,  the  inter¬ 
vening  valleys  clothed  with  green  wheat,  and  here  and  there,  in 
some  shallow  ravine,  were  the  black  tents  of  a  Bedawin  encamp¬ 
ment.  Farther  on  the  surface  of  the  country  was  broken  by  deep 
ravines  which  descended  southward  to  the  valley  of  the  Zerka 
Ma’in,  and  on  the  north  stretched  the  high  and  wooded  range  of 
el  Muslubiyeh  above  the  profound  depths  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

In  about  an  hour  from  the  camp  of  Sheikh  ’Eed  we  came  out 
upon  the  top  of  a  ridge  which  commanded  a  magnificent  view  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  over  the  whole  of  its  expanse  to  the  extreme  south- 


646 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


west  end,  and  including  a  wide  range  of  country  west  of  it.  We 
were  all  surprised  at  the  beautiful  appearance  of  the  placid  blue  sea 
far,  far  below  us,  its  calm  surface  looking  like  that  of  a  great  mir¬ 
ror  set  in  a  massive  frame  of  sable  rock  and  many-colored  cliffs. 
Josephus  says  that  the  Dead  Sea  changes  color  three  times  every 
day,  and  that  seems  to  be  true  enough,  for  its  general  appearance 
in  the  morning  is  quite  different  from  that  under  the  blazing  sun 
at  mid-day,  or  in  the  evening  when  the  rocky  ramparts  that  wall  it 
in  cast  their  varied  shadows  upon  it. 

Turning  southward  we  followed  a  mere  trail  along  the  side  of 
the  general  ridge  that  overhangs  the  awful  gulf  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  from  which  we  had  frequent  glimpses  of  it,  and  admired  the 
wonderful  and  perpetual  variation  in  its  appearance  and  color.  The 
character  of  the  country  entirely  changed,  all  encampments  disap¬ 
peared,  and  we  were  in  the  lonely  and  hopeless  wilderness,  the 
resort  of  the  ibex,  and  of  more  wild  and  formidable  beasts  than 
they.  After  riding  for  about  three  hours  we  came  to  an  extremely 
steep  descent  into  the  tremendous  gorge  of  the  Zerka  Ma’in,  where 
all  dismounted  and  walked.  The  rock  had  changed  to  a  soft,  yel¬ 
lowish  sandstone,  and  the  path,  winding  downwards,  led  along  nar¬ 
row  ledges  which  in  some  places  were  quite  dangerous. 

“At  length,”  says  Lieutenant  Conder,  “we  reached  the  brink 
of  the  gorge — here  some  seventeen  hundred  feet  deep,  the  stream 
being  near  the  springs  [of  Callirrhoe]  still  sixteen  hundred  feet 
above  the  Dead  Sea  [though  only  three  hundred  feet  higher  than 
the  level  of  the  Mediterranean].  Tawny  cliffs  of  limestone,  capped 
with  chalk,  rise  on  the  north,  and  are  seamed  with  gullies,  where 
the  marl  has  been  washed  down,  like  snow-streaks  left  in  summer, 
beneath  the  cliffs.  On  the  south  is  a  steep  brown  precipice  with 
an  undercliff  of  marl.  But  the  central  feature  of  this  ghastly  scene 
of  utterly  barren  wilderness  was  the  great  black  bastion  projecting 
from  the  southern  cliff,  and  almost  blocking  the  gorge — an  outbreak 
of  basalt  which  shows  like  a  dark  river  in  the  valley  of  Callirrhoe, 
as  seen  from  the  west  side  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

“  It  took  a  full  hour  to  reach  the  bottom  of  the  gorge,  and  the 
scene  beneath  was  wonderful  beyond  description.  On  the  south, 
black  basalt,  brown  limestone,  gleaming  marl ;  on  the  north,  sand- 


GORGE  OF  THE  ZERKA  MA’IN.— HOT  SPRINGS  AT  CALLIRRHOE.  647 

stone  cliffs  of  all  colours,  from  pale  yellow  to  pinkish  purple.  In 
the  valley  itself  the  brilliant  green  of  palm  clumps,  rejoicing  in  the 
heat  and  in  the  sandy  soil.  The  streams,  bursting  from  the  cliffs, 
poured  down  in  rivulets  between  banks  of  crusted  orange  sulphur 
deposits.  The  black  grackle  soared  above,  with  gold-tipped  wings, 
his  mellow  note  being  the  one  sound  re-echoed  by  the  great  red 
cliffs  in  this  utter  solitude.”1  If  any  one  wants  to  smell  sulphur, 
breathe  sulphur,  see  sulphur,  taste  sulphur,  bathe  in  scalding  sulphur 
water,  and  be  nearly  stifled  with  hot  sulphur  steam,  let  him  descend 
into  that  gorge,  and  visit  the  hot  sulphur  springs  at  Callirrhoe. 

Those  springs  are  on  the  north  side  of  Wady  Zerka  Ma  in,  and 
“the  brooks,  which  run  from  ten  springs  in  all,  vary  from  iio°  to 
140°  Fahrenheit  in  temperature,  and  fall  in  little  cascades  amid 
luxuriant  foliage,  to  join  the  main  course  of  the  stream  [of  the 
Zerka  Ma’in],  which  is  far  colder  and  fresher,  flowing  from  the 
shingly  springs  higher  up  the  valley,  and  forming  pools  beneath 
white  rocks  of  chalk,  which  we  found  full  of  fish,  and  hidden  in  a 
luxuriant  brake  of  tamarisk  and  cane.  Crossing  three  rivulets,  from 
each  of  which  our  horses,  apparently  aware  of  the  heat  of  the  water, 
shrank  back  in  fear,  we  reached  the  principal  hot  spring,  which  has 
formed  a  ledge  of  breccia-like  deposit  in  the  valley  just  north  of 
the  basalt  cliff.  H  ere  the  chasm  is  the  narrowest,  and  the  main 
stream  below  could  be  seen  winding  among  black  bowlders,  which 
impede  its  course,  with  the  dark  precipice  frowning  as  though  about 
to  fall.  The  stream  has  bored  through  the  sulphurous  breccia,  and 
runs  in  a  tunnel  of  its  own  making,  issuing  from  this  hot  shaft  about 
one  hundred  feet  lower,  in  the  gorge  itself.”2 

Upon  that  tufaceous  deposit  of  sulphur  made  by  the  hot  steam 
itself,  and  which  is  over  twenty  feet  thick,  we  rested  after  our  fa¬ 
tiguing  descent  and  ramble  up  and  down  that  extraordinary  valley, 
and  tested  the  temperature  and  tasted  of  the  amazing  quantity  of 
the  hot  water  which  bursts  forth  from  that  principal  spring.  A  con¬ 
tinuous  blast  of  hot  air  and  steam  issues  from  a  crevice  in  the  tufa¬ 
ceous  platform  ;  and  one  of  our  ’Adwan  sheikhs,  who  was  afflicted 
with  rheumatic  pains,  extemporized  a  steam -bath  by  spreading 
branches  and  bushes  over  the  aperture  and  lying  upon  them,  above 

2  Heth  and  Moab,  pp.  146,  147. 


1  Heth  and  Moab,  pp.  145,  146. 


648 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


the  boiling  water,  enveloped  in  his  large  ’aba.  Whether  or  not  he 
was  cured  of  his  rheumatism  by  that  primitive  thermal  bath  we 
did  not  ascertain  ;  but  the  hot  springs  of  Callirrhoe  are  celebrated 
all  over  the  country  for  their  medicinal  virtues,  and,  indeed,  they 
have  been  known  from  very  ancient  times. 

In  the  genealogical  catalogue  of  “  the  dukes  [or  emirs]  of  the 
Horites,  the  children  of  Seir,  in  the  land  of  Edom,”  this  singular 
statement  occurs:  “This  was  that  Anah  that  found  the  mules  in 
the  wilderness,  as  he  fed  the  asses  of  Zibeon  his  father.”1  The 
word  translated  “mules”  is  supposed  to  signify  “hot  springs,”  and 
it  has  been  suggested  that  Anah  was  the  first  to  discover  the  hot 
springs  of  Callirrhoe,  as  they  are  by  far  the  most  remarkable  in 
this  region  east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Leaving  the  hypothesis  of  the 
mules  to  stand  for  what  it  is  worth,  the  earliest  notice  of  Callirrhoe 
is  given  by  Josephus  in  his  “Antiquities  of  the  Jews.”  According 
to  him,  Herod  the  Great  “went  beyond  the  river  Jordan,  and  bathed 
himself  in  the  warm  baths  that  were  at  Callirrhoe,  which,  besides 
their  other  general  virtues,  were  also  fit  to  drink;  which  water  runs 
into  the  lake  called  Asphaltitis.”  2  Herod’s  condition,  however,  be¬ 
coming  desperate  he  was- taken  back  to  Jericho,  where  he  died. 

In  the  description  which  Josephus  gives  of  the  fortress  of  Ma- 
chaerus,  where  Herod  Antipas  imprisoned  John  the  Baptist,  he 
mentions  “  a  certain  place  called  Baaras,  in  that  valley  which  en¬ 
compasses  the  city  on  the  north  side.  Here  are  also,”  he  says, 
“  fountains  of  hot  water  that  flow  out  of  this  place,  which  have  a 
very  different  taste  one  from  the  other;  for  some  of  them  are  bitter, 
and  others  of  them  are  plainly  sweet.”  And  he  mentions  also  two 
fountains,  one  very  cold  and  the  other  very  hot,  a  short  distance 
from  each  other,  “  which  waters,  when  they  are  mingled  together, 
compose  a  most  pleasant  bath  ;  they  are  medicinal,  indeed,  for  other 
maladies,  but  especially  good  for  strengthening  the  nerves.  This 
place  has  in  it  also  mines  of  sulphur  and  alum.”3 

I  have  always  been  led  to  suppose  that  John  the  Baptist  was 
beheaded  somewhere  in  Upper  Galilee. 

Josephus  specifies  the  place,  in  the  fortress  of  Maehaerus,  far 
away,  indeed,  from  the  scenes  of  the  Baptist’s  exhortations,  and 
1  Gen.  xxxvi.  20-24.  2  Ant.  xvii.  6,  5. 


3  B.  J.  vii.  6,  3. 


BEHEADING  OF  JOHN  THE  BAPTIST  AT  MACH^ERUS.  649 

where  no  reader  of  the  New  Testament  would  think  of  looking  for 
it.  Ihere  is  scarcely  a  more  impressive  record  in  the  whole  Bible 
than  that  of  the  death  of  John,  when  the  criminal  circumstances  of 
that  dismal  tragedy  are  brought  to  light.  Herod,  rebuked  by  the 
Baptist,  banishes  him  to  the  most  distant  fortress  in  his  kingdom  ; 
but,  entangled  by  his  wicked  wife  in  a  war  with  Aretas,  he  was,  ap¬ 
parently,  compelled  to  go  himself  to  that  same  fortress  to  oppose 
the  Arabian  prince,  whose  daughter  he  had  divorced  in  order  that 
he  might  marry  Herodias,  “  his  brother  Philip’s  wife.” 

It  is  presumed  that  she  accompanied  Herod  to  Machaerus,  and 
that  there  her  daughter  danced  before  him  on  his  birthday,  when 
he  “made  a  supper  to  his  lords,  high  captains,  and  chief  men  of  Gali¬ 
lee.”  What  followed  is  well  known.  Her  dancing  pleased  Herod, 
and  “  he  promised  with  an  oath  to  give  her  whatsoever  she  would 
ask,”  even  to  the  half  of  his  kingdom  ;  and,  at  the  instigation  of  her 
vindictive  mother,  she  said,  “  I  will  that  thou  give  me  here  the  head 
of  John  the  Baptist  in  a  charger.”  “  Immediately  the  king  sent  one 
of  his  guard,  and  he  beheaded  him  in  prison,  and  brou  ght  h  is  head 
in  a  charger,  and  gave  it  to  the  damsel,  and  the  damsel  gave  it  to 
her  mother.  And  his  disciples  came,  and  took  up  the  corpse,  and 
buried  him  ;  and  they  went  and  told  Jesus.”1 

Josephus  informs  us  that  Aretas  and  Herod  “raised  armies  on 
both  sides,  and  prepared  for  war,  and  sent  their  generals  to  fight 
instead  of  themselves;  and  when  they  had  joined  battle,  all  Herod’s 
army  was  destroyed  by  the  treachery  of  some  fugitives,  who,  though 
they  were  of  the  tetrarchy  of  Philip,  joined  with  Herod’s  army. 
Now  the  Jews  thought  that  the  destruction  of  Herod’s  army  came 
from  God,  and  that  very  justly,  as  a  punishment  of  what  he  did 
against  John,  that  was  called  the  Baptist.”  " 

What  a  strange  combination  of  circumstances  brought  all  those 
persons  together  in  that  distant  fortress  on  the  frontier! 

The  subsequent  fortunes  and  misfortunes  of  the  principal  actors 
in  that  dismal  tragedy  are  of  no  special  interest  to  us  ;  but  there  is 
perhaps  no  incident  mentioned  in  the  Bible  upon  which  contempo¬ 
raneous  history  sheds  so  much  light  as  that  of  the  beheading  of 
John  the  Baptist  by  Herod  Antipas. 

1  Matt.  xiv.  1-12;  Mark  vi.  14-29. 


2  Ant.  xviii.  5,  1,  2. 


650 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Misled  by  the  apparent  nearness  of  the  Dead  Sea,  Dr.  Merrill 
and  some  of  our  party  attempted  to  follow  the  gorge  of  the  Zerka 
Ma’in  to  the  shore.  “  It  was  a  rough,  hard  scramble,”  says  Dr. 
Merrill,  “  but  after  going  for  two  hours,  and  becoming  terribly  ex¬ 
hausted  with  the  heat  and  a  strange  sense  of  depression,  we  found 
our  time  would  not  be  sufficient,  even  if  our  strength  should  hold 
out,  and  we  returned.”1  I  spent  the  time  rambling  up  and  down 
the  river  gorge,  counting  the  number  of  springs,  large  and  small, 
cold  and  hot,  and  in  examining  with  my  glass  the  great  mass  of 
dark  trap -rock  which  towers  to  a  height  of  a  thousand  feet  sheer 
and  more  above  the  left  bank  of  the  stream,  in  the  vain  hope  of 
seeing  some  of  the  ibex,  or  wild  goats,  that  are  said  to  abound  on 
those  impracticable  cliffs.  The  stupendous  cliff  of  columnar  basalt 
just  opposite  the  largest  of  the  hot  springs  is  composed  of  number¬ 
less  columns,  ranged  together  like  the  pipes  of  a  gigantic  organ, 
running  up  the  perpendicular  face  of  the  cliff  from  base  to  summit, 
and  so  arranged  that  the  lower  ends  are  fairly  exposed  to  view,  and 
can  easily  be  counted.  After  counting  more  than  two  hundred,  I 
abandoned  the  attempt  to  number  them  all. 

Owing  to  our  long  detention  at  the  hot  springs  of  Callirrhoe, 
we  did  not  start  on  the  return  to  Ma’in  until  late  in  the  afternoon, 
and  it  was  long  after  dark  before  we  reached  our  tents.  And  that 
reminds  me  that  our  own  day  is  drawing  to  a  close ;  but  we  are 
now  amongst  the  eastern  hills  of  Jebel  Neba,  and  in  half  an  hour 
we  shall  stand  upon  the  summit  of  Nebo,  where  Moses  stood  and 
took  his  farewell  view  of  the  fair  and  happy  land,  the  Land  of 
Promise.  We  will  cross  to  the  south  side  of  the  shallow  vale  which 
extends  westward  towards  the  ridge  above  ’Ayun  Musa.  My  ob¬ 
ject  is  to  show  you  one  of  those  extraordinary  disc-stones  which  I 
have  spoken  of  before.  Here  it  is  at  the  ruins  of  this  village  or 
hamlet  which  Sheikh  ’Ali  says  is  called  Kufeir  Abu  Bedd. 

It  looks  like  a  great  millstone,  but  it  is  far  too  large  to  have 
ever  been  intended  for  that  purpose. 

It  is  nearly  ten  feet  in  diameter  and  about  a  foot  and  a  half 
thick — a  huge,  rough-hewn  disc,  standing  on  edge  with  one-third  of 
it  sunk  into  the  ground.  It  has  not  the  usual  round  hole  in  the 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  pp.  248,  249. 


JEBEL  NEBA,  THE  MOUNTAIN  OF  NEBO.  65 1 

centre,  nor  any  indications  to  aid  in  explaining  its  use,  nor  the  ob¬ 
ject  in  bringing  it  to  this  particular  spot.  There  are  two  others  in 
this  Moabite  region  somewhat  similar  to  it,  one  of  which  was  dis¬ 
covered  by  Dr.  Merrill  on  the  Shittim  Plain.  It  is  called  Mensef 
Abu  Zeid,  the  dish  or  tray  of  Abu  Zeid.  Riding  over  this  plain, 
and  before  reaching  that  disc,  on  a  former  occasion,  two  large  wolves 
came  down  the  side  of  the  hill  and  crossed  the  path  ahead  of  us. 
Sheikh  ’Ali  tried  to  bring  one  of  them  down  with  his  gun,  but  the 
distance  was  too  great,  and  they  only  quickened  their  flight  over 
the  plain,  and  soon  disappeared  from  view. 

Our  guides  are  pointing  to  that  low  ridge  directly  west  of  us, 
and  exclaiming,  a  Ha,  shefa  Neba!”  Lo,  the  crest  of  Nebo  !  We 
will  ride  up  its  gradual  slope,  and  descend  into  the  slight  depres¬ 
sion  beyond  it  called  Sahl  Neba,  between  it  and  Jebel  Neba,  and 
ascend  to  the  summit  of  that  mount,  about  a  mile  distant,  which 
has  been  generally  accepted  as  “the  mountain  of  Nebo”  to  which 
“  Moses  went  up  from  the  plains  of  Moab.” 

Jebel  Neba  seems  but  a  little  higher  than  the  plain  over  which 
we  have  been  riding  all  day.  It  is  merely  an  oblong  ridge,  which 
scarcely  lifts  itself  more  than  a  few  hundred  feet  above  the  fields 
which  spread  up  to  it  on  the  east. 

You  must  remember  that  the  plain  of  the  Belka  is  an  elevated 
plateau,  and  that  in  this  vicinity  it  is  about  two  thousand  four 
hundred  feet  above  the  Mediterranean  Sea;  and  though  the  sum¬ 
mit  of  Jebel  Neba  is  not  three  hundred  feet  higher,  yet  its  position 
near  the  edge  of  the  tremendous  descent  to  the  plain  of  Abel 
Shittim  adds  thirteen  hundred  feet  more  to  its  height,  and  thus,  in 
reality,  it  presents  a  noble  stand -point  —  four  thousand  feet  above 
the  Dead  Sea — from  which  to  survey  the  Promised  Land  beyond 
Jordan  westward.  Though  there  is  nothing  to  distinguish  this 
mount  from  other  like  ridges  in  sight,  some  of  which  are  even  high¬ 
er  still,  we  do  not  hesitate  to  accept  the  identification  of  Jebel 
Neba  with  “  the  Mountain  of  Nebo.”  It  is  as  well  known  to  the 
Bedawin  as  the  name  of  Moses  himself. 

The  force  of  that  evidence  is  greatly  increased  by  the  fact  that 
this  particular  neighborhood  is  distinguished  above  all  others  for 
the  preservation  of  the  ancient  and  Biblical  names  of  places  in  it. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


652 

Not  to  mention  the  Fountains  of  Moses,  in  the  valley  directly  be¬ 
low  this  “  Mountain  of  Nebo,”  there  are  Ma/in,  Madeba,  El  ’Al, 
Hesban,  and  many  others  now  bearing  the  identical  names  which 
they  had  in  the  time  of  Moses  ;  and  hence  it  is  reasonable  to  be¬ 
lieve  that  the  name  of  Nebo  has  come  down  to  us  unchanged  from 
the  same  distant  period.  , 

But  no  mountain  can  be  accepted  as  “  the  top  of  Pisgah,”  or 
the  hill,  that  does  not  fulfil  to  a  reasonable  extent  the  Biblical 
statements  in  regard  to  the  view  from  it  which  Moses  had  over 
the  Promised  Land.  Applying  that  test  to  Jebel  Neba  we  find 
that  not  only  do  higher  tells  to  the  east  hide  the  Belka  from  view, 
but  the  long  dark  ridge  of  el  Muslubiyeh,  a  few  miles  south,  cuts 
off  the  prospect  in  that  direction,  while  on  the  north  and  north¬ 
west  the  range  of  Mount  Gilead  conceals  not  only  the  upper  Jor¬ 
dan  valley  towards  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  but  a  large  part  of  the  Prom¬ 
ised  Land  to  the  north  and  west  of  that  sea  or  lake. 

Leaving  this  stand -point,  therefore,  let  us  descend  westward, 
down  this  rough  and  pathless  slope,  and,  crossing  a  shallow  ravine 
covered  with  luxuriant  grass  in  the  spring,  ascend  the  first  of  the 
two  oblong  tells,  half  a  mile  off,  called  by  the  common  consent  of 
the  Bedawin  Jebel  Siaghah.  The  top  of  this  ridge,  particularly  on 
the  north-western  side,  is  covered  with  the  ruins  of  a  temple,  con¬ 
sisting  of  large  blocks  of  stone,  broken  columns  and  cornices;  and 
there  were  round  about  it,  especially  at  the  east  end,  the  remains 
of  houses  and  large  cisterns  to  supply  the  inhabitants  with  water. 
If  there  ever  was  a  city  called  Nebo  in  the  neighborhood  it  is  more 
likely  to  have  been  upon  this  ridge,  as  there  are  no  such  remains  on 
the  top  of  Jebel  Neba. 

The  view  from  these  ruins  upon  Jebel  Siaghah,  in  its  length 
and  breadth,  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  from  our  stand -point 
on  Jebel  Neba.  We  will,  therefore,  ride  down  and  out  along  the 
summit  of  the  other  tell,  which,  though  lower,  extends  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  farther  towards  the  west.  But,  as  at  Jebel  Neba,  the  first 
impression  is  quite  disappointing.  As  to  this  stand -point  itself, 
there  is  nothing  for  the  imagination  to  dwell  upon.  It  is  merely 
a  smooth,  rounded  headland,  bare  and  barren,  without  cliff  or  crag 
above,  visible  precipice  or  ravine  below.  The  last  of  its  kind  above 


THE  TOP  OF  PISGAH  WHERE  MOSES  STOOD.  653 

the  Shittim  Plain,  it  falls  away  down  towards  the  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  three  thousand  six  hundred  feet  below,  so  gently  that  it  can 
neither  be  pictured  by  pencil  nor  described  by  pen. 

And  yet,  standing  upon  this  bold  and  breezy  headland,  jutting 
far  out  above  the  plain  and  the  Dead  Sea,  commanding  a  mag¬ 
nificent  outlook  north,  west,  and  south,  with  nothing  in  front  of  it 
to  obstruct  the  range  of  vision,  one  cannot  help  exclaiming,  That 
is  “the  mountain  of  Nebo,”  and  this  is  “the  top  of  Pisgah !” 
Here,  if  anywhere  in  this  vicinity,  Moses  stood  when  “the  Lord 
shewed  him  all  the  land  of  Gilead,  unto  Dan,  and  all  Naphtali,  and 
the  land  of  Ephraim,  and  Manasseh,  and  all  the  land  of  Judah, 
unto  the  utmost  sea,  and  the  south,  and  the  plain  of  the  valley  of 
Jericho,  the  city  of  palm-trees,  unto  Zoar.”  1 

It  is  well  that  there  should  be  nothing  about  this  modern  Pisgah 
to  foster  the  tendency  to  pervert  such  “high  places”  by  converting 
them  into  sites  of  superstitious  idolatry. 

Nothing  more  is  desirable  than  that  the  view  from  it  should 
correspond  in  general  with  the  statement  in  the  last  chapter  of 
Deuteronomy;  and  that  is  true  of  this  projecting  headland  or  ras 
of  Jebel  Siaghah.  It  may  be  mentioned,  in  passing,  that  the  word 
ras  is  found  in  the  Arabic  Bible  in  connection  with  Pisgah,  and  it 
is  now  generally  applied  to  a  bold  and  projecting  headland,  like  this 
ras  of  Siaghah,  especially  when  jutting  far  out  into  the  sea.  In 
regard  to  the  outlook  from  this  stand-point,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
insist  upon  a  literal  interpretation  of  general  and  comprehensive 
terms,  for  that  would  simply  require  a  superhuman  agency.  For 
example,  there  is  no  stand-point  either  on  Jebel  Siaghah  or  any¬ 
where  else  in  this  vicinity  from  which  “all  the  land  of  Gilead,  unto 
Dan,”  can  be  seen,  except  by  miracle  or  mirage  ;  nor  can  “  all  Naph¬ 
tali,  and  the  land  of  Ephraim,  and  Manasseh,  and  all  the  land  of  Ju¬ 
dah,  unto  the  utmost  sea,”  be  brought  within  the  range  of  the  most 
powerful  telescope.  The  same  must  be  said  of  “  the  south,”  if  by 
that  name  the  Negab  be  meant,  that  vast  region  which  extends  far 
away  into  the  wilderness  south  of  Beer-sheba.  What  can  actually 
be  seen  from  here  on  a  very  clear  day,  by  one  whose  eye  is  not 
dim,  meets  every  reasonable  demand  of  the  Bible,  and  has  been 

1  Deut.  xxxiv.  1-3. 


654 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


elaborated  and  described  by  many  travellers,  leaving  little  to  be 
discovered  or  added  to  by  those  who  follow  them. 

In  regard  to  the  names  Neba  and  Siaghah,  and  their  identity 
with  Nebo  and  Pisgah,  our  guides  remarked  on  a  former  occasion, 
when  I  was  here  with  Dr.  Merrill,  “Before  the  Franks  came  and 
required  us  to  find  two  separate  mountains,  we  used  the  names 
Neba  and  Siaghah  interchangeably  for  one  and  the  same  ridge.  Now 
we  call  the  one  farther  east  Jebel  Neba,  and  the  two  tells  at  the 
western  end  of  the  ridge  Jebel  Siaghah."  That  topographical  des¬ 
ignation  and  identification  of  those  names  by  the  Bedawin  seems  to 
agree  with  the  mention  of  “  the  mountain  of  Nebo  "  and  “  the  top 
of  Pisgah,"  in  the  thirty-fourth  chapter  of  Deuteronomy.  Nebo  is 
“the  mountain"  of  which  Pisgah  is  “the  top,"  ras,  or  headland; 
and  Siaghah  is  probably  only  another  and  an  Arabic  equivalent  for 
the  Hebrew  and  the  English  Pisgah. 

Is  the  ridge  to  the  north-east  of  Jebel  Neba  identical  with  the 
“mountains  of  Abarim,  before  Nebo,"  from  which  the  Hebrews 
descended  to  “the  plains  of  Moab  by  Jordan  near  Jericho?"1 

We  shall  have  something  to  say  on  that  general  subject  during 
the  evening  in  our  tents,  to  which  we  must  now  find  our  way.  I 
see  them  pitched  on  a  terrace  near  the  southern  fountain  of  ’Ayun 
Musa,  and  as  the  descent  is  more  than  a  thousand  feet,  and  very 
steep,  I  prefer  to  dismount  and  walk,  to  the  relief  of  my  horse  and 
the  safety  of  myself. 

’Ayun  Musa,  September  29th.  Evening. 

Owing,  I  suppose,  to  the  association  of  the  names  in  this  local¬ 
ity  with  those  of  persons  and  places  referred  to  in  connection  with 
the  approach  of  the  Hebrews  to  the  Land  of  Promise,  my  thoughts 
have  been  equally  divided  between  Moses,  the  law-giver,  and  Ba¬ 
laam,  “the  soothsayer,"  in  respect  to  whom  many  puzzling  and  ap¬ 
parently  unanswerable  questions  immediately  arise. 

With  regard  to  the  approach  of  the  Hebrews,  it  is  probable  that 
the  various  ridges  north-east  of  el  Muslubiyeh,  and  between  it  and 
Hesban,  including  Jebel  Siaghah  and  the  ridge  of  Jebel  Neba,  bore 
the  general  name  of  “the  mountains  of  Abarim"  in  the  time  of 
Moses.  A  division  of  the  host  may,  therefore,  have  descended  to 

1  Numb,  xxxiii.  47-49. 


THE  ALTARS  OF  BALAK  AND  THE  PARABLES  OF  BALAAM.  655 

“the  plains  of  Moab  ”  from  Wady  Hesban,  another  by  way  of  Jebel 
Neba  and  ’Ayun  Musa,  and  a  third  by  Jebel  Siaghah,  without,  how¬ 
ever,  taking  permanent  possession  of  “the  top  of  Pisgah.” 

While  the  children  of  Israel  were  encamped  upon  the  Shittim 

Plain,  Balak  brought  Balaam  to  the  high  places  of  Baal,  into  the 

field  of  Zophim  and  to  the  top  of  Peor,  to  curse  the  people  from 

thence.  One  is  surprised  to  find,  where  least  expected,  in  the  ut- 
% 

terances  of  that  false  prophet,  and  in  the  lofty  strains  of  his  poetic 
inspiration,  many  of  the  most  sublime  conceptions  in  regard  to  the 
God  of  the  children  of  Israel  himself.  At  the  request  of  Balaam, 
Balak  erected  successively  seven  altars,  at  three  different  places, 
and  offered  on  each  altar  a  bullock  and  a  ram,  vainly  hoping  that 
Balaam  would  curse  Israel  for  him  from  one  of  those  stations. 

After  the  first  series  of  sacrifices,  possibly  on  the  ridge  of  Jebel 
Neba,  “  the  Lord  put  a  word  in  Balaam’s  mouth,  and  he  took  up 
his  parable  and  said,  Balak  the  king  of  Moab  hath  brought  me 
from  Aram,  out  of  the  mountains  of  the  east,  saying,  Come,  curse 
me  Jacob,  and  come,  defy  Israel.  How  shall  I  curse,  whom  God 
hath  not  cursed?  or  how  shall  I  defy,  whom  the  Lord  hath  not 
defied?  P'or  from  the  top  of  the  rocks  I  see  him,  and  from  the  hills 
I  behold  him  :  lo,  the  people  shall  dwell  alone,  and  shall  not  be 
reckoned  among  the  nations.  Who  can  count  the  dust  of  Jacob, 
and  the  number  of  the  fourth  part  of  Israel?  Let  me  die  the  death 
of  the  righteous,  and  let  my  last  end  be  like  his.”1 

The  second  series  of  sacrifices  was  offered,  apparently  in  “the 
field  of  Zophim,”  probably  somewhere  in  the  grassy  vale  between 
Jebel  Neba  and  Jebel  Siaghah,  and  there  are  several  places  in  that 
“  field  ”  from  whence  only  a  part  of  the  Israelites  might  have  been 
seen.  After  the  sacrifices  “the  Lord  met  Balaam,  and  put  a  word 
in  his  mouth.  And  he  took  up  his  parable,  and  said,  Rise  up,  Balak, 
and  hear;  hearken  unto  me,  thou  son  of  Zippor:  God  is  not  a  man, 
that  he  should  lie ;  neither  the  son  of  man,  that  he  should  repent : 
hath  he  said,  and  shall  he  not  do  it?  or  hath  he  spoken,  and  shall 
he  not  make  it  good?  Behold,  I  have  received  commandment  to 
bless;  and  he  hath  blessed;  and  I  cannot  reverse  it.”5 

After  the  third,  and  last,  series  of  sacrifices,  which  were  offered 

1  Numb,  xxiii.  I— 10.  2  Numb,  xxiii.  14-20. 

X  2 


656 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


on  “  the  top  of  Peor,  that  looketh  toward  Jeshimon,”  perhaps 
the  summit  of  Jebel  Siaghah,  now  strewn  with  the  ruins  of  an  an¬ 
cient  temple,  Balaam  took  up  his  parable  and  said  :  “  How  goodly 
are  thy  tents,  O  Jacob,  and  thy  tabernacles,  O  Israel!  As  the 
valleys  are  they  spread  forth,  as  gardens  by  the  river’s  side,  as  the 
trees  of  lignaloes  which  the  Lord  hath  planted,  and  as  cedar  trees 
beside  the  waters.  Blessed  is  he  that  blesses  thee,  and  cursed^  is  he 
that  curseth  thee.”1  Balak  in  anger  commanded  Balaam  to  flee, 
which  he  did.  “And  now,”  said  he,  “behold,  I  go  to  my  people: 
come,  therefore,  and  I  will  advertise  thee  what  this  people  shall  do 
to  thy  people  in  the  latter  days. 

“And  he  took  up  his  parable  and  said,  Balaam  the  son  of  Beor 
hath  said,  and  the  man  whose  eyes  are  open  hath  said  :  He  hath 
said,  which  heard  the  words  of  God,  and  knew  the  knowledge  of 
the  Most  High,  which  saw  the  vision  of  the  Almighty,  falling  into 
a  trance,  but  having  his  eye  open:  I  shall  see  him,  but  not  now: 
I  shall  behold  him,  but  not  nigh  :  there  shall  come  a  Star  out  of 
Jacob,  and  a  Sceptre  shall  rise  out  of  Israel,  and  shall  smite  the 
corners  of  Moab,  and  destroy  all  the  children  of  Sheth.  And  Edom 
shall  be  a  possession,  Seir  also  shall  be  a  possession  for  his  enemies; 
and  Israel  shall  do  valiantly.  Out  of  Jacob  shall  come  he  that  shall 
have  dominion,  and  he  shall  destroy  him  that  remaineth  of  the 
city.  And  Balaam  rose  up,  and  went  and  returned  to  his  place  : 
and  Balak  also  went  his  way.”2 

Balaam  was  evidently  an  unprincipled  man,  and  uttered  those 
prophetic  parables  against  his  will,  for  he  afterwards  gave  evil  coun¬ 
sel  to  the  Midianites,  and  was  slain  in  battle  with  them  when  fight¬ 
ing  against  Israel.3  And  now  if  you  wish  to  sleep  to-night  here  at 
the  fountains  of  Moses,  under  the  shadow  of  “  the  mountain  of 
Nebo,”  whereon  Barak  and  Balaam  erected  their  thrice  seven  altars, 
and  sacrificed  twice  as  many  oxen  and  rams,  you  will  do  well  to 
banish  from  your  dreams  all  those  obstinate  questions,  geographical, 
historical,  psychological,  ethical,  and  the  like,  which  the  Biblical 
history  of  this  region  so  naturally  suggests. 

1  Numb.  xxiv.  3-6,  8.  2  N'umb.  xxiv.  14-19,  25.  3  Numb.  xxxi.  8,  16. 


THE  FOUNTAINS  OF  MOSES  TO  THE  FORD  OF  THE  JORDAN.  657 


XVIII. 

THE  FOUNTAINS  OF  MOSES  TO  THE  FORD  OF  THE 

JORDAN  NEAR  JERICHO. 

The  Fountains  of  Moses.— The  Stream  from  the  Fountains.— Ashdoth-pisgah.— Tul’at 
es  Sufa  and  the  Field  of  Zophim. — Ascent  of  Nebo. — The  Servant  of  the  Lord  and 
the  Land  of  Promise.— Khurbet  Barzeleh.— Grave  of  Neby  ’Abd  Allah.— “  From  the 
Ancient  Times.” — Rude  Sketches  on  the  Tomb  of  a  Prophet. — A  Sanctuary. — The 
Plain  of  the  Belka  and  the  Plains  of  Moab. — Heshbon. — Fine  Pavement. — Singular 
Edifice. — Jewish,  Roman,  and  Saracenic  Architecture. — Cisterns. —  Reservoir. —  Fish- 
pools  in  Heshbon.— Ruined  Cities  of  Moab.— Prophecy  and  History.— “  The  Cry  of 
Heshbon.”  —  Biblical  History  of  Heshbon.  —  Captured  by  Alexander  Jannaeus. — 
Elealeh.  —  “The  Height.” — View  from  el  ’A1  over  the  Plain  of  Moab. — “The  Pride 
of  Moab.” — Descent  to  ’Ain  Hesban. — Road  to  Hesban. — The  Turkish  Government 
and  the  Survey  of  Moab.  —  “The  Land  of  Giants.” — Rephaims  and  Emims. — The 
Children  of  Lot,  Moab  and  Ammon. — The  Amorites. — The  Hebrews. — The  roving 
Bedawin. — Ancient  Biblical  Names  remaining  Unchanged. —  Kubalan  el  Fadil. — A 
Bedawin  Sheikh  described  by  Captain  Conder. — The  Black  Tents  of  an  Arab  Encamp¬ 
ment. — A  Noisy  Welcome. — Sheikh  ’Ali  Diab. — A  Patriarchal  Scene. — ’Ain  Hesban. 
— Luxuriant  Wheat  and  Barley. — Flour-mills. — The  Stream  from  the  Fountain. — Fish- 
pools. — The  Eyes  of  the  Prince’s  Daughter. — Captain  Conder. — “The  Gate  in  Beth- 
rabbim.” — Road  from  'Ain  Hesban  to  the  Jericho  Ford. — Canon  Tristram. — Northern 
and  Southern  Sides  of  Wady  Hesban. — Circle  of  Dolmens. — The  Region  between  the 
Mountains  and  the  Plain  in  the  Time  of  the  Hebrews  and  at  the  Present  Day. — View 
over  the  Plain  of  Abel-shittim. — Valleys  and  Streams  and  principal  Hills  around  and 
upon  the  Plain. — Beth- jeshimoth. — The  little  City  Zoar. — Beth-haran. — Herod  the 
Great  and  the  Warm  Baths  at  Tell  el  Hammam. — Tell  Kefrein,  Abel-shittim. — Tell 
Nimrln,  Beth-minrah. — Tell  el  Hammam. — M’hadhar  or  Um  Hathir. —  Hubbisa. — 
Warm  Sulphur  Springs,  Baths,  and  Aqueduct  at  Tell  el  Hammam. — Clumps  of  Scraggy 
Trees.  —  Apple  of  Sodom. — Tell  Ektanu  and  Tell  er  Rameh.  —  Betharamphtha. — 
Julius  or  Livias. — The  Streams  in  the  Wadies. — Group  of  Dolmens. — Large  Disc-stone. 
— “The  Dish  of  Abu  Zeid.” — Flooded  Wheat-fields. — Plain  of  Abel-shittim  and  the 
Acacia-trees. — Tell  Kefrein  and  Kirjathaim. — Abel-shittim. — Completion  of  Deuter¬ 
onomy  and  the  Last  Address  of  the  Hebrew  Law-giver. — “  The  Favor  of  God.” — The 
Spies  sent  to  Jericho. — Deserted  Condition  of  the  Plain,  and  Bustling  Activity  of  the 
Hebrew  Encampment. — The  Goodly  Tents  of  Israel. — The  Plain  of  Abel-shittim  and 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


658 

the  Camp  of  the  Hebrew  Nation. — “  From  Beth-jesimoth  unto  Abel-shittim.” — Ample 
Space  for  the  Ti'ibes  to  Encamp. — Route  of  the  Israelites  from  the  Red  Sea. — Expe¬ 
ditions  for  the  Subjugation  of  Gilead  and  Bashan. — “  Seeing  is  Believing.” — Testimony 
of  the  Land  to  the  Truth  of  the  Book. — Passage  of  the  Children  of  Israel  into  the 
Land  of  Canaan. — High  Bluffs  on  the  Banks  of  the  Jordan. — Dividing  of  the  Waters, 
and  the  Passing  Over  of  the  People. — The  Command  of  the  Lord  to  Joshua. — Return 
of  the  Waters  of  the  Jordan. — The  Camp  at  Gilgal  near  Jericho.  —  Under  the  Palm 
Groves. — “Jerusalem  the  Mother  of  us  All.” — The  Land  of  the  Book. 

September  30th. 

I  VISITED  the  so-called  Fountains  of  Moses  this  morning  in  the 
valley  above  our  tents.  How  came  they  to  be  associated  with  the 
name  of  the  great  Hebrew  law-giver? 

Tradition  affirms  that  when  “  Moses  went  up  from  the  plains  of 
Moab  unto  the  mountain  of  Nebo,  to  the  top  of  Pisgah,”  he  rested 
and  refreshed  himself  at  those  springs,  and  from  that  time  they 
were  called  the  Fountains  of  Moses  unto  this  day.  The  northern 
spring  gushes  out  from  under  the  rocks  in  the  valley,  and  runs 
for  a  short  distance  over  a  broad  ledge  of  limestone.  The  rock 
extends  across  the  shallow  vale  from  east  to  west,  and  the  stream 
falls  over  the  edge  of  the  cliff  in  a  pretty  cascade,  about  thirty  feet 
in  height.  “The  real  beauty  of  the  fall,”  says  Canon  Tristram, 
“  is  best  seen  on  descending ;  when  the  overhanging  platform  is 
found  to  be  the  roof  of  a  cave,  its  front  partially  built  up  with 
stalagmite  below  and  stalactite  above,  and  water  dropping  in  all 
directions.  The  roof  is  one  mass  of  pendent  fronds  of  maiden-hair 
fern — the  sides  are  tapestried  with  them,  the  floor  is  carpeted  with 
them,”  and  the  cliff  is  draped  with  them  from  top  to  bottom.1 

The  second  spring  is  about  three  hundred  feet  south  of  the  first, 
and  one  hundred  feet  higher  up.  It  bursts  out  from  a  small  cave 
at  the  base  of  the  overhanging  cliffs  in  a  single  stream,  and  plunges 
headlong  down  the  steep  declivity  westward,  to  join  the  foaming 
torrent  from  the  northern  spring  below  the  cascade.  After  the 
meeting  of  the  waters  the  little  river  rushes  on,  overshadowed  by 
thickets  of  blooming  oleander  and  flowering  bushes,  leaping  and 
tumbling  down  to  the  plain  two  thousand  feet  below,  and  thence 
in  deep  and  narrow  channels  to  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea. 
The  springs  of  ’Ayun  Musa  are  a  thousand  feet  directly  below  the 

1  Land  of  Moab,  p.  336. 


THE  FIELD  OF  ZOPHIM.— VIEW  FROM  THE  TOP  OF  PISGAH.  659 

summit  of  Jebel  Neba,  and  their  Biblical  name  is  supposed  to  have 
been  Ashdoth-pisgah,  the  Streams  of  Pisgah,  mentioned  in  Deuter¬ 
onomy  iii.  1 7,  and  elsewhere.  That  identification,  therefore,  fur¬ 
bishes  additional  proof  that  Jebel  Neba,  towering  above  us  on  the 
south,  is  the  veritable  mountain  of  Nebo,  to  the  top  of  which 
Moses  probably  ascended  from  these  same  streams. 

This  is  to  be  our  last  day’s  ride  in  “  the  land  of  Moab,”  and, 
indeed,  through  the  region  “beyond  Jordan,  towards  the  sunrising;” 
instead,  therefore,  of  going  direct  to  our  camp  on  the  bank  of  that 
river,  we  will  ascend  “the  mountain  of  Nebo,  to  the  top  of  Pisgah,” 
and  take  a  farewell  view  of  the  Promised  Land  from  that  exalted 
summit,  as  Moses  did  more  than  three  thousand  years  ago.  Our 
morning  survey  will  be  more  satisfactory  and  impressive,  in  some 
respects,  than  the  one  we  had  last  evening. 

Captain  Conder  found  that  the  name  given  by  the  Bedawin  to 
this  steep  ascent,  leading  up  to  the  ridge  of  Jebel  Neba  from  the 
north,  is  Tul’at  es  Sufa,  the  Ascent  of  Sufa,  and  he  discovered 
“that  it  is  radically  identical  with  the  Hebrew  Zuph,”  and  “in  the 
form  ‘Ascent  of  Zuph’  it  is  the  modern  representative  of  the  old 
‘Field  of  Zophim,’  or  of  views.”1  That  identification  and  associa¬ 
tion  of  names  may  well  be  accepted,  for  “  the  field  of  Zophim  ” 
was  evidently  near  Pisgah,  and  it  was  the  second  station  where 
Balak  and  Balaam  built  their  seven  altars.2 

The  ascent  of  Jebel  Neba  is  much  steeper,  and  the  bold  head¬ 
land  of  Jebel  Siaghah  projects  farther  out  above  the  plain  of  Abel- 
shittim,  than  I  was  aware  of  yesterday  evening. 

And  now  that  we  have  reached  “  the  top  of  Pisgah,”  we  could 
willingly  spend  the  whole  day  here,  gazing  upon  that  most  inter¬ 
esting  of  all  lands,  “  the  Land  of  Promise.”  “  Moses  was  a  hundred 
and  twenty  years  old  ”  when  he  stood  on  the  top  of  Pisgah  ;  “  his 
eye  was  not  dim,  nor  his  natural  force  abated.  And  the  Lord  said 
unto  him,  This  is  the  land  which  I  sware  unto  Abraham,  unto 
Isaac,  and  unto  Jacob,  saying,  I  will  give  it  unto  thy  seed:  I  have 
caused  thee  to  see  it  with  thine  eyes,  but  thou  shalt  not  go  over 
thither.  So  Moses  the  servant  of  the  Lord  died  there  in  the  land 
of  Moab  ;  but  no  man  knoweth  of  his  sepulchre  unto  this  day.”  3 
1  Heth  and  Moab,  pp.  129,  130.  2  Numb,  xxiii.  14.  3  Deut.  xxxiv.  1-7. 


66o 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


Our  previous  travels  through  the  land,  from  Beer-sheba  to  Dan, 
and  this  journey  over  the  region  beyond  Jordan  eastward  have 
made  us  familiar  with  the  Promised  Land  “through  the  length 
of  it,  and  the  breadth  of  it,”  and  we  can  readily  follow  the  enumer¬ 
ation  of  the  places  which  Moses  saw.  And  now  we  can  depart  and 
“go  over  thither,”  thankful  that  we  have  been  permitted  to  stand 

i 

“where  Moses  stood, 

And  view  the  landscape  o’er.’' 

We  will  now  start  for  the  banks  of  the  Jordan  by  way  of  Hesban 

A 

and  el  ’Al,  the  Heshbon  and  Elealeh  which  the  Hebrews  captured 
from  the  Amorites  as  they  passed  down  to  “  the  plains  of  Moab,” 
below  us  on  the  left.  The  ruins  at  Hesban  are  about  five  miles 
distant  to  the  north-east,  and  it  will  take  us  nearly  an  hour  and 
a  half  steady  riding  across  the  plain  to  reach  them.  At  Khirbet 
Barzeleh,  upon  that  low  mound  to  the  right,  there  are  some  old 
foundations  and  a  few  caverns,  but  we  will  not  stop  to  examine 
them.  The  grave  of  Neby  ’Abd  Allah,  however,  is  worthy  of  a 
passing  visit,  and  we  will  incline  to  the  north  and  ride  up  to  it. 

Our  guides  regard  this  Neby  ’Abd  Allah  as  a  very  holy  man, 
whom  their  ancestors  have  venerated  “min  zeman  el  kadim,”  from 
the  ancient  times;  but  they  can  give  no  information  as  to  who 
he  was,  and  the  supposition  that  this  is  the  grave  of  Moses,  “  the 
servant  of  God,”  is  purely  fanciful.  The  tomb  of  this  prophet  is 
kept  in  repair — another  evidence  of  the  perpetuation  of  his  memory. 
On  the  south  side  of  it  are  the  usual  representations  of  rank  and 
hospitality,  consisting  of  rude  sketches  of  the  prophet  himself  on 
horseback,  his  coffee-pot,  mortar  and  pestle,  coffee-cups  and  plates. 
Near  this  tomb  are  some  ordinary  Bedawin  graves  and  a  deep  cis¬ 
tern,  now  dry;  and,  as  in  the  case  of  other  muzars,  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  saint’s  tomb  is  a  sacred  asylum  or  sanctuary,  where 
ploughs,  ox -yokes,  goads,  and  similar  agricultural  implements  of 
the  Arabs  are  allowed  to  remain  in  perfect  safety. 

We  will  now  follow  along  the  regular  road  northward  from 
Ma’in  to  Hesban.  On  the  right  the  beautiful  plain  of  the  Belka 
fades  away  beyond  the  range  of  vision,  along  the  vanishing  line 
of  the  eastern  desert,  and  on  the  left  far  below  us  are  “  the  plains 


THE  RUINS  AT  HESBAN.— FISHPOOLS  IN  HESHBON.  66 1 

of  Moab,”  upon  which  the  Hebrews  encamped,  but  they  are  con¬ 
cealed  from  our  view  by  the  ridge  of  Jebel  Neba. 

The  site  of  Heshbon,  the  ancient  capital  of  “  Sihon,  king  of  the 
Amorites,”  stands  out  quite  conspicuously  above  the  plain  of  the 
Belka,  as  we  approach  it  from  the  south. 

The  ruins  at  Hesban  cover  the  sides  and  summit  of  an  elon¬ 
gated  double  tell,  less  than  two  hundred  feet  high.  Many  of  the 
houses  and  other  edifices  were  evidently  built  by  the  Romans,  and 
they  were  originally  more  substantial  than  those  of  other  cities  in 
this  region,  but  none  of  them  are  of  any  special  interest.  The  ex¬ 
isting  remains  are  mostly  those  of  prostrate  habitations,  amongst 
which  are  columns,  capitals,  entablatures,  old  walls,  and  massive 
foundations.  Upon  the  highest  part  of  the  tell  is  a  fine  pavement 
in  good  preservation,  which  may  have  belonged  to  a  temple  ;  and 
on  the  south-west  side  of  the  mound  are  the  walls,  almost  entire, 
of  a  large,  singular  edifice  with  some  broken  columns  about  it,  and 
exhibiting  specimens  of  Jewish,  Roman,  and  Saracenic  architecture. 
But  more  than  most  ancient  sites,  Hesban  abounds  in  large  vaulted 
chambers  and  bottle  -  shaped  cisterns,  some  of  them  hewn  in  the 
rock,  and  which  may  date  back  to  remote  antiquity.  The  city 
must  have  depended  upon  cisterns  for  its  supply  of  water,  for  the 
nearest  permanent  fountain  is  at  ’Ain  Hesban  in  the  deep  valley 
below  it,  and  distant  more  than  half  an  hour  to  the  north-west — 
a  most  inconvenient  resource  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  ancient 
town  at  all  times,  and  entirely  unsafe  in  time  of  war. 

There  seems  to  have  been  a  large  reservoir  on  the  plain  below 
the  city  to  the  east.  Were  “the  fishpools  in  Heshbon,”  referred 
to  in  the  Song  of  Solomon,  similar  to  that  artificial  tank?1 

It  certainly  was  one  of  the  pools  in  Heshbon,  but  it  probably 
contained  no  fish,  for  they  cannot  live  in  stagnant  water.  If  the 
allusion  really  was  to  fish -pools,  the  royal  poet  may  have  had  in 
mind  the  stream  from  ’Ain  Hesban,  along  the  course  of  which  are 
numerous  pools  where  small  fishes  can  still  be  found.  It  is  more 
reasonable  to  suppose,  however,  that  Solomon  referred  to  the  pools 
or  reservoirs  beside  the  principal  gate  of  the  city  itself. 

Let  us  sit  down  and  rest  a  while  under  the  shadow  of  this 


1  Solomon’s  Song  vii.  4. 


662 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


strange  building,  from  the  ruins  of  which  we  can  survey  the  whole 
of  Moab,  and  even  identify  the  sites  of  many  of  those  cities  that 
were  doomed  to  destruction,  as  recorded  in  the  fifteenth  and  six¬ 
teenth  chapters  of  Isaiah  and  the  forty-eighth  chapter  of  Jeremiah. 
Their  prostrate  walls  and  ruined  habitations,  scattered  in  all  direc-J 
tions  “  far  and  near,”  around  and  about  us,  testify  to  the  literal 
fulfilment  of  those  prophetic  denunciations,  and  it  is  that  which 
imparts  a  deep  and  peculiar  interest  to  our  pilgrimage  “  through 
the  land”  on  this  side  of  the  Jordan  “towards  the  sunrising.” 

We  have  only  to  translate  prophecy  into  history  to  obtain  the 
most  impressive  picture  of  this  land  as  our  eyes  behold  it  to-day. 
“From  the  cry  of  Heshbon  even  unto  Elealeh,  and  even  unto  Ja- 
haz,  have  they  uttered  their  voice,  from  Zoar  even  unto  Horonaim: 
for  the  waters  also  of  Nimrin  shall  be  desolate.  Fear,  and  the  pit, 
and  the  snare,  shall  be  upon  thee,  O  inhabitant  of  Moab.  A  fire 
shall  come  forth  out  of  Heshbon,  and  a  flame  from  the  midst  of 
Sihon,  and  shall  devour  the  corner  of  Moab.”1  And  thus  the 
desolation  of  Moab  has  been  accomplished,  more  completely  than 
even  the  prophets  foresaw  or  could  ever  have  imagined. 

Heshbon  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible  more  frequently  than  any 
other  city  in  Moab.  We  hear  of  it  as  the  capital  of  “Sihon,  king 
of  the  Amorites,”  who  had  taken  it  out  of  the  hand  “  of  the  former 
king  of  Moab.  Wherefore  they  that  speak  in  proverbs  say,  Come 
into  Heshbon,  let  the  city  of  Sihon  be  built  and  prepared.”2  After 
the  defeat  of  Sihon  by  the  Hebrews,  on  their  march  to  the  Jordan, 
“Heshbon  and  all  the  villages  thereof”  fell  into  their  hands.  It 
was  among  the  cities  that  were  rebuilt  by  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  but 
it  subsequently  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Gad,  and  was  allotted  to 
the  Levites.3  According  to  Jephthah,  the  Israelites  continued  to 
reside  in  Heshbon  for  at  least  three  hundred  years.4 

Nothing  more  is  heard  of  it  for  several  centuries  down  to  the 
time  of  Isaiah,  when  it  appears  that  the  Moabites  had  regained 
possession  of  it  after  the  captivity  of  the  ten  tribes ;  for  it  is  men¬ 
tioned  among  the  cities  of  that  people,  and  included  in  the  pro¬ 
phetic  denunciations  against  them.5  But  in  the  time  of  the  Mac- 

1  Jer.  xlviii.  34,  43,  45.  2  Numb.  xxi.  26,  27.  3  Numb,  xxxii.  37;  Josh.  xxi.  39. 

4  Judges  xi.  26.  6  Isa.  xv.  4;  Jer.  xlviii.  2,  34,  45. 


VIEW  FROM  EL  ’AL.— THE  PRIDE  OF  MOAB.  663 

cabees,  about  five  hundred  years  later,  it  was  recovered  from  the 
Moabites  by  Alexander  Jannaeus,  who,  according  to  Josephus,  took 
possession  of  the  city  and  compelled  the  inhabitants  to  become 
Jews.1  In  the  fourth  century  of  our  era  its  name  occurs  in  the 
Onomasticon,  and  then  disappears  from  the  page  of  history  alto¬ 
gether  ;  but  many  modern  travellers  have  been  here  since  it  was 
first  visited  by  Seetzen,  in  the  early  part  of  this  century. 

A  pleasant  ride  of  twenty  minutes  across  the  gently  rising  plain 

A 

to  the  north-east  will  bring  us  to  el  ’Al,  the  modern  representative 
of  Elealeh.  It  occupies  a  commanding  position  above  the  plain, 
on  the  summit  of  a  natural  tell  which,  according  to  Captain  Warren, 
is  nearly  three  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea;  and  its  modern  Arabic  name,  “the  height,”  is  essentially  the 
same  as  its  ancient  Hebrew  name,  the  “ascent  or  height  of  God.” 

The  existing  remains  at  el  ’Al  are  more  considerable  than  I  ex¬ 
pected  to  find  them,  and  they  entirely  cover  this  high  tell  and  ex¬ 
tend  below  it  on  to  the  plain  of  the  Belka. 

Especially  on  the  east  and  south  there  are  ancient  vaults  and 
cisterns  and  a  few  broken  columns  and  large  stones  marking  the 
sites  of  former  habitations  and  important  buildings;  but,  as  at 
Hesban,  none  of  them  appear  to  have  been  of  any  special  interest. 
Elealeh  being  not  much  more  than  a  mile  from  Heshbon,  they 
must  always  have  shared  in  the  fortunes  and  misfortunes  of  each 
other,  and  that  sufficiently  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  two  are 
named  together  in  the  Biblical  narrative.  The  view  from  these 
ruins  on  the  top  of  the  tell  over  the  plain  of  Moab  is  singularly 
impressive  from  its  great  extent,  utter  solitude,  and  oppressive 
silence.  There  is  not  a  tree,  nor  a  village,  nor  an  inhabited  house 
between  it  and  the  utmost  verge  of  the  horizon.  “We  have  heard 
of  the  pride  of  Moab,”  says  the  prophet;  “therefore  I  will  water 
thee  with  my  tears,  O  Heshbon,  and  Elealeh:  for  the  alarm  is 
fallen  upon  thy  summer  fruits,  and  thy  harvest  is  fallen.”2 

We  will  now  descend  to  ’Ain  Hesban  in  the  valley  north-west 
of  the  ancient  Heshbon.  I  have  come  from  that  fountain  to 
el  ’Al  in  about  an  hour;  the  distance  is  nearly  three  miles,  and 
the  descent  cannot  be  much  less  than  seven  hundred  feet.  The 

2  Isa.  xvi.  6,  9. 


1  Ant.  xiii.  15,  4,  5- 


664 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


road  leads  down  the  valley  and  over  glaring  white  rocks.  The  sub¬ 
stratum  of  this  entire  region  is  cretaceous  limestone,  and  the  soil 
is  very  fertile.  I  have  also  been  up  and  down  the  direct  road  from 
’Ain  Hesban  to  the  ruins  at  Hesban,  and  for  some  distance,  in  the 
steepest  part  of  it,  the  path  appears  to  have  been  excavated  along 
the  face  of  the  cliff.  Beyond  that  the  road  is  marked  by  a  low 
wall  extending  from  the  top  of  the  ridge  across  the  plain  towards 
the  south-west,  and  reaching  almost  to  the  ruins  at  Hesban. 

I  regret  that  our  journey  through  the  land  of  Moab  has  been 
so  limited  and  restricted  from  necessity;  there  must  be  many  sites 
farther  south  of  great  Biblical  interest  and  importance. 

The  Turkish  Government  has  refused  to  allow  any  further  sur¬ 
veys  to  be  made  of  this  part  of  the  country,  and  we  may  congratu¬ 
late  ourselves  that  we  have  been  enabled  to  traverse  so  much  of  it 
without  fear  or  favor,  thanks  to  the  faithfulness  and  efficiency  of 
our  ’Adwan  guards  and  guides.  “  In  times  past  ”  this  region  east 
and  south-east  of  the  Jordan  was  called  “the  land  of  giants.”  The 
Rephaims  and  Emims  dwelt  there,  and  they,  perhaps,  were  the 
descendants  of  those  troglodytes  who  erected  the  dolmens  and 
other  monuments  which  puzzle  archaeologists  at  the  present  day. 
Then  came  the  children  of  Lot — Moab  and  Ammon — and  drove 
out  the  giants  and  occupied  their  country.  They  in  turn  were  ex¬ 
pelled  from  most  of  their  territory  by  the  Amorites,  who  appear 
to  have  forced  their  way  between  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites 
and  taken  possession  of  their  towns  and  villages. 

The  Hebrews,  led  by  Moses,  conquered  them,  and  their  territory 
was  divided  between  Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh. 
After  several  centuries  the  descendants  of  those  sons  of  Israel  were 
carried  away  captive  by  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  from  the 
far  east.  Thus  all  nations  and  tribes  who  occupied  this  land  in 
succession,  during  the  long  ages  of  the  past,  have  one  and  all  dis¬ 
appeared.  All  have  vanished  entirely,  and  the  prowling  and  roving 
Bedawin  have  come  up  like  the  locusts  over  the  land,  utterly  igno¬ 
rant  of  their  origin  and  the  history  of  their  race. 

It  is  a  great  satisfaction  to  know  that,  notwithstanding  the  num¬ 
berless  changes  of  races  and  rulers,  we  can  be  as  certain  that  Moses 
and  the  chosen  tribes  came  here  and  conquered  the  country,  as 


ANCIENT  BIBLICAL  NAMES.— SHEIKH  KUBLAN  EL  FADIL.  665 

that  David  reigned  in  Jerusalem,  or  that  any  other  important  event 
recorded  in  Biblical  history  actually  took  place. 

And  it  is  more  than  satisfactory  to  feel  assured  that  the  He¬ 
brews  beheld  this  very  region  through  which  we  are  now  passing ; 
that  they  not  only  saw,  but  actually  lived  in  the  cities  whose  ruins 
we  have  visited,  and  called  them  by  the  identical  names  which  we 
have  heard  given  to  them  by  the  ignorant  Bedawin  after  the  lapse 
of  more  than  thirty  centuries.  This  prolonged  identity  is  unique  in 
history,  and  it  furnishes  a  strong  corroboration  of  the  truth  of  the 
Biblical  narratives  concerning  the  wonderful  events  that  occurred 
in  this  region  in  those  ancient  times. 

A 

We  have  made  a  great  descent  from  the  ruins  at  el  ’A1  during 
the  past  hour,  and  for  the  last  ten  minutes  we  have  been  ascend¬ 
ing  the  valley  above  the  bank  of  this  pretty  little  stream. 

It  comes  from  ’Ain  Hesban,  and  this  beautiful  wady  is  the 
summer  retreat  of  Sheikh  Goblan  or  Kubalan  el  Fadil,  the  well- 
-  known  chieftain  of  the  Nimr  branch  of  the  Adwan  Bedawin  of 
the  Belka.  Fortunately  for  us  he  is  absent,  and  we  thus  escape 
the  necessity  and  consequent  delay  of  a  formal  call  upon  him. 
When  I  saw  him  last  he  was  determined  to  make  me  a  present  of 
his  mare,  well  knowing  that,  whether  the  gift  was  accepted  or  not, 
I  would  be  obliged  to  make  him  a  suitable  bakhshish.  Captain 
Conder  thus  describes  him : 

“  Riding  slowly  on  a  bay  mare,  he  approached  with  four  mounted 
followers.  His  figure  is  one  remarkably  striking  at  first  sight.  A 
tall,  gaunt  man,  with  a  grey,  bronzed  face  half  hidden  by  his  kufe- 
yeh,  one  eye  red  and  sightless  from  a  sword-cut  which  has  furrowed 
all  one  cheek.  His  hair  long  and  silvery,  and  his  beard  quite  white. 
His  age  probably  seventy,  though  he  believed  himself  to  be  about 
forty.  He  wore  a  double  kufeyeh  [about  his  head],  the  inner  black, 
the  outer  one  black  with  gold  embroidery.  His  shiit  was  white 
and  clean,  with  a  kumbaz,  or  long  gown  [over  it],  fastened  by  a 
belt,  with  yellow  and  purple  vertical  stripes.  The  white  sleeves 
of  the  shirt  hung  out  beyond  those  of  the  gown,  reaching  to  his 
feet,  which  were  cased  in  loose  boots  of  red  leather,  without  any 
sock  or  stocking.  Over  all  he  wore  a  beautiful  abba,  or  cope-like 
mantle,  of  broad  white  and  amber- colouied  stiipes.  dhis  most 


666 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


picturesque  costume  was  strangely  at  variance  with  the  long,  lean 
figure,  the  red  eye,  the  muffled  voice,  the  thick,  obstinate  nose,  and 
the  long  gash  on  the  bony,  dusky  cheek ;  but  the  hand  was  soft, 
and  the  white  nails  carefully  trimmed.”1 

And  there  are  the  black  tents  of  the  Bedawin  Arabs  pitched 
on  both  sides  of  the  stream  from  ’Ain  Hesban —  the  largest  en¬ 
campment  of  the  ’Adwan  tribe  we  have  yet  seen. 

Our  approach  creates  a  general  buzz  and  bustle  amongst  the 
miscellaneous  inhabitants ;  horses  snort  and  neigh,  donkeys  prick 
up  their  long  ears  and  bray,  dogs  rush  frantically  about  and  bark 
ferociously,  while  men,  women,  and  children  gather  in  groups  to 
welcome  us  as  we  ride  by  —  a  very  animated,  picturesque,  and 
even  interesting  spectacle.  We  will  pass  on  to  ’Ain  Hesban,  a  short 
distance  above  the  camp,  where  we  will  stop  and  rest.  Sheikh  ’Ali 
has  brought  us  a  pitcher  of  cool,  fresh  water  from  the  fountain — a 
most  welcome  offering,  for  the  latter  part  of  our  ride  has  been  ex¬ 
tremely  warm.  The  last  time  I  was  here  there  were  four  separate 
encampments  in  sight,  one  above  the  fountain  and  three  below  it. 
That  of  Sheikh  ’Ali  Diab,  the  chief  of  the  elder  branch  of  the 
’Adwan  tribe,  called  ’Ashiret  Saleh,  was  much  the  largest,  and  his 
tent  must  have  been  more  than  sixty  feet  long.  The  whole  neigh¬ 
borhood  was  alive  with  Bedawin — men,  women,  and  children — and 
the  various  possessions  of  the  tribe :  a  scene  eminently  patriarchal, 
and  a  fit  place  to  observe  the  manners  and  customs  of  a  nomadic 
life  similar  to  that  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  of  Moses,  and 
even  the  children  of  Israel  themselves. 

’Ain  Hesban  is  a  noble  fountain  of  beautifully  clear  water, 
flowing  out  from  a  small  cave  under  the  cliff  on  the  north  side  of 
Wady  Hesban,  and  it  forms  at  once  a  fine  mill-stream.  The  valley 
comes  down  from  the  east  and  is  quite  dry;  but  below  the  fount¬ 
ain  it  trends  round  to  the  south-west,  and  in  the  spring  the  fields 
on  each  side  of  the  stream  are  covered  with  luxuriant  wheat  and 
barley.  Formerly  there  were  several  flour-mills  along  the  banks  of 
the  stream  from  ’Ain  Hesban  which  flows  through  the  valley  south¬ 
ward  for  two  or  three  miles,  and  then  plunging  down  a  romantic 
ravine  turns  westward  and  runs  down  to  “the  plains  of  Moab,”  and 

1  Heth  and  Moab,  pp.  no,  Hi. 


THE  FISH  AT  ’AIN  HESBAN.— ROAD  TO  THE  JERICHO  FORD.  667 

thence  to  the  Jordan.  Now  there  is  but  a  single  dilapidated  mill — 
a  sure  indication  that  the  population  of  this  region,  even  in  modern 
times,  was  much  greater  than  it  is  at  present. 

When  encamped  here  with  Dr.  Merrill,  I  rode  for  some  distance 
along  the  banks  below  the  fountain  to  see  the  little  pools  made 
by  the  stream,  in  which  there  were  many  small  fishes.  As  we  have 
already  observed,  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  royal  poet  referred 
to  them  in  his  “  Song,”  when  he  compares  the  eyes  of  the  “prince’s 
daughter”  to  “the  fishpools  in  Heshbon.”1  There  never  was  either 
fountain  or  running  stream  in  that  city  on  the  elevated  plateau 
above  ’Ain  Hesban,  nor  sparkling  pools ;  only  dark  cisterns  or  open 
tanks  of  rain-water  in  which  fish  cannot  live.  Captain  Conder  says, 
“  This  [brook],  though  shallow,  has  many  fish  in  it,  and  reminded 
us  of  ‘  the  fishpools  in  Heshbon,  by  the  gate  in  Bath-rabbim,’  which 
gate  we  supposed  might  be  the  passage  cut  through  the  rocks  at 
the  top  of  the  steep,  winding  mountain-path  from  the  stream  to  the 
city  on  the  plateau  above.”2 

The  road  we  are  to  follow  from  ’Ain  Hesban  to  the  ford  of 
Nuwaimeh,  after  passing  the  top  of  the  ridge  west  of  the  fountain, 
leads  northward  for  an  hour,  and  thence  westward  for  about  two 
hours,  down  an  easy  descent  north  of  Wady  Hesban,  to  Tell  el 
Hammam  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  From  there  it  crosses  “the 
plains  of  Moab,”  upon  which  the  Hebrews  encamped  in  the  time 
of  Moses,  to  the  ferry  over  the  Jordan  near  Jericho.  Canon  Tris¬ 
tram  and  his  party  followed  down  the  valley  from  ’Ain  Hesban  to 
the  plain,  keeping  mostly  on  the  south  side  of  the  wady,  the  other 
side  being  in  many  places  quite  impracticable. 

“  Marked  was  the  contrast,”  he  says,  “  between  the  rugged  red 
sandstone  cliffs,  sharp  and  precipitous,  dotted  with  eagles’  and 
vultures’  nests,  which  formed  the  north  wall  of  the  wady,  and  the 
more  gentle  terraced  slopes  covered  with  luxuriant  verdure,  un¬ 
scorched  by  the  sun,  which  bounded  it  on  the  south.  On  the  last 
rocky  eminence  which  pushed  forward  into  [the  plain]  were  the 
most  perfect  primaeval  remains  we  had  found  in  the  country. 
Round  the  slightly  elevated  crest  at  the  western  end  of  the  ridge 
was  a  perfect  circle  of  dolmens,  each  composed  of  three  upright 
1  Solomon’s  Song  vii.  4.  2  Heth  and  Moab,  pp.  125,  138. 


668 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


O 


and  one  covering  stone.  Several  of  them  had  fallen,  but  the  stones 
were  in  their  places,  and  it  was  clear  that  they  had  been  arranged 
in  a  circle  round  a  great  cairn,  or  central  pile  of  stones,  which 
crowned  the  ‘  tell,’  and  doubtless  marked  the  burial-place  of  some 
hero  famous  in  his  day,  but  who  lived  before  Agamemnon.”1 

A  great  change  has  come  upon  this  region  since  the  Hebrew 
host  passed  this  way  down  to  their  camping-ground  on  the  acacia 
meadow,  or  Abel  -  shittim.  Since  leaving  ’Ain  Hesban  we  have 
not  seen  a  single  individual,  nor  even  a  flock  of  goats  with  its 
Bedawin  shepherd  and  noisy  dogs.  Then  all  these  valleys  and 
hills  must  have  been  alive  with  “  much  cattle,”  and  thousands  of 
men,  women,  and  children  must  have  crowded  every  practicable 
pathway  down  to  “  the  plains  of  Moab.” 

This  silent  solitude  is  not  always  so  deserted  even  now.  In 
the  spring  the  plain  itself  presents  a  very  different  aspect.  The 
peasants  from  es  Salt  and  elsewhere  are  then  busy  attending  to 
their  crops,  and  large  flocks  from  the  Belka  and  other  parts  of 
Moab  slowly  wend  their  way  down  to  the  ferry  of  Nuwaimeh, 
destined  to  supply  the  markets  in  Jerusalem  during  the  pilgrim 
season.  This  is,  also,  not  the  only  way  from  the  high  plateau  of 
Moab  to  the  Jordan,  but  it  is  the  easiest  one;  and  since  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  the  ferry  it  is  the  most  frequented.  The  road  now 
winds  down  this  narrow  ridge  with  profound  ravines  on  either 
side,  all  of  which  are  dry,  rocky,  and  impracticable. 

The  Hebrews  must  have  had  an  extensive  view  of  the  plain 
from  many  places  along  this  descent  from  the  plateau  of  Moab. 

Let  us  turn  aside  and  rest  a  while  under  the  shadow  of  that 
great  rock  while  we  contemplate  this  glorious  prospect.  We  can 
see  the  entire  plain  of  Abel-shittim,  the  Jordan  valley,  and  the  end¬ 
lessly  diversified  hills  of  Judea,  the  Dead  Sea,  and  every  tell  upon 
“the  plains  of  Moab”  from  Tell  Suweimeh  on  the  south  to  Tell 
Nimrin  on  the  north.  The  entire  western  face  of  these  Moabite 
mountains,  from  es  Salt  to  “the  mountain  of  Nebo,”  is  drained 
by  a  number  of  wadies,  all  of  which  debouch  on  to  Ghor  es  Seisa- 
ban,  as  “the  acacia  meadow,”  or  Abel-shittim,  is  now  called. 

Beginning  at  the  south,  the  principal  ones  are  Wady  ’Ayun 

1  Land  of  Moab,  pp.  345,  347. 


VALLEYS  AND  HILLS  AROUND  AND  UPON  THE  PLAIN.  669 


Musa  under  Nebo,  then  Wady  Hesban,  and  beyond  it  Wady  Kef- 
rein  and  Wady  Sha’ib  with  its  little  river,  which  flows  down  from 
es  Salt,  past  Tell  Nimrin,  and  irrigates  that  part  of  the  plain.  The 
stream  from  Kefrein  rises  in  the  mountains  east  of  ’Arak  el  Emir, 
near  a  ruin  called  Khirbet  Sar,  and  enters  the  plain  between  Tell 
Kefrein  on  the  north  and  Tell  el  Hammam  on  the  south.  The 
little  stream  from  ’Ain  Hesban  comes  from  Wady  Hesban  and 
flows  past  and  to  the  north  of  Tell  Ektanu  and  Tell  er  Rameh, 
and  the  waters  from  ’Ayun  Musa  flow  down  the  valley  of  the  same 
name  and  join  the  stream  of  Wady  Jerifeh.  After  reaching  the 
plain  of  Abel-shittim  all  those  streams  from  the  different  wadies 
cut  their  own  deep  and  narrow  channels  westward  to  the  Jordan. 

The  principal  tells  on  the  plain  of  Abel-shittim,  commencing 
at  the  southern  end  and  proceeding  northward,  are  Tell  es  Suwei- 
meh,  identified  with  Beth- jeshimoth,  a  town  allotted  to  the  chil¬ 
dren  of  Reuben;1  Tell  Ektanu,  supposed  by  Dr.  Merrill  “to  be  the 
site  of  the  ‘little  city’  of  Genesis  xix.  20;”  Tell  er  Rameh,  identi¬ 
fied  by  Canon  Tristram  with  Beth-haran,  one  of  the  fenced  cities 
rebuilt  by  the  children  of  Gad;2  Tell  esh  Shaghur,  with  the  ruins 
of  a  flour-mill  near  it;  Tell  el  Hammam,  to  the  warm  baths  of  which 
Herod  the  Great  may  have  been  taken  before  his  death,  instead  of 
to  Callirrhoe ;  Tell  Kefrein,  also  identified  by  Canon  Tristram  and 
others  with  Abel-shittim  of  Numbers  xxxiii.  49;  and  Tell  Nimrin, 
which  marks  the  site  of  Beth-nimrah,  a  fenced  city  and  a  fold  for 
sheep,  built  by  the  children  of  Gad.3 

We  have  now  reached  Tell  el  Hammam,  the  mound  of  the  bath, 
at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  I  spent  two  nights  near  it,  encamped 
on  the  west  bank  of  this  pretty  little  stream  from  Wady  Kefrein, 
and  I  passed  the  intervening  day  wandering  about  this  beautiful 
plain  and  exploring  the  surrounding  hills.  Tell  el  Hammam  is  a 
high  natural  mound  at  the  south-eastern  end  of  the  plain,  and  com¬ 
mands  a  wide  view  over  it  to  the  south  and  west,  and  the  stream 
from  Wady  Kefrein  flows  past  its  north-western  base.  No  part 
of  the  tell  is  artificial  except  the  top,  which  is  covered  with  the 
debris  of  ancient  buildings  which  may  be  of  any  age.  The  summit 
appears  to  have  been  surrounded  with  a  wall,  and  if  it  was  well 


1  Josh.  xiii.  20. 


3  Numb,  xxxii.  36. 


2  Numb,  xxxii.  36. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  EOOK. 


670 

fortified  it  would  command  the  entrance  into  the  mountains  up 
Wady  Kefrein.  “Nearly  a  mile  from  Tell  el  Hammam,”  says  Dr. 
Merrill,  “  up  Wady  Kefrein,  is  a  ruin  called  M’hadhar  [Um  Hathir?], 
and  around  it  is  a  trench.  In  the  valley  below  it  is  a  ruined  mill, 
standing  on  a  little  knoll  called  Jaudat.  Opposite  M’hadhar,  on 
the  south  side  of  the  wady,  is  another  ruin  called  Hubbisa.”1 

Tell  el  Hammam  is  so  called  from  some  warm  sulphur  springs 
near  the  base  of  it  on  the  south-west.  They  form  a  marsh  covered 
with  bushes  and  alive  with  frogs.  Baths  appear  to  have  been  built 
close  by,  but  all  has  been  deserted  for  ages,  no  one  knows  how 
many.  “On  the  east  of  Tell  el  Hammam,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill, 
is  a  fine  aqueduct.  It  is  cemented,  and  for  the  most  part  covered 
with  earth.  Were  it  not  exposed  at  a  few  points,  one  would  not 
be  aware  of  its  existence.  It  runs  to  the  south  from  Wady  Kefrein, 
and  appears  not  to  have  been  used  for  a  long  time.”2 

Near  the  warm  springs  there  are  clumps  of  straggling  and  scraggy 
trees  about  fifteen  feet  high.  The  leaves  and  berries  resemble  those 
of  the  olive,  and  the  latter  are  said  to  be  eaten  by  the  Ghawarineh 
Arabs.  Our  ’Adwan  sheikhs  say  the  tree  is  held  sacred  by  them, 
and  the  wood  is  not  burned  —  possibly  because,  like  the  cactus,  it 
will  not  ignite.  Sheikh  ’Ali  broke  off  a  twig  and  rubbed  his  teeth 
and  gums  with  it,  saying  that  it  cleansed  them  and  sweetened  the 
breath.  The  osher-tree,  or  apple  of  Sodom,  also  abounds  in  that 
neighborhood,  and  the  banks  of  the  stream  that  comes  down  from 
Wady  Kefrein  are  overshadowed  by  dense  thickets  of  reeds,  olean¬ 
ders,  and  other  wide-spreading  bushes. 

Dr.  Merrill,  who  carefully  explored  this  region  and  bestowed 
special  attention  to  the  various  tells,  says :  “  But  of  all  this  group 
of  tells  [on  the  Shittim  plain]  the  ruins  on  Tell  Ektanu  are  the 
most  important.  One  building  on  its  summit  was  two  hundred 
feet  from  east  to  west,  with  an  entrance  on  the  east  side.  The 
foundation  stones  are  large,  while  above  these  are  the  remains  of 
a  layer  of  conglomerate  stones,  which  have  fallen  to  pieces  with 
age  or  by  the  action  of  the  climate.  But  Tell  er  Rameh  is  the 
place  where  I  would  like  first  to  put  in  the  spade.  This  is  the 
Beth-haran  of  Joshua  —  the  Betharamphtha  of  Josephus  —  a  place 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  232.  2  East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  232. 


GROUP  OF  DOLMENS.— LARGE  DISC-STONE.  67 1 

which  Herod  Antipas  rebuilt  and  called  Julias,  or  Livias,  in  honor 
of  Julia,  the  wife  of  Augustus  [the  Empress  Livia]. 

“As  in  nearly  every  other  instance  in  the  Jordan  valley,  so  here 
towns  sprang  up  on  or  near  a  living  stream,  and  generally  not  far 
from  where  it  left  the  hills.  The  stream  in  Wady  Kefrein  flows 
under  and  just  north  of  Tell  el  Hammam.  The  stream  in  Wady 
Hesban  flows  north  of  Tell  Ektanu,  and  also  near  Tell  er  Rameh. 
They  are  both  large  streams,  and  we  must  cross  on  horseback  or 
else  wade ;  and  getting  wet  is  good  neither  for  health  nor  comfort. 

“Between  Tell  Ektanu  and  Tell  el  Hammam  there  is,  near  the 
hill,  a  large  group  of  dolmens.  In  a  few  cases  the  roof  stone  is  point¬ 
ed,  with  sloping  sides  like  the  covers  of  some  sarcophagi  that  are 
found  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  remarkable  that  no 
satisfactory  explanation  of  these  curious  objects  has  ever  been  made. 
About  half-way  between  these  two  places  I  found  an  immense  cir¬ 
cular  stone  lying  on  the  top  of  the  ground.  It  is  eleven  feet  four 
inches  in  diameter,  forty- four  inches  thick,  and  has  a  round  hole 
in  the  centre  twenty-five  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  made  of  hard 
sandstone,  unlike  any  that  exists  in  the  neighboring  hills,  and  it 
must  have  been  brought  from  the  north.  The  outer  edge  is  slightly 
convex,  and  the  stone  does  not  appear  to  have  been  used.”  1 

That  large  disc-stone,  called  by  the  Bedawin  Mensef  Abu  Zeid 
the  tray  or  dish  of  Abu  Zeid,  significant  of  his  generous  hospitality, 
presents  as  great  a  puzzle  as  the  dolmens;  but  of  course  such  stones 
are  comparatively  modern.  They  evidently  were  not  intended  for 
millstones,  nor  for  any  practical  use ;  yet  they  are  very  substantial 
realities,  and  those  who  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock  such  huge  discs 
must  have  had  some  special  object  in  view  which  fully  compensated 
them  for  their  great  labor  and  expense. 

We  are  now  on  our  way  from  Tell  el  Hammam  to  Tell  Kefrein. 
When  we  came  from  the  Nuwaimeh  ford  to  Tell  el  Hammam,. the 
wheat-fields  through  which  we  tried  to  pass  had  been  flooded  from 
the  stream,  and  our  horses  floundered  about  and  waded  across  them 
with  great  difficulty.  We  were  obliged  to  turn  southward,  cross 
the  deep  channel  of  the  stream,  and  find  a  path  on  the  south  side 
which  proved  to  be  smooth  and  hard,  and  we  followed  it  all  the 

1  East  of  the  Jordan,  pp.  230,  231. 

2  A  A 


672 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


way  to  our  camp  at  the  foot  of  Tell  el  Hammam.  We  shall  not 
experience  a  similar  difficulty  now,  and  can  keep  along  the  direct 
road  to  the  ford  which  passes  to  the  south  of  Tell  Kefrein. 

The  nearer  views  we  get  of  this  plain  are  somewhat  surprising. 
It  is  not  so  level,  and  much  of  it  is  apparently  not  very  fertile,  the 
outline  of  the  eastern  border  is  irregular  and  broken  up  by  rocky 
spurs  from  the  mountains  of  Moab;  and  the  acacia-trees,  the  Bib¬ 
lical  shittah,  from  which  the  plain  derived  its  most  familiar  name, 
are  less  numerous  than  I  expected  to  find  them. 

Farther  north  the  road  from  the  ford  to  es  Salt  by  Tell  Nimrin 
passes  through  the  middle  of  what  appears  from  a  distance  to  be 
extensive  groves  of  those  trees ;  but  even  along  that  route  there 
are  now  no  dense  forests  of  acacia  -  trees.  The  old  and  gnarled 
acacias,  however,  scattered  here  and  there  upon  this  Shittim  plain, 
testify  in  the  strongest  degree  to  the  appropriateness  of  its  Bib¬ 
lical  name,  and  they  are  no  doubt  the  descendants  of  the  shittah- 
trees  which  covered  this  plain  in  the  time  of  Moses. 

We  will  now  turn  to  the  right,  and  leaving  the  road,  ascend 
that  low  artificial  mound  ahead  of  us,  called  Tell  Kefrein.  It  is 
surrounded  “  on  all  sides  [by]  rivulets,”  as  Captain  Warren  remarks, 
“passing  through  dense  masses  of  underwood,  and  carried  off  here 
and  there  for  irrigating  purposes.”  The  remains  about  and  upon 
the  tell,  and  on  its  small  rocky  summit,  are  quite  insignificant,  con¬ 
sisting  of  traces  of  walls  and  old  foundations,  a  few  vaults,  and 
some  caverns  which,  Sheikh  Ali  says,  are  used  in  winter  to  store 
away  the  surplus  supply  of  straw  belonging  to  the  ’Adwan.  Tell 
Kefrein — the  mound  of  the  two  villages — so  far  as  the  sound  and 
signification  of  the  name  is  concerned,  might  stand  for  Kirjathaim, 
the  double  city,  rebuilt  by  the  Reubenites.  It  has,  however,  been 
identified  by  Canon  Tristram,  Captain  Warren,  Dr.  Merrill,  and 
others  with  Abel -shittim  itself,  from  which  this  plain  derived  its 
name;  and  around  it  the  Israelites  pitched  their  last  camp  east  of 
the  Jordan,  before  they  entered  the  Land  of  Promise. 

If  that  identification  be  correct,  it  imparts  a  peculiar  interest 
to  this  lowly  mound  and  the  surrounding  region  ;  for  here,  accord¬ 
ing  to  Josephus,  Moses  completed  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  and 
amid  the  palm-trees  of  the  place  he  delivered  his  last  address  to 


“HOW  GOODLY  ARE  THY  TENTS,  O  JACOB.”  673 

the  children  of  Israel.  “  Come,  therefore,"  said  the  Hebrew  law¬ 
giver,  “  let  me  suggest  to  you  by  what  means  ye  may  be  happy. 
O  children  of  Israel !  there  is  but  one  source  of  happiness  for  all 
mankind,  the  favor  of  God.’’1  And  from  here  “Joshua  the  son  of 
Nun  sent  out  two  men  to  spy  secretly,  saying,  Go  view  the  land. 
And  they  went  to  Jericho  and  lodged  in  the  house  of  Rahab.”2 

The  ford  of  the  Jordan,  near  which  we  shall  find  our  tents,  is 
about  three  miles  distant  from  this  Tell  of  Kefrein  ;  and  that  we 
may  reach  them  before  dark  we  must  spur  on  our  horses  to  a  brisk 
pace  over  this  smooth  road  and  comparatively  level  plain. 

How  different  this  plain  of  Abel-shittim  must  have  been  when 
the  Hebrew  host  was  encamped  upon  it  from  what  it  is  at  present! 
Now  it  is  strangely  silent  and  entirely  deserted,  and  we  have  not 
seen  a  single  individual  in  our  ride  across  it. 

At  this  season  of  the  year  even  the  Bedawin,  with  their  tents 
and  their  flocks,  have  migrated  to  the  green  valleys  and  elevated 
plateaus  of  Moab,  and  the  silence  and  solitude  of  the  plain  are 
quite  oppressive.  But  when  thousands  of  tents  covered  the  sur¬ 
face  farther  than  the  eye  could  reach,  there  was  here  a  whole  world 
of  human  life  and  busy  activity.  Neither  pencil  can  picture  nor 
pen  adequately  describe  the  wonderful  scene,  nor  can  imagination 
reproduce  it.  History  records  nothing  with  which  to  compare  it, 
in  this  or  in  any  land,  and  no  wonder  that  Balaam,  when  he  looked 
upon  the  scene  from  the  mountain  of  Nebo,  and  “  saw  Israel  abiding 
in  his  tents,  according  to  their  tribes,”  exclaimed,  “  How  goodly  are 
thy  tents,  O  Jacob,  and  thy  tabernacles,  O  Israel !  As  the  valleys 
are  they  spread  forth,  as  gardens  by  the  river’s  side,  as  the  trees 
of  lignaloes  which  the  Lord  hath  planted,  and  as  cedar  trees  beside 
the  waters,  and  blessed  is  he  that  blesseth  thee.” 3 

We  have  now  reached  the  western  edge  of  this  plain  of  Abel- 
shittim,  and  an  easy  descent  of  fifteen  minutes  along  a  winding 
path  will  bring  us  to  our  tents,  pitched  on  this  side  Jordan,  near 
the  ferry  of  Nuwaimeh. 

Jericho  Ford,  September  30th.  Evening. 

While  we  were  riding  across  the  plain  of  Abel-shittim  this 
afternoon,  the  question  whether  it  was  large  enough  to  contain  the 
1  Ant.  iv.  8,  1,  2.  2  Josh.  ii.  1.  3  Numb.  xxiv.  2,  5,  6,  9. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


674 

camp  of  the  entire  Hebrew  nation  was  constantly  recurring  to  my 
mind.  According  to  the  census  which  Moses  was  commanded  to 
take  of  the  children  of  Israel,  after  their  encampment  on  “  the 
plains  of  Moab,”  the  number  of  the  men  who  were  “  twenty  years 
old  and  upward,”  and  of  all  that  were  “  able  to  go  to  war,”  was 
six  hundred  and  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  thirty.1  Multi¬ 
plying  by  four,  to  obtain  the  number  of  the  whole  nation,  we  get 
the  large  figure  of  two  million  four  hundred  and  six  thousand  nine 
hundred  and  twenty,  without  the  Levites.  Was  there  sufficient 
space  on  the  plain  for  the  tents  of  such  a  vast  multitude? 

At  first  these  questions  appear  sufficiently  formidable,  but  the 
result  of  a  little  calculation  will  surprise  you.  If  we  take  the  aver¬ 
age  size  of  a  tent  among  the  Bedawin  Arabs  of  to-day,  and  allow 
ten  persons  to  a  tent,  and  then  suppose  that  the  children  of  Israel 
in  their  totality  numbered  three  millions,  they  would  require  three 
hundred  thousand  tents.  Allowing  twenty  square  rods  for  each 
tent,  such  an  encampment  would  require  six  million  square  rods ; 
but  there  are  at  least  twelve  million  square  rods  on  these  “  plains 
of  Moab  by  Jordan  near  Jericho."  The  children  of  Israel  “pitched 
by  Jordan,  from  Beth-jesimoth  even  unto  Abel-shittim  in  the  plains 
of  Moab.”2  That  is — if  the  identification  of  those  places  be  correct 
— from  Tell  Suweimeh  on  the  south  to  Tell  Kefrein  on  the  north. 
The  width  of  “the  plains”  in  the  neighborhood  of  those  tells,  in¬ 
cluding  the  wadies  and  adjacent  hill -sides  where  tents  could  be 
pitched,  is  about  eight  miles,  while  the  length  from  the  shore  of  the 
Dead  Sea  and  the  foot-hills  of  “the  mountain  of  Nebo”  extends 
northward  for  fifteen  miles.  That  gives  an  area  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  square  miles,  or  over  twelve  million  square  rods,  and 
allows  of  ample  space  for  the  tribes  to  encamp  in  “  the  plains  of 
Moab,  from  Beth-jesimoth  even  unto  Abel-shittim.” 

I  have  followed  the  supposed  route  of  the  Israelites  from  the 
Red  Sea  to  Mount  Sinai,  and  thence  across  the  great  and  terrible 
“wilderness  of  the  wandering,”  and  I  nowhere  saw  a  place  for  en¬ 
camping  at  all  comparable  to  this.  With  one  or  two  possible  ex¬ 
ceptions,  all  the  forty  stations  at  which  they  pitched  after  crossing 
the  Red  Sea  were  sadly  deficient  in  good  water,  while  here  the 

1  Numb.  xxvi.  I,  2,  51.  2  Numb,  xxxiii.  49. 


TESTIMONY  OF  THE  LAND  TO  THE  TRUTH  OF  THE  BOOK.  675 

space  was  ample  and  the  supply  of  water  abundant  and  never 
failing.  From  that  great  encampment  here  on  this  plain  those 
military  expeditions  went  forth,  which  subdued  Gilead  and  Bashan 
and  enabled  the  two  and  a  half  tribes  to  occupy  their  chosen  in¬ 
heritance  east  of  the  Jordan.  Somewhere  on  these  plains,  near 
Tell  Kefrein  perhaps,  Moses  had  his  head  -  quarters,  and  there 
doubtless  he  composed  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  and  rehearsed 
it  in  the  ears  of  all  the  people,  for  it  is  stated  that  “  on  this  side 
Jordan,  in  the  land  of  Moab,  began  Moses  to  declare  this  law.”1 

I  should  like  to  read  the  whole  of  it  here  where  it  was  written, 
having  Moab  and  Gilead  and  far- distant  Bashan  for  background, 
with  Canaan’s  fair  and  happy  land  in  full  view,  while  Jordan  rolls 
between.  I  am  thankful  that  we  have  been  permitted  to  traverse 
those  regions,  and  to  encamp  upon  this  plain. 

Seeing  is  believing,  according  to  the  proverb  ;  but  “  blessed  are 
they  that  have  not  seen,  and  yet  have  believed.”  That  there  actu¬ 
ally  is  here  just  such  a  plain  as  this  is  required  to  confirm  the  state¬ 
ment  in  the  narrative  that  the  incidents  said  to  have  occurred  at 
Abel-shittim  did  really  take  place.  And  to  that  extent  at  least 
the  testimony  which  the  land  of  the  Bible  bears  to  its  veracity  is 
of  essential  importance.  We  have  had  around  us  hundreds  of  wit¬ 
nesses,  on  this  side  of  Jordan  and  on  that,  in  mountains,  valleys,  and 
plains,  in  fountains,  rivers,  and  lakes,  in  trees  and  plants,  in  birds  and 
beasts,  in  the  works  of  man  scattered  over  the  whole  country,  and  in 
the  ancient  sites  found  everywhere  throughout  the  land  and  still 
bearing  their  ancient  names — and  they  all  testify  to  the  credibility 
of  the  Biblical  record.  And  yet  that  is  only  one  of  the  many  ways 
in  which  this  promised  land  to  the  patriarchs  of  old  confirms  and 
illustrates  that  book  of  books,  our  blessed  Bible. 

Where  did  the  children  of  Israel  pass  over  this  river  of  the  Jor¬ 
dan  into  the  land  of  Canaan  ? 

The  account  of  that  wonderful  passage  given  in  the  third  and 
fourth  chapters  of  Joshua  furnishes  no  topographical  data  by  which 
that  question  can  be  answered  with  exactness.  We  read  that  the 
host  “removed  from  Shittim,  and  came  to  Jordan  and  lodged  there 
[for  three  days]  before  they  passed  over.”  If  we  assume  that  there 

1  Deut.  i.  5. 


THE  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK. 


676 

was  but  one  broad  crossing-place,  it  probably  did  not  extend  much 
farther  up  the  Jordan  than  this  ford  of  Nuwaimeh,  or  Mukhadat 
el  Ghoramyeh,  the  ford  of  the  Ghor  or  Jordan  valley.  Above  it 
the  upper  plain  of  the  Jordan  valley  terminates  on  the  western  side 
of  the  river  in  high  perpendicular  bluffs,  which  would  present  an 
insuperable  obstacle  to  the  ascent  of  the  host  to  Gilgal.  Those 
bluffs,  however,  end  abruptly  a  short  distance  north  of  this  ford, 
and  from  thence  southward  to  the  Dead  Sea  there  would  have  been 
no  obstacle  in  the  way;  and  the  various  tribes,  after  crossing,  could 
have  proceeded  directly  from  the  banks  of  the  river  to  their  ap¬ 
pointed  stations  “in  the  east  border  of  Jericho.” 

It  is  difficult  to  realize  that  we  are  now  encamped  near  the 
place  where  one  of  the  most  stupendous  miracles  was  enacted  that 
God  has  ever  wrought  in  behalf  of  His  chosen  people. 

In  one  important  respect  that  crossing  over  Jordan  is  more  im¬ 
pressive  than  the  passing  of  the  Israelites  through  the  Red  Sea. 
Here,  at  least,  there  is  no  question  as  to  where  the  crossing  was 
made.  Somewhere  in  this  vicinity,  the  Jordan,  full  to  the  over¬ 
flowing  of  all  its  banks,  was  divided,  and  “  the  waters  which  came 
down  from  above  stood  and  rose  up  upon  a  heap,  and  those  that 
came  down  toward  the  salt  sea  failed,  and  were  cut  off:  and  the 
people  passed  over  right  against  Jericho.”1  That  unparalleled  mi¬ 
gration  into  Palestine,  or  invasion  of  it,  by  the  Hebrew  nation  was 

made  in  obedience  to  the  command  of  God :  “  Have  I  not  com- 

• 

manded  thee?”  said  the  Lord  to  Joshua.  “Be  strong  and  of  a 
good  courage ;  be  not  afraid,  neither  be  thou  dismayed  ;  for  the 
Lord  thy  God  is  with  thee  whithersoever  thou  goest.”  Leaving 
the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  the  children  of  Israel  marched  a  few  miles 
westward,  and  encamped,  according  to  the  Biblical  record,  “in  Gil¬ 
gal,  in  the  east  border  of  Jericho,”  and  “the  waters  of  Jordan  re¬ 
turned  unto  their  place,  and  flowed  over  all  his  banks,  as  they  did 
before.”2  Jericho  was  then  called  “  the  city  of  palm-trees,”  by  way 
of  eminence,  and  the  surrounding  plain  was  probably  overshadowed 
by  large  groves  of  those  graceful  trees.  Beneath  them  were  doubt¬ 
less  pitched  the  countless  tents  of  the  children  of  Israel,  and  there 
we  will  leave  them  to  carry  out  their  divinely  appointed  mission. 

1  Josh.  iii.  15,  16.  *  Josh.  iv.  18. 


THE  HOME  OF  THE  BIBLE.— THE  LAND  OF  THE  BOOK.  677 

Having  thus  followed  that  triumphant  entrance  of  the  Hebrew 
nation  into  the  earthly  Canaan  —  type  and  prophecy  and  promise 
of  that  other  passage  through  another  river  to  an  inheritance  in 
the  better  land,  “  incorruptible,  and  undefiled,  and  that  fadeth  not 
away,  reserved  in  heaven  ”  for  us,1  it  remains  for  ourselves  to  cross, 
on  the  morrow,  this  same  Jordan,  not  on  dry  land,  but  in  that  rude 
and  clumsy  ferry-boat,  and  from  thence  to  ascend  the  mountain 
to  the  Holy  City — that  type,  in  Biblical  symbolism,  of  the  “Jeru¬ 
salem  which  is  above,  which  is  the  mother  of  us  all.”2  After  a 
farewell  survey  of  the  sites  and  scenes  within  and  around  Jerusalem 
we  will  go  down  to  Joppa  by  the  sea- side.  From  that  city  our 
travels  “  through  the  land,  in  the  length  of  it,  and  the  breadth  of 
it,”  began,  and  there  we  will  end  them,  devoutly  thankful  to  our 
Heavenly  Father  for  His  providential  guidance  and  protection  in 
all  our  wanderings  over  this  Land  of  Promise,  the  home  of  the  Bible 
— the  Land  of  the  Book. 


1  1  Peter  i.  4.. 


2  Gal.  iv.  26. 


INDEX  OF  SCRIPTURE  TEXTS  ILLUSTRATED 


ARRANGED  ACCORDING  TO  THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


Genesis. 

Chapter. 

Verse. 

Page. 

Chapter. 

Verse. 

Page. 

Chapter. 

Verse. 

Page. 

xxxiv. 

8-12 

212 

xxi. 

30 

638 

iii. 

21 

82 

XXXV. 

2,  4 

554 

4  4 

33-35 

461 

ix. 

23 

84 

<  < 

6,  7 

555 

xxii. 

— 

636 

X. 

15 

298 

xxxvi. 

20-24 

648 

<  i 

4 

550 

<  ( 

17 

282 

xxxvii. 

3,  23,  31 

84 

xxiii. 

I-IO 

655 

<  < 

18 

278 

<  < 

25-28 

540 

<  < 

14 

659 

xi. 

3i 

364 

xxxix. 

12 

84 

<  < 

14-20 

655 

xiv. 

— 

534 

xli. 

42 

83 

xxiv. 

1,  2,  51 

674 

< « 

5 

542 

4  4 

46-48,  53-57 

458 

4  4 

2,  5,  6,  9 

673 

<  < 

15 

363 

xlv. 

I-I5 

577 

4  4 

3-6,  8 

656 

<  < 

17 

364 

4  4 

14-19,  25 

656 

XV. 

1-4 

364 

Exodus. 

xxxi. 

8,  16 

656 

xvi. 

4 

90 

iii. 

5 

85 

xxxii. 

1 

601 

<  < 

IO,  12 

536 

« < 

17 

227 

4  4 

35 

607 

xix. 

20 

669 

xvi. 

4-36 

180 

4  4 

36 

669 

xxiii. 

— 

298 

XX. 

24,  25 

367 

4  4 

36 

669 

XXV. 

15,  16 

434 

xxii. 

27 

89 

4  4 

37 

662 

« < 

18 

536 

xxiii. 

5 

345 

4  4 

38 

644 

xxvi. 

34,  35 

299 

4  4 

41,  42 

489 

xxvii. 

34,  33 

403 

Leviticus. 

xxxiii. 

47-49 

654 

i  < 

46 

299 

xiv. 

4,  6,  7 

263 

4  4 

49 

669 

xxviii. 

i-7 

299 

xix. 

28 

24 

4  4 

49 

674 

xxix. 

32,  33 

88 

xxiii. 

40 

128 

xxxiv. 

7,8 

296 

XXX. 

1 

90 

XXV. 

10 

56 

4  4 

11 

297 

xxxi. 

46-49 

576 

4  4 

11 

311 

« < 

47,  49 

553 

Numbers. 

XXXV. 

— 

21 1 

xxxii. 

1,  2 

552 

xiii. 

21 

296 

<  i 

i-3 

576 

<  t 

29 

299 

Deuteronomy. 

<  < 

6,  7,  13-15 

576 

<  < 

31 

301 

— 

— 

470 

<  < 

16-21 

577 

xix. 

6 

263 

— 

— 

672 

xxxiii. 

i-4 

577 

xxi. 

26,  27 

662 

— 

— 

675 

68o 


INDEX  OF  SCRIPTURE  TEXTS  ILLUSTRATED. 


Chapter. 

Verse. 

Page. 

Chapter. 

Vej"se. 

Page. 

1  Kings. 

i. 

I 

523 

xiii. 

5 

296 

Chapter. 

Verse. 

Page. 

4  4 

5 

675 

<  < 

9,  16 

638 

ii. 

8 

553 

4  4 

19 

454 

<  < 

11 

527 

iv. 

13 

444 

4  4 

28 

301 

<  < 

20 

669 

4  4 

13 

591 

ii. 

8 

635 

<  < 

24,  26,  29,  30 

552 

4  4 

14 

553 

iii. 

i-7 

461 

<  < 

30 

489 

4  4 

25 

200 

<  < 

I-IO 

527 

XX. 

8 

591 

4  4 

33 

262 

<  < 

3-5,  ii,  13,  14 

444 

xxi. 

38 

591 

V. 

8,  9 

250 

<  < 

4,  5 

459 

<  t 

39 

662 

4  4 

8-10 

181 

<  < 

8-io 

460 

4  4 

18 

46 

<  < 

ii 

620 

Judges. 

vi.  9, 

10,  15-18,  20 

262 

i  t 

14 

489 

i. 

22-26 

178 

4  4 

29 

128 

i  ( 

17 

659 

ii. 

13 

486 

vii. 

2,  3 

262 

i  ( 

25 

138 

vii. 

12 

642 

viii. 

44,  48 

69 

iv. 

41-43 

436 

viii. 

4,  5,  11 

489 

ix. 

18 

573 

1 1 

43 

59i 

<  < 

8,  9,  17 

577 

x. 

27 

116 

viii. 

7 

227 

<  < 

26 

642 

4  4 

29 

299 

xii. 

2 

169 

ix. 

15 

264 

xi. 

1 

299 

xix. 

— 

211 

xi. 

26 

662 

4  4 

5,  33 

486 

<  < 

3 

593 

<< 

33 

628 

4  4 

23-25 

365 

xxii. 

8 

54 

xii. 

25 

577 

xxiv. 

20 

39 

1  Samuel. 

XV. 

16-20 

365 

xxvii. 

2 

28 

xviii. 

26,  28 

118 

xxxii. 

13 

34 

i. 

10,  11 

19 

xix. 

15,  16 

368 

xxxiv. 

653 

10,  11 

90 

4  4 

19-21 

368 

•  < 

— 

654 

vii. 

4 

486 

XX. 

— 

365 

4  4 

i-3 

653 

ix. 

25,  26 

55 

4  4 

1,  26-34 

366 

4  4 

i-7 

659 

xxxi. 

10 

486 

4  4 

34 

365 

xxi. 

8 

64 

Joshua. 

2  Samuel. 

xxii. 

— 

366 

ii. 

i 

673 

ii. 

8,  12,  29 

553 

4  4 

3,  4 

592 

i  i 

6 

54 

vii. 

2 

262 

4  4 

29-36 

592 

iii. 

— 

675 

viii. 

3-6 

365 

<  t 

15,  16 

676 

<  < 

8 

46 

2  Kings. 

<  < 

1 6,  17 

10 

<  < 

9-1 1 

339 

i. 

2,  17 

366 

iv. 

— 

675 

X. 

1,  2,  4,  5,  7-14 

621 

ii. 

8,  13 

84 

i  i 

18 

676 

xi. 

— 

621 

iii. 

4 

643 

ix. 

I,  2 

299 

4  4 

1 

621 

4  4 

11 

78 

<  ( 

3-6 

426 

xii. 

— 

621 

V. 

1-8 

366 

4  4 

23,  27 

7i 

4  4 

26-31 

621 

4  4 

9-19 

367 

xi. 

1-18 

143 

xvii. 

24,  27 

553 

4  4 

12 

398 

4  4 

3,  5,  8 

299 

xviii. 

— 

578 

4  4 

CO 

w 

H 

379 

4  4 

17 

338 

4  4 

6-8 

578 

4  4 

18 

386 

4  4 

17 

339 

4  4 

24,  3D  32 

553 

vi. 

8-23 

367 

xii. 

5 

527 

4  4 

33 

553 

4  4 

24,  25 

367 

4  4 

7 

338 

xix. 

— 

578 

vii. 

6,  7 

367 

4  4 

7 

339 

4  4 

4 

403 

viii. 

7-15 

368 

xiii. 

i,  5 

339 

4  4 

18 

11 

4  4 

28 

592 

4  4 

5 

46 

xxiii. 

6,  7 

29 

ix. 

1-10,  16-20 

592 

INDEX  OF  SCRIPTURE  TEXTS  ILLUSTRATED. 


68 1 


Chapter. 

Verse. 

Page. 

ix. 

14,  15,  and  5 

592 

xiii. 

22-25 

368 

xiv. 

27,  28 

368 

xvi. 

5-9 

369 

<  < 

10-16 

369 

xvii. 

6 

369 

xix. 

20-23 

262 

<  < 

35,  36 

96 

xxiii. 

4 

487 

< « 

13 

486 

<  < 

29-33 

297 

I 

Chronicles. 

i. 

16 

278 

ii. 

23 

489 

V. 

11 

527 

<« 

18-23 

434 

• « 

20,  21 

642 

vi. 

64,  80 

553 

<  < 

80 

59i 

xix. 

1-15 

638 

xxvii. 

28 

116 

2 

Chronicles. 

i. 

17 

299 

ii. 

16 

181 

viii. 

4 

573 

xxv. 

18 

264 

Ezra. 

iii. 

7 

263 

Nehemiah. 

vi. 

5 

64 

viii. 

15 

128 

Job. 

ii. 

12 

403 

vi. 

15-18 

453 

<  < 

19,  20 

453 

xiv. 

— 

257 

<  < 

7-10 

37 

<  < 

11,  12 

37 

<  < 

18,  19 

184 

XV. 

3L  32 

36 

4 ( 

33 

35 

xvi. 

15 

20 

xxix. 

6 

34 

xxxi. 

16,  17,  22 

287 

xxxviii. 

25 

185 

Psalms. 


Chapter. 

Verse. 

Page. 

vi. 

6 

403 

xxi. 

— 

510 

xxix. 

5 

264 

lv. 

17 

68 

lvi. 

8 

404 

lviii. 

3,  9 

29 

<  i 

9 

30 

lxvi. 

13,  14 

20 

lxxviii. 

23-25 

180 

<  < 

43,  47 

116 

lxxxiv. 

3 

59 

xcii. 

12 

262 

<  < 

12-14 

128 

cii. 

7 

59 

civ. 

10-12 

138 

<  > 

16,  17 

261 

cxvi. 

18,  19 

21 

cxviii. 

12 

3i 

cxix. 

164 

68 

cxxviii. 

3 

39 

cxlv. 

13 

377 

Proverbs. 

XX. 

14 

73 

xxxi. 

22 

83 

Solomon’s  Song. 

V. 

4 

414 

vii. 

4 

661 

4  4 

4 

667 

4  4 

6,  7 

128 

Isaiah. 

ii. 

12,  13 

262 

iii. 

18-23 

86 

ix. 

9,  10 

116 

xiv. 

8 

264 

XV. 

— 

662 

<  4 

2 

638 

<  < 

4 

662 

xvi. 

— 

662 

4  4 

6,  9 

663 

xvii. 

1 

369 

4  4 

6 

38 

xxii. 

1,  2,  5-7 

55 

4  4 

22 

4i3 

xxxiii. 

12 

28 

Chapter. 

Verse. 

Page. 

xxxiv. 

6,  II,  13-15 

574 

i  < 

II 

524 

<  i 

II 

616 

xl. 

20 

263 

xliii. 

2 

26 

<  < 

3 

472 

<  < 

3 

473 

xliv. 

14,  16,  17 

263 

xlix. 

15,  16 

24 

lv. 

1 

388 

lxiii. 

1 

523 

Jeremiah. 


iv. 

20 

603 

vi. 

20 

28 

vii. 

18 

487 

viii. 

7 

623 

ix. 

1 

403 

4  4 

17,  18 

403 

x. 

20 

603 

xxxi. 

19 

404 

xxxix. 

i-7 

298 

xlviii. 

— 

662 

<  i 

2,  34,  45 

662 

<  < 

20-24 

644 

i  < 

21-24 

5ii 

<  < 

21-24 

529 

<  < 

24 

523 

<  < 

29 

523 

*  < 

34>  43,  45 

662 

<  < 

4i 

529 

xlix. 

2,  4,  5 

621 

<  i 

23-27 

369 

Ezekiel. 


Vlll. 

14 

243 

xvi. 

10,  13 

83 

xvii. 

22 

262 

xxi. 

12 

404 

xxv. 

5 

622 

4  4 

7 

622 

4  4 

9 

644 

4  4 

10 

622 

xxvii. 

5 

263 

4  4 

8,  11 

278 

4  4 

17 

628 

4  4 

18 

369 

xxxi. 

3,  5,  8,  9 

265 

xlvii. 

16 

46 

682  INDEX  OF  SCRIPTURE  TEXTS  ILLUSTRATED. 


Daniel. 


Chapter. 

Verse. 

Page. 

vi. 

IO,  II 

69 

Hosea. 

xiv. 

6 

33 

Amos. 

i. 

3,  4 

369 

1  < 

5 

333 

ii. 

1 

28 

1 1 

U  2 

529 

5  c 

9 

262 

vii. 

14 

113 

Micah. 

iv. 

4 

200 

Habakkuk. 

iii. 

17 

36 

i  i 

17, 18 

38 

Zephaniah. 

i. 

5 

57 

ii. 

9 

622 

Zechariah. 

iii. 

10 

200 

ix. 

I 

369 

xi. 

I 

264 

Matthew. 

iv. 

23-25 

481 

V. 

40 

84 

vi. 

5,  7 

69 

Chapter. 

Verse. 

Page. 

X. 

27 

56 

<  t 

29,  31 

59 

xiv. 

I— 12 

649 

<  < 

3-12 

539 

xxiv. 

17 

53 

<  < 

28 

221 

xxvi. 

29 

236 

Mark. 

V. 

1-20 

481 

vi. 

14-29 

649 

vii. 

3i 

481 

X. 

46 

130 

Luke. 

— 

— 

434 

iii. 

1 

440 

<  < 

1 

445 

1 1 

1,  2 

435 

* » 

1-3 

350 

iv. 

38 

166 

vii. 

34  . 

236 

« « 

37,  38 

404 

xi. 

5-8 

89 

xii. 

6,  7 

59 

xiii. 

3 

56 

xiv. 

16 

74 

<  < 

17 

74 

XV. 

16 

131 

xvii. 

6 

114 

xix. 

1-6 

113 

John. 

ii.  io  236 


Chapter. 

Verse. 

Page. 

iv. 

21,  24 

69 

X. 

4 

25 

xi. 

31 

402 

< « 

35 

404 

xiii. 

4,  5 

79 

<  1 

4,  5 

84 

ix. 

Acts. 

i-3 

369 

<  < 

i-9 

407 

<  < 

s 

433 

(4 

IO,  II 

410 

(  < 

17,  18 

413 

(« 

20,  22 

411 

X. 

9 

57 

xiii. 

9 

369 

xviii. 

18 

7i 

xxi. 

24 

7i 

XXV. 

26 

198 

xi. 

Romans. 

17,  18,  24 

34 

2 

xi. 

Corinthians. 

32 

539 

« < 

32,  33 

406 

Galatians. 

iv.  26  677 


1  Peter. 
i.  4 


677 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS  USED. 


’Ain,  Hebrew  En,  Fountain. 

Aklim,  District. 

Bab,  Door  or  Gate. 

Beit,  Hebrew  Beth,  House. 

Belad,  District. 

Bir,  Hebrew  Beer,  Well  or  Cistern. 
Birkeh,  Birket,  Pool. 

Burj,  Tower. 

Deir,  Convent. 

Ed,  Edh,  El,  En,  Es,  Esh,  Et,  Ez,  The. 
Jebel,  Mountain. 

Jisr,  Bridge. 

Kabr,  Tomb. 

Khan,  Inn  or  Caravansary. 


Khirbeh,  Khirbet,  Ruin. 

Kul’ah,  Kul’at,  Castle. 

Merj,  Plain  or  Meadow. 

Mugharah,  Mugharat,  Cave,  Cavern. 
Mukam,  Shrine  or  Saint’s  Tomb. 
Muzar,  Shrine  or  Saint’s  Tomb. 

Nahr,  River. 

Neba’,  Fountain. 

Neby,  Prophet. 

RAs,  Head  or  Promontory. 

Tell,  Hill  or  Mound. 

Wady,  Valley  or  Watercourse. 

Wely,  Saint’s  Tomb. 


Abana,  see  Barada,  Nahr,  el. 

Abarim,  535,  654. 

Abbot,  Peter,  16. 

’Abd  el  ’Aziz,  ’Adwan  Sheikh,  559. 

’Abd  el  Melek,  Beit,  186,  209. 

’Abeih,  27,  46,  122,  144-147,  167,  209,  310. 
Abel,  350,  359. 

Abel-beth-maachah,  365. 

Abel-meholah,  368. 

Abel-shittim,  586,  651,  653-656,  659,  668- 
675. 

Abijam,  365. 

Abila,  350,  351. 

Abila,  of  Peraea,  546. 

Abilene,  350. 

Abishai,  638. 

Abraham,  82,  207,  213,  298,  299,  359,  363, 

364,  370,  371,  379,  414,  422,  477,  533-537, 

542,  554,  579,  620,  659,  666. 

Absalom,  127,  403,  553,  578,  579,  582. 

Abu  ’Aly,  Nahr,  137. 

Abu  el  Aswad,  Nahr,  15 1. 

Abu  Bekr,  422. 

Abu  Bekr,  Muzar,  559. 


Abu  el  Feda,  Abulfeda,  Emir,  174,  302,  428, 
580. 

Abu  Nugla,  628,  630,  641. 

Abu  Nusr,  Sheikh,  276. 

Abu  Talib,  276,  526. 

Abu  Tumeis,  441. 

Acacia,  668,  672. 

Acre,  41,  51,  161,  206,  220,  502,  540. 

Adam,  157,  207,  359,  422,  423. 

Adara,  541. 

Addison,  C.  G. ,  357. 

Adelsberg,  caves  of,  104. 

Adonis,  137,  229,  234,  239-247,  251,  313. 
Adrian,  Emperor,  252,  253. 

’Adwan,  el,  Bedawin,  559,  590,  593,  605,  606, 
623,  628,  629,  636,  641,  643,  645,  647,  664- 
666,  670,  672. 

Aere,  454. 

’Afineh,  el,  502,  503. 

’Afka,  137,  234,  240-247,  313. 

Africa,  African,  41,  155,  426,  427,  538,  573. 
Agamemnon,  668. 

Agate,  178. 

Agrippa,  see  Herod  Agrippa. 


684 


fNDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Ague,  354,  497. 

Ahab,  365,  366,  41 1,  592- 
Ahaz,  368,  369,  380. 

Ahaziah,  366,  592. 

’Ain,  el,  304,  3“- 
’Ain  ’Allan,  585. 

’Ain  ’Anoub,  133. 

’Ain  el  ’Asy,  304,  310. 

’Ain  el  ’Ayun,  293. 

’Ain  el  Barideh,  344. 

’Ain  el  Beida,  292. 

’Ain  Bsaba,  133. 

’Ain  Dara,  150. 

’Ain  el  Fijeh,  347,  351-355- 
’Ain  el  Haiyeb,  280-282. 

’Ain  Flawar,  346. 

’Ain  Hesban,  661,  663-669. 

’Ain  Ibel,  210. 

’Ain  Jeidur,  591,  593. 

’Ain  Jenneh,  546,  574,  575. 

’Ain  Jerwan,  571,  573. 

’Ain  Kesur,  144,  147. 

’Ain  el  Khudra,  354. 

’Ain  Membej,  430. 

’Ain  Teraz,  185. 

’Ain  Thaluth,  581,  582. 

’Ain  Um  el  Jalud,  582. 

’Ain  Warkah,  230. 

’Ain  Zahelteh,  26,  137,  150,  156,  176,  182- 
186. 

’Ainab,  142,  143,  147. 

’Ainata,  272,  313. 

’Aireh,  el,  628. 

’Aitath,  122,  133,  144,  147,  i87,  189,  196. 
’Aithenit,  176. 

’Ajeltun,  el,  226. 

’Ajlun,  el,  556,  574,  575,  578-582,  587. 
Akabah,  see  Ezion-gaber. 

’Akkal,  el,  206,  208. 

’Akkar,  Aklim,  138,  290. 

’Akkar,  Nahr,  292. 

’Akurah,  el,  246-249,  252,  253. 

’Al,  el,  628,  636,  652,  660,  662,  663,  665. 
Albanians,  17,  393. 

’Aleih,  46,  122,  186,  187,  190-192. 

Alema,  524. 

Aleppo,  161,  248,  306,  374,  382,  455. 
Alexander,  Dr.  A.,  30. 

Alexander  the  Great,  275,  278,  279,  283,  302, 
338,  369,  435,  535,  622. 


Alexander  Jannseus,  572,  663. 

Alexander  Severus,  283. 

Alexandretta,  277. 

Alexandria,  47. 

Algiers,  32,  84. 

’ Ali,  ’Adwan  Bedawin  Sheikh,  593,  628,  630, 
650,  651,  666,  670,  672. 

’Ali,  cousin  of  Muhammed,  401. 

’Ali  Ibn  Abi  Talib,  207. 

Alkali,  507. 

’Allan,  Nahr,  546,  547. 

Almond,  45,  471. 

Alms,  423,  424. 

Alps,  Alpine,  164. 

Altar,  20,  1 18,  171,  262,  333,  340,  364,  367, 
369,  380,  433,  486,  519,  553,  554,  655,  656, 
659- 

Alum,  648. 

’Amad,  Beit,  184,  209. 

’Amad,  Khuttar  el,  Sheikh,  184. 

Amalekites,  534,  642. 

Amana,  see  Barada,  Nahr,  el. 

Amber,  60,  79,  80,  373,  376. 

America,  American,  27,  28,  86,  98,  107,  108, 
117,  145,  149,  187,  189,  190,  200,  215,  264, 
348,  389,  433,  472,  507,  556. 

’Amman,  480,  546,  560,  573,  574,  584,  586, 
59°>  593,  594,  602,  607-624,  627,  628,  635, 
636. 

’Ammatur,  163. 

Ammon,  Ammonites,  535,  537,  602,  604,  608, 
619-622,  627,  628,  638,  640,  664. 

Amon,  god,  300. 

Amorite,  Amorites,  262,  534,  535,  585,  635, 
636,  638,  660-662,  664. 

Amos,  1 13,  262,  338,  339,  369,  529. . 

’Amrit,  Nahr,  280,  282. 

’Amud  es  Subh,  437. 

’Amud  Ya’at,  315. 

Amyun,  el,  257. 

Anah,  648. 

Ananias,  410,  413. 

Ananias,  house  of,  409,  410. 

Anazeh,  el,  Bedawin,  372,  439,  549,  551,  642. 
Anderson,  H.  J.,  M.D.,  159,  160,  182,  187, 
222. 

Anemones,  132,  540,  546. 

Anglo-American,  117. 

’Anjar,  Nahr,  see  Neb’a  Anjar. 

Annelos,  498. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS.*  685 


Ant  Elias,  94. 

Antaridus,  see  Tartus. 

Ante-Lebanon,  125,  142,  148,  159,  179,  196, 
197,  204,  215-217,  271,  272,  297,  304,  306, 
310,  311,  318,  319,  336-338,  343,  344,  348, 

353,  356,  459,  493- 

Antioch,  37,  206,  283,  287,  309. 

Antiochus  Epiphanes,  539. 

Antiochus  the  Great,  24,  619,  622. 

Antiochus  Sidetes,  285. 

Antonia  Fortunata,  521. 

Antoninus,  M.  A.,  97,  349,  450,  510,  566. 
Antoninus  Pius,  321,  496,  568. 

Antonius  Caesar,  521. 

Antony,  Marc,  32. 

’Anturah,  in  the  Kesrawan,  230. 

’Anturah,  in  the  Metn,  203. 

Apamea,  305,  309. 

Apheca,  see  ’Afka. 

Aphek,  365,  546. 

Aphrodite,  487. 

Apple,  133,  235,  259,  276,  347,  357,  395, 
575- 

Apricots,  9,  45,  133,  276,  347,  357,  395,  575. 
Aqueduct,  9,  49-51,  53,  93,  105,  181,  183, 
246,  310,  350,  355,  437,  475,  500,  502,  513, 

543,  544,  57i,  599,  67o. 

Arabia,  Arabians,  28,  41,  97,  127,  129,  144, 
216,  245,  275,  276,  302,  312,  353,  364,  372, 
373,  399,  406,  419,  420,  422,  426,  427,  443, 
444,  476,  489,  498,  501,  502,  515,  519,  521, 
524-526,  529,  535,  538,  539,  551,  573,  580, 
596,  622,  635,  649. 

Arabian  Nights’  Entertainment,  74,  371. 
Arabic,  12,  29,  30,  47,  55,  83,  84,  97,  115, 
136,  220,  237,  248,  250,  261,  276,  282,  338, 
339,  364,  401,  429-431,  436,  44U  445,  461, 
468,  478,  480,  518,  527,  529,  545,  580,  620, 
633,  635,  642,  653,  654,  663. 

Arabs,  Bedawin,  11,  12,  17,  21-24,  69,  83,  84, 
168,  170,  201,  209,  220,  249,  310,  312,  372, 
376,  406,  412,  415,  420,  425,  429,  432,  436, 

439,  442-444,  449,  454,  457,  458,  461,  463- 
470,  474,  476,  493,  494,  502,  504,  506,  507, 
510,  519,  526,  533,  538,  545,  546,  549-551, 
559,  56o,  584,  586,  590,  593-595,  600-606, 
612,  623,  624,  629,  630,  633,  635,  636,  639, 
641-646,  651,  652,  654,  659,  660,  664-666, 
668,  670-674. 

Arabs,  native,  51,  55,  60,  77,  81,  83,  84,  87- 


90,  139,  144,  150,  173,  227,  234,  23S,  290, 
382,  406,  415,  461,  504,  510. 

’Arak,  126,  235. 

’Arak  el  Emir,  594-601,  669, 

Aram,  Aramaean,  364,  386,  490,  523,  655. 
’Aramon,  144. 

Arbela,  546-548. 

Area,  Arkites,  282,  283,  287,  2SS. 

Ard  ’Akluk,  252. 

Ard  Amrit,  282. 

Ard  el  Bathanyeh,  440,  441. 

Ard  el  Hemar,  602. 

Ard  Tannurin,  254,  255. 

’Areiya,  125. 

Aretas,  539,  649. 

Argob,  the  region  of,  444,  445,  449,  451,  458, 
459,  461,  489,  541,  591,  592. 

Ariath,  504. 

Aristobulus,  435. 

Ark  of  the  covenant,  69,  262. 

’Arka,  282,  284. 

’Arka,  Nahr,  282,  284. 

Arkites,  see  Area,  Arkites. 

Armenia,  Armenians,  179,  409,  412. 

Armor,  97,  372,  497,  498. 

Arms,  Army,  72,  99,  139,  140,  143,  151,  19I, 
207,  214,  216,  217,  278,  280,  283,  297,  298, 
300,  308,  309,  329,  367,  373,  412,  434,  442, 
446,  452,  460,  466,  469,  471,  474,  476,  489, 
505,  506,  510,  513,  526,  528,  534,  543,  545, 
578,  592,  629,  638,  639,  649,  651,  665,  668, 
673-677. 

Arnon,  628,  636. 

’Arny,  el,  430. 

Aroer,  628. 

’Arrarn,  Nahr,  453. 

Arrows,  372. 

Arvad,  Arvadites,  see  Ruwad. 

’Ary,  el,  504. 

’Ary,  Nahr,  501. 

Arz,  see  Cedar,  and  Cedars  of  Lebanon. 
Asa,  365. 

As’ad,  Melek,  el,  337. 

Asal,  Nahr  el,  see  Neb’a  el  Asal. 
Ashdoth-pisgah,  659. 

Ashmanezer,  144. 

Ashraf,  Melek,  el,  372. 

Ashrafiyeh,  el,  355. 

Ashteroth  Karnaim,  487,  534,  542,  543. 
Ashtoreth,  4S6,  487,  522. 


686 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Asia,  Asiatic,  300,  367,  427,  442,  542. 

Asia  Minor,  93,  131,  627. 

Askelon,  41,  113. 

Asphaltitis,  648. 

'Assur,  1 16,  1 1 7,  1 19. 

Assyria,  Assyrian,  56,  95,  96,  262,  265,  297, 
298,  309,  332,  341,  367-369,  535,  664. 
Astarte,  487,  496. 

’Asy,  Nahr  el,  see  Orontes. 

'Ataibeh,  see  Shurkiyeh,  Bahret  esh. 
Atargatis,  542. 

Athenio,  489. 

Athens,  47,  329. 

Athia,  496. 

’Atil,  el,  440,  494-497. 

Atlantic,  370,  419. 

Auction,  Auctioneer,  72,  73,  372. 

Augusta  Felix  Julia,  46. 

'Aujeh,  Nahr  el,  near  Jaffa,  41. 

Auranitis,  440. 

Austria,  Austrian,  48. 

Auwaly,  Nahr  el,  7,  9-12,  137,  159,  161,  164, 
185. 

Aven,  the  plain  of,  338,  339. 

A’waj,  Nahr  el,  359,  398,  429-432. 

’Ayesha,  421. 

'Ayun  el  Merj,  521. 

’Ayun  Musa,  624,  650,  652,  654-656,  658, 
669. 

Baal,  52,  118,  171,  251,  325,  339-341,  386, 
486,  496,  644,  655. 

Ba’albek,  52,  171,  196-198,  200,  216,  248, 
260,  271,  272,  278,  292,  306,  310,  312,  313, 

315-347,  379,  5i6. 

Baal-gad,  296,  297,  338,  339. 

Baal-hermon,  434. 

Baal-meon,  see  Ma’in. 

Baaras,  648. 

Baasha,  365. 

Bab  Allah,  426. 

Bab  'Amman,  560,  602, 

Bab  el  Band,  379. 

Bab  el  Hawa,  521, 

Bab  Kisan,  406. 

Bab  es  Saghir,  405. 

Bab  es  Salihiyeh,  395, 

Bab  esh  Shiirky,  400,  407  -409,  415, 

Bab  Ya’kob,  49. 

B’abda,  129,  130. 


Babylon,  Babylonians,  69,  264,  297,  298,  309, 
363,  369,  4ii,  435,  535,  664. 

Bacchus,  5  T9. 

B’adaran,  el,  163,  176. 

Bagdad,  206,  374. 

Bakhshish,  22,  377,  379,  386,  409,  496,  558, 
584,  623,  665. 

B’aklin,  el,  159. 

Balaam,  644,  654-656,  659,  673. 

Balak,  644,  655,  656,  659. 

Baldwin  I.,  48,  276. 

Baldwin  II.,  573. 

Baldwin  III.,  545. 

Balm,  540. 

Balmano,  644. 

Bananas,  8. 

Banias,  see  Dan. 

Barada,  Nahr  el,  197,  346-359,  39°,  39U  394~ 
400,  415,  417,  428,  429. 

Barber,  Barber-shop,  71-73. 

Barberry,  282. 

Bardines,  398. 

Barid,  Nahr  el,  138,  285,  290. 

Barm,  el,  288. 

Barley,  12,  227,  235,  259-261,  372,  533,  585, 
590,  594,  601,  603,  666. 

Bartholomew,  Peter,  283. 

Baruk,  el,  and  Nahr  el,  137,  159-161,  163, 
164,  176,  179-182,  185,  356. 

Basalt,  Basaltic,  373,  389,  390,  428,  442,  446, 
450,  451,  454,  455,  486,  495,  512,  517,  520, 
547,  646,  647,  650. 

Bashan,  169,  359,  424,  434,  444,  459-462,  472, 
487,  489,  505,  506,  515,  526,  527,  529,  533, 

535,  54U  542,  544,  584,  591,  593,  620,  675. 

Bashan-havoth-jair,  489. 

Basilica,  610,  627. 

Batanaea,  Batanis,  440-442. 

Bateniyeh,  el,  sect  of,  206. 

Bath,  ancient,  47,  475,  478,  483,  499,  516,  518, 
524,  543,  571,  574,  590,  648,  670. 

Bath,  modern,  107,  358,  386-388,  391,  423, 
647,  648. 

Bathaniyeh,  el,  see  Batanaea,  Batanis. 

Bathir,  el,  150,  163,  171. 

Bath-rabbim,  667. 

Batrun,  el,  47,  137,  146,  255. 

Battlement,  53-56. 

Ba’utheh,  el,  580. 

Bay-tree,  245. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


687 


Bazaar,  60-74,  370-379.  383,  389,  412,  517. 
Beads,  68,  375. 

Bear,  215,  238,  251,  271,  282,  308,  309. 
Bedawin,  see  Arabs,  Bedawin. 

Beer-sheba,  211,  356,  653,  660. 

Bees,  31,  163,  395. 

Beg,  74,  155,  161,  162,  285-287. 

Beirut,  11,  13,  14,  22,  27,  31-33,  40-96,  99- 
105-126,  136,  137,  143,  145,  146,  151,  162, 
167,  172,  179,  185,  187,  189,  190,  192,  194, 
195,  197,  206,  216,  233,  249,  283,  287,  347, 
355,  374,  382,  388,  39U  398,  442,  504. 
Beirut,  Nahr,  45,  49-52,  93,  94,  125,  126,  137, 
193,  194,  203. 

Beirut  Water -works,  92,  94,  99,  101,  105, 
106. 

Beisan,  546,  553,  586. 

Beit  Jenn,  430. 

Beit  er  Ras,  311,  546,  547. 

Beit  Sabir,  430. 

Beit  el  Yehudy,  517. 

Beke,  Dr.,  414. 

Belad  Beni  ’Obeid,  551. 

Belad  Besharah,  136. 

Belfort,  Castle  of,  see  Kul’at  esh  Shiikif. 
Belial,  sons  of,  29,  30. 

Belka,  el,  584-586,  590,  593,  603,  624,  627- 
629,  641,  651,  652,  660,  661,  663,  665,  668. 
Bellan,  el,  see  Thorns. 

Bellan,  Aklim  el,  430,  431,  435. 

Belus,  171. 

Ben-hadad  I.,  365-369,  379,  386. 

Ben-hadad  II.,  592. 

Ben-hadad  III.,  368. 

Beni  Sakhr,  Bedawin,  606,  629,  641. 
Benjamin,  579. 

Berduny,  Nahr  el,  138,  198,  199,  338. 
Bereitan,  el,  344. 

Berja,  el,  22. 

Berothah,  Berothai,  46. 

Bertram,  276. 

Beryllus,  Bishop,  525. 

Berytus,  see  Beyrout. 

Bessima,  354,  355. 

Beth-arbel,  548. 

Beth-el,  21,  178,  554. 

Beth-gamul,  see  Um  el  Jemal. 

Beth-haran,  see  Tell  er  Rameh. 
Beth-jeshimoth,  see  Tell  Suweimeh. 
Beth-meon,  see  Ma’in. 

2  B  B 


Beth-nimrah,  see  Tell  Nimrin. 

Beth-shean,  see  Beisan. 

Bethany,  128. 

Betharamphtha,  670. 

Bethesda,  Pool  of,  387. 

Bethlehem,  579. 

Bhamdun,  122,  185-187,  237. 

Bhauwarah,  el,  185,  187. 

Bibars,  Melek  edh  Dhaher,  386. 

Bildad  the  Shuhite,  500. 

Bir,  see  Cisterns. 

Birkeh,  Birket,  see  Pools. 

Birket  ed  Deir,  555. 

Birket  Siknany,  543. 

Birket  el  Yemmuneh,  see  Yemmuneh,  el. 
Bishop,  47,  229,  231,  277,  283,  370,  450,478> 
525,  526,  530,  573,  622,  639. 

Blackberry,  282. 

Blackbird,  585. 

Black  Sea,  433. 

Black  Stone,  the,  Mecca,  69. 

Blind,  Blindness,  130,  367,  623. 

Bliss,  Dr.  Daniel,  100-102. 

Bludan,  el,  347,  348. 

Boar,  131,  169,  241,  251,  308,  309,  481. 

Boats,  5-7,  46,  93,  99,  103,  104,  107,  108,  263, 
481,  599. 

Boheira,  Monk,  518,  526. 

Bone  deposit,  97,  98,  104. 

Book,  Booksellers,  64,  175,  205,  378,  379,  3S4. 
Bos  primigenius,  98. 

Bosor,  Bosora,  524. 

Bostra,  see  Busrah,  el. 

Bostrenus,  see  Auwaly,  Nahr  el. 

Bostrian  era,  471,  518,  519,  524,  530. 

Botrys,  see  Batrun,  el. 

Bottles,  water,  23,  71,  388,  395,  426,  437,  455, 

549,  593- 
Bows,  372,  434. 

Bozrah  of  Edom,  see  Busaireh,  el. 

Bozrah  of  Moab,  see  Busrah,  el. 

Bramble,  see  Thorns. 

Bread,  12,  75,  219-221,  248,  286,  312,  388, 

389,  426. 

Breccia,  51,  647. 

Brick,  399,  633-635. 

Bridge,  6,  7,  9-12,  27,  93,  97,  98, 105,  126,  146, 
150,  151,  153,  160,  173,  176,  198,  227-229, 
241,  242,  245,  256,  261,  282,  284,  301,  305, 
344,  346,  349,  351,  355,  356,  428,  429,  432, 


688 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


4S2,  498,  505,  513,  527,  539,  540,  543,  565, 
567,  57i,  581,  584.  594.  612-614. 
Brigstocke,  R.  W.,  M.  R.  C.  S.,  100,  101, 103, 
104. 

Brummana,  el,  45,  53,  94,  121,  195. 

Bsherreh,  el,  137,  257,  259-261. 

Bshetfin,  el,  152,  153. 

Btathir,  el,  186. 

Bteddin,  el,  129,  130,  151,  153,  156-159,  161, 
183. 

Buchanan,  Dr.  R.,  272. 

Buffalo,  632. 

Buka’a,  el,  125,  136,  138,  139,  175-178,  195- 
199,  204,  217,  218,  291,  304,  311,  312,  315, 

318,  319,  337-339.  343-346. 

Buk’ah,  el,  601,  602,  607. 

Burak,  el,  437-439. 

Burckhardt,  J.  L.,  248,  426,  437-440,  452, 
455,  463,  465,  466,  468-471,  49  L  502,  504, 
505,  515,  518,  520-522,  530,  548,  568, 
624. 

Burgul,  cracked  wheat,  248,  286. 

Burj  el  ’Amad,  183,  184. 

Burj  el  Buzzak,  281. 

Burj  Fatrah,  245. 

Burj  el  Musheirifeh,  no. 

Burj  es  Seba’a,  275. 

Burj  es  Sit  Belkis,  302. 

Burmeh,  el,  583. 

Burr  el  Haithy,  250. 

Burton,  Richard  Francis,  Captain,  330. 
Burzeh,  el,  364. 

Busaireh,  el,  523,  524,  574. 

Busr  el  Hariry,  470. 

Busrah,  el,  461,  463,  489,  501-503,  505-507, 
511-527,  529,  530,  532,  533,  537,  539,  541, 

545,  548,  573,  574,  616. 

Butm,  el,  see  Terebinth. 

Butter,  590. 

Byblus,  see  Jebeil. 

Byzantine,  370,  380,  420,  508,  535,  617,  618, 
634. 

Ca’aba,  420,  425,  536,  635. 

Cabbage,  wild,  97. 

Caesar,  Augustus,  46,  445,  467,  490,  538,  671. 
Caesar,  Sextus,  369. 

Caesarea  of  Lebanon,  282. 

Caesarea,  Palestina,  41,  444,  572. 

Cain,  350,  359. 


Cairn,  640,  668. 

Cairo,  205. 

Caliph,  74,  205,  206,  371,  399,  517,  518. 

Callirrhoe,  643,  645-648,  669. 

Camel,  9,  n,  71,  83,  84,  122,  200,  238,  249, 
250,  358,  368,  373,  374,  395,  421,  425,  428, 
429,  436,  438,  466,  467,  505,  507,  510,  540, 
549,  550,  576,  603,  621-623,  630,  641,  642, 

645. 

Cana  of  Galilee,  235,  236. 

Canaan,  Canaanites,  26,  143,  151,  169,  243, 
296,  299,  339,  341,  364,  379,  414,  489,  534, 
554,  577,  578,  639,  643,  675,  677. 

Canaan,  Son  of  Ham,  278,  282,  298. 

Canatha,  see  Kunawat,  el. 

Capitolias,  see  Beit  er  Ras. 

Captive,  Captivity,  83,  369,  411,  435,  534. 

Caravan,  172,  174,  199,  256,  374,  399,  428, 
453,  454,  522,  526,  533,  538,  540,  548-550, 
573,  574,  630,  635. 

Carmathians,  206,  207. 

Carmel,  Mount,  118,  206,  285,  502,  579. 

Carnaim,  see  Ashteroth  Ivarnaim. 

Carob-tree,  see  Kharnub,  el. 

Carpet,  64,  68,  72,  85,  122, 165,  286,  373,  376, 
382. 

Carriage,  see  Road,  carriage. 

Carruthers,  Mr.,  263. 

Casius,  Mount,  304,  309. 

Casphor,  524. 

Castanets,  393. 

Castle,  6,  48,  106,  167,  168,  198,  255,  256,  275, 
276,  278-280,  288,  341,  372,  386,  413,  431, 
44L  503,  506,  507,  512-515,  521,  527-529, 
543,  547,  55L  573,  577~58o,  590,  591,  595- 
597,  599,  602,  604,  607,  617-619,  621,  630. 

Catherine,  St.,  Convent  of,  179. 

Cattle,  11,  135,  227,  238,  239,  249,  250,  268, 
440,  445,  455,  466,  467,  473,  507,  550,  559, 
576,  584,  594,  601,  668. 

Cave,  Cavern,  97-105,  108-110,  137,  164,  165, 
241,  242,  245,  247,  288,  304,  305,  313,  320, 
353,  354,  359,  367,  3§o,  382,  410,  430,  445, 
467,  548,  549,  585,  596-600,  644,  658,  660, 
666,  672. 

Cedar,  116,  137,  139,  1S0,  181,  185,  250,  256, 
257,  356,  656,  673. 

Cedars  of  Lebanon,  136,  137,  181,  216,  230, 
235,  244,  257,  258,  260-274,  293-295,  306, 
313,  316,  318. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


689 


Cemetery,  117,  401,  402,  405,  406,  456,  528, 
541,  559,  668. 

Cenchrea,  21,  71. 

Ceratonia  Siliqua,  131. 

Cerdagne,  Count  William  of,  283. 

Chaff,  12,  545,  600,  606,  672. 

Chalcedon,  478. 

Chalcedony,  176-178. 

Chalcis,  198,  338. 

Chaldea,  Chaldees,  57,  297,  364,  414. 

Chamrate,  498. 

Charcoal,  250,  264,  623. 

Chariots,  55,  299,  367,  409,  539,  565,  592,  593, 
638. 

Chateau  Neuf,  see  Hunin. 

Chedorlaomer,  363,  364.  534-536,  542,  579. 

Cheese,  248,  645. 

China-tree,  46. 

Chinese,  207. 

Chosroes  II.,  634. 

Christian,  13,  20,  21,  47-49,  5U  55,  60,  69. 
71,  72,  84,  88,  90,  128,  140,  147,  150,  153- 
155,  170,  175,  186,  194,  2or,  204,  209-214, 
230,  252,  258,  264,  269,  277,  283,  284,  309, 

3io,  333,  336,  340,  34U  370,  37U  374,  375, 
380-382,  387,  388,  406,  407,  409,  411,  412, 
420,  424,  425,  427,  433,  444,  449,  450,  452, 
455,  459,  46i,  463,  470,  471,  480,  489,  494, 
498,  500,  501,  504,  508,  509,  518,  519,  524- 
526,  537,  539,  552,  573,  580,  583,  585,  590, 
600,  622,  634. 

Chrysorrhoas,  398. 

Church,  45,  47,  87,  117,  132,  144,  154,  184, 
189,  193,  199,  229-231,  258,  269,  274,  277, 
280,  310,  370,  377,  380,  381,  386,  409-411, 
449,  454,  462,  463,  471,  484,  500,  509,  518- 
520,  537,  544,  55U  569,  571,  58o,  59°,  606, 
610,  617,  618,  634,  637. 

Churchill,  C.  H.,  Colonel,  187. 

Cinneroth,  365. 

Cisterns,  9,  22,  34,  92,  107,  no,  275,  279,  344, 
358,  442,  449,  458,  469,  478,  482,  485,  487, 
513,  545,  551,  586,  598,  607,  619,  621,  628, 
637,  638,  643-645,  652,  660,  661,  663,  667. 

Citron,  357,  371. 

Claudius,  see  Tiberius  Claudius. 

Cleopatra,  32,  440,  489. 

Cloud-burst,  150,  151,  290,  291. 

Clover,  583. 

Coal,  193,  194. 


Cocoons,  see  Silk  and  Silk-worms. 

Coelesyria,  136,  142,  171,  177,  179,  199,  200, 
216,  272,  297,  298,  306,  309,  318,  337-339, 
346,  369,  445,  489. 

Coffee,  and  Coffee-shops,  60.  79,  107,  126, 
131,  143,  196,  208,  285,  286,  312,  387,  391- 
393,  396,  399,  429,  480,  504,  584,  660. 
Coins,  524,  559. 

College,  see  School. 

Colporteur,  389,  456. 

Conder,  C.  R.,  Captain  R.  E.,  334,  617-620, 
646,  659,  665,  667. 

Conna,  310. 

Conscription,  no. 

Constantine,  243,  244,  341. 

Constantinople,  47,  156,  165-167,  212,  229, 
357,  477,478. 

Consul,  14-17,  49,  106,  no,  167,  190,  330, 

348,  374,  384,  388,  389,  395,  443- 
Convent,  21, 45,  51,  52, 105, 137, 154, 179, 189, 
193,  198,  222,  229-231,  233,  235,  245,  257- 
260,  273,  277,  288,  289,  304,  305,  310,  409, 
483-485,  505,  509.  510,  518,  539,  544,  634. 
Corinthian,  225,  251,  315,  321,  323,  325,  332, 
333,  336,  379,  381,  383,  384,  409,  450,  454, 
475,  484,  486,  488,  495,  498,  499,  516,  517, 
519,  547,  560,  562,  564,  565,  568,  569,  571, 
605,  609,  614-616,  636. 

Cotton,  83,  84,  456,  458,  472,  590. 

Cows,  see  Cattle. 

Crawford,  J.,  Rev.,  414. 

Crier,  public,  56,  57. 

Crocus,  507. 

Cross,  the  true,  32. 

Crow,  238,  261,  627. 

Crusades,  Crusaders,  27,  48,  89,  167,  229,  275, 
276,  280,  283,  312,  386,  407,  476,  545,  573, 
580. 

Cufic,  399,  468,  505,  518,  520. 

Custom-house,  173,  374. 

Cyclamens,  132. 

Cyclopean,  278,  321,  327,  328,  340,  342,  483, 

543,  547,  548. 

Cymbals,  118. 

Cypress-tree,  18,  282,  296,  385. 

Cyprus,  island  of,  131,  216. 

Cyrus,  263. 

Dahar,  ed,  176,  177. 

Dahdah,  Beit  el,  230. 


690 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Daisy,  601. 

Dale,  Gerald  F.,  Rev.,  200. 

Dalmatian,  510. 

Dama,  468,  469. 

Damascus,  49,  74,  125,  142,  172,  174,  191, 
192,  195,  206,  248,  276,  298,  330,  341,  343, 
345-343,  351-353,  355-415,  4i7,  419,  424, 
425,  428-433,  435,  437,  439-  443-445,  454, 
468,  476,  481,  489,  501,  505,  515,  518,  521, 

534,  535,  538,  539,  546, *549,  573- 
Damascus  Carriage-road,  120,  123,  125,  126, 

186,  193,  195-197,  355,  356,  39s- 
Dames  de  Nazareth,  123. 

Damieh,  ed,  576,  581,  582,  584. 

Damouras,  see  Damur,  Nahr  ed. 

Damur,  Nahr  ed,  25-27,  41,  137,  145-152, 
176,  183-185,  187. 

Dan,  211,  241,  356,  365,  436,  481,  534,  580, 
653,  660. 

Dancing,  see  under  Manners  and  Customs, 
Marriage  and  Rejoicing. 

Danish,  96. 

Darius,  369. 

David,  10,  55,  59,  68,  69,  116,  127,  128,  139, 
262,  266,  339,  364,  365,  379,  394,403,  404, 
4i3,  552,  553,  578,  579,  619-621,  638,  665. 
Dawkins,  W.  B.,  98. 

Deaconesses,  Prussian,  of  Kaiserwerth,  106, 
107. 

Dead  Sea,  10,  26,  221,  424,  523,  534,  535,  579, 
586,  594,  595,  600,  639,  645,  646,  648,  650, 
651,  653,  658,  668,  674,  676. 

Dead  Sea,  Expedition  to,  Lieutenant  Lynch, 
U.S.N.,  159,  160,  183,  222. 

Debusiyeh,  ed,  497. 

Decapolis,  the,  311,  480,  481,  489,  546-548, 
572,  592,  622. 

De  Forest,  H.  A.,  M.D.,  252,  253,  474. 

Deff,  ed,  393. 

Deir,  el,  see  Convent. 

Deir  ’Aly,  430,  431,  433,  434,  436. 

Deir  Eyub,  Kunawat,  483-485. 

Deir  el  Ghuzal,  198. 

Deir  el  Kamar,  27,  143,  147,  150,  151,  153- 
157,  160,  167,  171,  185,  192,  201,  209. 

Deir  el  Kul’ah,  45,  49,  51-53,  93,  194,  203. 
Deir  Mimas,  167. 

Deir  es  Sumeid,  466. 

Deir  Zubeir,  505. 

Deluge,  82,  477. 


Der’a,  461,  515,  524,  533,  534,  539-543,  55°. 

Derb  el  Haj,  see  Haj,  el. 

Derbekkeh,  ed,  393. 

Derbyshire,  caves  of,  104. 

Dervish,  67,  117,  118,  277,  405. 

De  Sacy,  205. 

Desert,  216,  297,  358,  359,  372,  442-444,  507, 
508,  533,  550,  551,  579,  586,  590,  629,  630, 
633,  635,  660. 

Dew,  135,  294. 

Dhaher,  Melek,  edh,  337. 

Dhaher  el  ’Omar,  591. 

Diab,  Ali,  ’Adwan  sheikh,  666. 

Diamonds,  376. 

Dibbin,  ed,  582. 

Dibon,  606,  643. 

Dibs,  grape  syrup,  187,  200,  237. 

Dihban,  606,  643. 

Diligence,  125,  195-197. 

Dimas,  ed,  197. 

Dion,  546,  548. 

Dionysias,  501. 

Dionysius  Periegetes,  9. 

Disc-stones,  606,  640,  641,  650,  651,  671. 

Divan,  79,  85,  390,  396. 

Dog  River,  see  Ivelb,  Nahr  el. 

Dogs,  12,  22,  26,  71, 90,  97,  238,  251,  308,  309, 
312.  368,  424,  449,  507,  604,  623,  645,  666, 
668. 

Dolmens,  620,  640,  641,  664,  667,  668,  671. 

Dome  of  the  Rock,  see  Haram  esh  Sherif, 
Jerusalem. 

Donkeys,  22,  71,  90,  ill,  122,  124,  200,  218, 
238,  345,  367,  373,  395,  426,  453,  500,  517, 
623,  648,  666. 

Dora,  see  Tantura,  el. 

Doric,  320,  449,  463,  497,  514,  597. 

Dothan,  540. 

Douseh,  ed,  1 17-120. 

Dove,  see  Pigeon. 

Drake,  Charles  F.  Tyrwhitt,  486. 

Druses,  19-21,  74,  87,  112,  140,  142-145,  147, 
150,  152-156,  159-161,  163,  164,  170,  171, 
175,  176,  182,  184,  186,  187,  189,  191-194, 
198,  201,  205-213,  217,  229,  230,  345,  412. 
415,  424,  431,  433,  434,  437,  439-444,  452, 
455,  459,  463,  466,  468,  469,  471,  474,  477, 
479,  480,  491,  493-496,  501,  502,  504,  527, 
530. 

Dufferin,  The  Earl  of,  407. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


691 


Dukekome,  32. 

Dukkan,  see  under  Manners  and  Customs, 
Shops  and  Streets. 

Duma,  ed,  254. 

Dummar,  355,  356,  398. 

Dunniyeh,  ed,  Aklmi,  136. 

Dur,  ed,  470. 

Durazy,  ed,  Muhammed  Ibn  Isma’il,  205, 
206. 

Duris,  ed,  343. 

Dusares,  the  god,  510. 

Eagles,  221,  238,  245,  246,  330-332,  527, 
547,  606,  667. 

Earthquake,  47,  284,  307,  315,  330,  336,  450, 
470,  564,  568,  590,  597,  608,  612,  616,  632. 

East,  Eastern,  see  Orient,  Oriental. 

Ebal,  579,  586. 

Ebers,  M.,  299. 

Eden,  157,  265. 

Edhra’,  455,  457,  458,  460-464,  468,  474,  476, 
519,  541,  542. 

Edom,  Edomites,  537,  574,  576,  635,  648, 
656. 

Edrei,  see  Edhra’. 

’Eed,  Bedawin  sheikh,  645. 

Effendi,  372,  373,  388,  506,  511. 

“  Egypt :  Descriptive,  Historical,  and  Pictur¬ 
esque,”  300. 

Egypt,  Egyptian,  24,  41,  48,  83,  85,  93,  95, 
96,  no,  in,  116,  129,  138-140,  144,  155, 
161,  164,  178,  191-194,  205,  206,  227,  242, 
249,  256,  281,  283,  297-301,  309,  323,  339, 
341,  343,  367,  369,  386,  426,  440,  442,  452, 
458,  469,  476,  477,  536,  538,  540,  577,  579. 
597,  622,  630,  645. 

Ehden,  265,  271,  274. 

Eidun,  el,  546,  548. 

Elam,  55. 

Elanitic  Gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  538,  573. 

Elealeh,  see  ’Al,  el. 

Elias,  St.,  Church  of,  462. 

Eliezer,  of  Damascus,  364. 

Elijah,  78,  84,  367,  368,  579,  586. 

Eliphaz,  35. 

Elisha,  78,  84,  366-368,  379,  394,  579.  592, 
644- 

Elk,  98. 

El-paran,  534. 

Emesa,  310,  312,  340. 


Emims,  534,  535,  664. 

Emir,  9,  27,  42,  45,  74,  112,  129,  139,  140, 
153,  156,  157,  159-161,  164,  1C5,  172,  174, 
175,  184,  187,  198,  209,  230,  287,  343,  344, 

475-477,  648. 

Emmanuel,  510. 

En-gedi,  534. 

England,  English,  14-17,  48,  81,  86,  92,  99, 
101,  162,  163,  189,  190,  193,  256,  264,  268, 
280,  330,  348,  357,  395,  407,  433,  477,  479, 
552. 

En-misphat,  see  Kadesh. 

Enoch,  207. 

Ephraim,  116,  553,  578,  579,  586,  653. 
Ephron,  the  Hittite,  298. 

Er,  127. 

Esau,  82,  298,  403,  576,  577. 

Esdraelon,  502,  540,  579. 

Euphrates,  49,  277,  297,  298,  309,  363,  364, 

524,  535,  538,  539.  550,  551- 
Europe,  European,  27,  48,  72,  74,  77,  86,  108, 
no,  124,  126,  140,  149,  155,  156,  161,  172, 
192,  195,  205,  210,  211,  268,  312,  374,  396, 
407,  412,  425,  442,  465,  474,  477,  520. 
Ezekiel,  243,  262,  263,  278,  369,  404,  628, 
Ezion-gaber,  535,  573,  635. 

Factory,  124,  186,  193. 

Fahd,  Adwan  sheikh,  593,  605,  606,  628,  643, 
645- 

Fair,  351,  586. 

Fakhr  ed  Din  Ma’an,  Emir,  9,  45,  48,  93,  112, 
160,  164,  165,  198,  209. 

Falcon,  172. 

Farren,  Mr.,  395,  396. 

Fatimeh,  401,  402. 

Fauwar  ed  Deir,  198,  288,  289. 

Fergusson,  James,  F.R.S.,  634. 

Ferry-boat,  II,  667,  668,  673,  677. 

Fever,  123,  166,  196,  354. 

Fez,  72,  84. 

Fig,  45,  54,  132,  142,  153,  159,  183,  200,  235, 
259,  260,  274,  303,  357,  575,  585. 

Fik,  el,  see  Aphek  and  Hippos. 

Fikeh,  el,  311. 

Fikeh,  Nahr  el,  303. 

Firman,  540. 

Fir-tree,  139. 

Fish,  Fishermen,  108,  278,  430,  612,  647,  66r, 
667. 


692 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Flax,  54,  472,  473. 

Fleas,  122,  238. 

Flocks,  11,  22,  25,  26,  135,  237,  249,  256,  291, 
292,  305,  432,  436,  444,  465-467,  473,  5T9> 
555,  576,  577,  59°,  602-605,  622,  623,  635, 
641,  645,  668,  673. 

Flowers,  8,  9,  14,  17,  33,  35,  36,  54,  89,  128, 
132,  163,  168.  293,  348,  371,  385,  390,  336, 
507,  540,  555,  575,  583,  585,  600,  601,  632. 

Flute,  392. 

Fold,  135,  237,  291,  622,  644,  645,  669. 

Ford,  9,  25,  27,  667,  671-673,  676. 

Fortuna,  455. 

Fossils,  97,  98,  no,  136,  160,  187,  194,  222, 
223,  254,  600. 

Fountain,  intermitting,  198,  287-289,  430. 

Fountains  and  springs,  133-136,  143,  145, 
146,  161,  163,  171,  172,  174,  190,  202,  258, 
273,  274,  280,  292,  294,  3ID3I9,  336-338, 
344,  346-348,  446,  452,  456,  467,  482.  483, 
498,  521,  551,  571,  573,  575,  581-583,  585, 
586,  591,  601,  604,  605,  623,  647,  648,  650, 
670. 

Fountains  of  streams  and  rivers,  137,  138, 
159,  161,  165,  174,  180-183,  185,  198,  226, 
227,  233,  234,  241,  242,  245,  247,  258,  284, 
288,  290,  302,  304,  305,  309-314,  319,  336- 
338,  346-348,  352-354,  430,  446,  452,  467, 
575,  59U  593,  594,  601-603,  624,  652,  654, 
656,  658,  661,  663,  666,  667. 

Fox,  108,  305,  528,  636. 

France,  French,  96,  106,  108,  125,  140,  155, 
186,  195,  196,  264,  355-357,  457,  496. 

Frogs,  433,  627,  670. 

Frost,  294. 

Fureidis,  el,  182. 

Fureiya,  el,  226. 

Furzul,  el,  200. 

Fuzur,  el,  147-149. 

Gabriel,  421,  510. 

Gad,  Gadites,  434,  527,  535,  552,  594,  601, 
607,  636,  662,  669. 

Gadara,  31 1,  546,  547. 

Gadda,  607. 

Galeed,  553,  576. 

Galilee,  205,  239,  481,  511,  579,  648,  649. 

Galilee,  Sea  of,  see  Tiberias,  Lake. 

Gallic,  449,  450. 

Gallows,  372. 


Gallus,  ^Elius,  538. 

Ganges,  419. 

Gardens,  6-9,  14,  15,  17,  27,  45-49,  5U  93, 
106,  hi,  123,  153,  156,  158,  164,  168,  174, 
183,  184,  190,  197,  199,  259-261,  265,  273, 
276,  277,  310,  319,  327,  335,  336,  346-348, 
352,  358,  360,  371,  395-399,  413-415,  482, 
496,  508,  575,  590,  656,  673. 

Gate  of  city,  55,  56,  360,  400,  405-409,  415, 
426,  459,  487,  50S,  521,  528,  553,  560,  561, 
564,  570,  571,  614,  615,  637,  661,  667. 
Gaulanites,  see  Jaulan,  Aklim  el. 

Gaza,  41,  107,  113,  538. 

Gazelle,  198,  305,  308,  309,  466,  507,  632, 
636. 

Gebal,  see  Jebeil. 

Genghis  Khan,  477. 

Gennesaret,  plain  of,  166. 

Geodes,  130,  176-178 
Geological  Survey,  England,  98. 

George,  St.,  21,  288,  463,  521,  582. 

George,  St.,  and  the  Dragon,  92. 

George,  St.,  Bay  of,  44,  45,  137,  195,  233. 
George,  St.,  Church  of,  Beirut,  92. 

George,  St.,  Church  of,  Edhra’,  463. 

George,  St.,  Convent  of,  21,  189,  222,  288. 
Gerasa,  see  Jerash. 

Gerizim,  579,  586. 

German,  Germany,  106,  357. 

Ghabun,  Nahr  el,  150,  185,  187. 

Ghassanide,  538,  539. 

Ghawarineh,  el,  Arabs,  670. 

Ghimeh,  el,  251. 

Ghor,  el,  581,  582,  602,  676. 

Ghor  es  Seisaban,  see  Abel-shittim. 

Ghiidir,  Nahr  el,  41,  131,  132,  190. 

Ghurb,  Aklim  el,  45,  143,  189,  209. 

Ghurs,  el,  540. 

Ghiisam,  el,  515,  537. 

Ghutah,  el,  Damascus,  428,  431,  432,  444. 
Ghuzir,  el,  230. 

Giants,  444,  462,  664. 

Gibbon,  E.,  Esq.,  351,  370,  405. 

Gibeonites,  71,  426. 

Gideon,  489,  577,  579,  642. 

Gilboa,  Mountains  of,  579. 

Gilead,  Land  of,  and  Mount,  169,  417,  424, 
429,  460,  489,  533,  540,  553,  555,  556,  572, 
575.  576,  579.  581-587,  59x-593»  640,  652, 
653,  675. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Gilgal,  676. 

Girdle,  see  under  Manners  and  Customs, 
Garments  and  Sleeping. 

Glacier,  148-150. 

Gleaners,  39. 

Gnostics,  207. 

Goats,  11,  83,  84,  238,  240,  241,  256,  268, 
305,  310,  421,  436,  465^467.  555,  576,  602, 
622,  645,  668. 

Goblan,  Adwan,  sheikh,  593,  665,  666. 

Golan,  see  Jaulan,  Aklim  el. 

Golan,  town,  see  Wady  'Allan. 

Gold,  Goldsmith,  375-378,  398. 

“  Good  Words,”  101,  104. 

Gothic,  276. 

Gozan,  369. 

Grackle,  647. 

Graham,  Cyril  C.,  442,  443,  506. 

Grapes,  see  Vine,  Vineyards. 

Grasshoppers,  627. 

Greece,  Grecian,  131,  320. 

Greek  Catholic,  140,  171,  189,  201,  320,  386, 
409,  412,  455,  457,  459,  471. 

Greek,  Greeks,  ancient,  7,  26,  46,  51,  52,  97, 
127,  137,  144,  204,  237,  243,  251,  258,  275, 
276,  282,  309,  310,  319,  320,  338,  340,  341, 
369,  377,  380,  387,  398,  420,  435,  436,  445, 
449,  460,  461,  475,  478,  480,  490,  496,  500, 
518,  524,  535,  538,  544,  548,  572-574,  608, 
617,  620,  622. 

Greek,  Greeks,  modern,  22,  140,  144,  186, 
189,  194,  235,  236,  254,  277,  373,  393,  4ii, 
412,  459,  462,  504,  552,  580,  583,  590. 

Greek  inscriptions,  see  Inscriptions. 

Griffin  vultilre,  221. 

Guitar,  391,  393. 

Gypsies,  545. 

Habeish,  Beit,  230. 

Habila,  455, 

Hadadezer,  364. 

Hadeth,  el,  near  Beirut,  129. 

Hadith,  el,  near  Tripoli,  137,  256,  257. 

Hadshit,  el,  259. 

Hady,  el,  206. 

Hagar,  Hagarites,  90,  434,  436,  536,  537, 
642. 

Haidar,  Emir,  184. 

Haj,  el,  400,  401,  424-426,  428,  430,  431, 
435,  436,  454.  498,  548,  550,  603,  630,  635. 


693 

Hakem,  el,  205,  207. 

Hakil,  el,  222,  254. 

Halak,  339. 

Ham,  534. 

Hamah,  Hamath,  67,  138,  179,  196,  285,  288, 
296-298,  301,  302,  305,  306,  309,  339,  368. 
Hamor,  212. 

Hamzeh,  Ibn  Ahmed,  206. 

Hanun,  King,  620. 

Haram,  el,  Mecca,  425,  426. 

Haram,  el,  Medina,  421. 

Haram  esh  Sherif,  Jerusalem,  380,  618. 
Haran,  414-41 7,  534. 

Harbor,  5,  6,  44-49,  93,  275,  277,  279,  579. 
Harem,  el,  55,  87,  88,  286,  391. 

Harf,  el,  245. 

Harf  el  Sphiry,  285. 

Harfush,  Beit,  343,  344. 

Haroun  er  Raschid,  51. 

Harp,  392-394. 

Harrah,  el,  442,  443. 

Harran  el  ’Awamid,  see  Haran. 

Harran,  in  the  Lejah,  464,  466-468,  470-472. 
Harush,  Nahr,  415. 

Hasbeiya,  11,  12,  38,  157,  173,  176,  476. 
Hasrun,  el,  259. 

Hattin,  see  Kurun  Hattin. 

Hauran,  el,  153,  156,  175,  184,  191,  192,  206, 

209,  359,  386,  424,  439,  443,  444,  454,  456, 
458,  459,  463,  464,  469,  470,  474,  477,  480, 
482,  490,  491,  493,  498,  501-504,  508,  511, 
512,  515,  530,  533,  548,  549,  586,  604. 
Havilah,  536. 

Havoth-jair,  489. 

Hawarah,  el,  551. 

Hawks,  246,  315. 

Hawthorn,  358,  471,  555. 

Hazael,  367,  368,  592. 

Hazezon-tamar,  see  En-gedi. 

Hebard,  S.,  98. 

Hebran,  el,  502. 

Hebrew,  Jewish,  82,  86,  136,  143,  211,  220, 
237,  243,  261,  262,  289,  301,  306,  309,  339, 
363,  430,  435,  445,  460,  461,  488,  489,  510, 
526,  527,  529,  542,  591,  593,  595,  597,  638, 
658,  659,  661,  663,  668,  673,  674,  676,  677. 
Hebrew  Jews,  10,  20,  24,  28,  47,  48,  54,  57, 
68,  69,  82,  83,  86,  96,  127,  128,  143,  151, 
157,  168-170,  179,  204,  220,  227,  236,  243, 
261,  262,  277,  278,  287,  288,  296,  299,  301, 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


694 

34U  357,  365,  368,  369,  37U  374,  387,  393, 
411,  412,  417,  420,  422,  424,  435,  459-461, 
486,  489,  490,  517,  535,  539,  54U  550,  572, 
575,  585,  586,  59U  62°>  62i,  635,  636,  638- 
645,  649,  654-656,  660-668,  673-677. 
Hebron,  298,  579. 

Hedjaz,  el,  155,  419,  505. 

Hedone,  340. 

Hegira,  el,  420,  505,  526. 

Heiromax,  see  Jarmuk,  Nahr  el. 

Heldua,  Mutatio,  31. 

Helena,  Stv  tower  of,  31,  32. 

Heliogabalus,  340. 

Heliopolis,  310,  312,  319,  329,  336,  339,  340. 
Helios,  488. 

Heraclius,  370. 

Herds,  444,  576,  590,  623,  635. 

Hermit,  258,  259,  351. 

Hermon,  19,  52,  143,  174,  177,  179,  193,  196- 
198,  200,  204-206,  216,  271,  296,  297,  309, 

316,  338,  339,  348,  356,  359,  386,  429-43U 
434-436,  454,  459,  482,  515,  534,  542,  550, 
579,  586,  604,  607,  640. 

Hermon,  Little,  586. 

Herod  Agrippa  I.,  47,  490. 

Herod  Agrippa  II.,  46,  198,  435,  445. 

Herod  Antipas,  539,  648,  649,  671. 

Herod  the  Great,  11,  46,  263,  266,  369,  387, 
435,  440,  444,  445,  467,  489,  490,  498,  500, 
579,  622,  648,  669. 

Herod  Philip,  539. 

Herodias,  539,  649. 

Herodotus,  95. 

Hesban,  el,  596,  628,  635,  652,  654,  660-664, 
667. 

Heshbon,  see  Hesban,  el. 

Heth,  298,  299. 

Hijaneh,  Bahret  el,  429,  431,439. 

Himyaritic,  Himyri,  443. 

.  Hippos,  546. 

Hiram,  181,  250,  266. 

Hittite,  Hittites,  178,  298,  299,  301,  339,  367. 
Iiobah,  363,  364,  534. 

Holy  Lance,  283. 

Holy  Land,  54,  166,  268,  275,  472-474. 
Homer,  7,  290,  291. 

Honey,  179,  227,  234,  237. 

Hooker,  Dr.,  265. 

Hor,  Mount,  296. 

Horites,  534,  535,  648. 


Horn,  tantur,  head-dress,  19,  20,  474. 

Hornets,  129. 

Horonaim,  662. 

Horses,  11,  17,  71,  93,  94,  106,  118-120,  124, 
132,  133,  146,  172,  180,  197,  200,  214-218, 
234,  238,  240,  248,  250,  257,  260,  261,  285, 
294,  295,  299,  300,  318,  344,  355,  367,  371, 
372,  399,  414,  425,  429,  432,  443,  452,  457, 
460,  465,  466,  471,  482,  490,  494,  497,  503, 
528,  549,  555,  580,  582,  583,  593,  601,  603, 
604,  629,  635,  636,  647,  654,  660,  665,  666, 
671,  673. 

Hosea,  548,  585,  586. 

Hospital,  107,  407,  519. 

Houses,  native,  44-47,  49.  53~59,  70,  71,  121, 
122,  135,  146,  147,  154,  171,  175,  182,  186, 
189,  190,  199,  238,  239,  315,  344,  356,  389, 
390,  409,  455,  462,  472,  473,  495,  499,  502, 
508,  509,  544,  547-549.  590- 

House-tops,  44,  53-6o,  135,  146. 

Hubbisa,  el,  670. 

Hiileh,  el,  Merom,  143,  168,  169,  299,  339, 
432,  436,  542. 

Hulagu  Khan,  477. 

Hums,  285,  295,  301,  302,  306,  309,  311,  340, 
370. 

Hunin,  Kul’at,  167. 

Hurmul,  el,  290,  292-295,  301,  302,  305, -338. 

Hursh,  el,  “The  Pines,” 42,  45,48,  m-113, 
125. 

Husks,  see  Kharnub,  el. 

Husn,  el,  546,  551,  552,  555. 

Husn  Niha,  203. 

Husn  es  Sphiry,  285,  286. 

Huxley,  H.  G.,  C.  E.,  99-101,  103,  104. 

Hyena,  108. 

Hyrcanus,  595"598»  639- 

Hyssop,  262. 

Ibex,  646,  650. 

Ibl,  see  Abila. 

Ibn  ’Affan,  505. 

Ibn  Hamadan,  Hussein,  sheikh,  504. 

Ibn  Hamadan,  Shibly,  sheikh,  504. 

Ibrahim  Effendi,  506. 

Ibrahim,  Emir,  245. 

Ibrahim,  Nahr,  137,  229,  234,  239-247,  250, 
25L  313. 

Ibrahim  Pasha,  42,  no,  140,  151,  191,  192, 
280,  442,  452,  460. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Ibrahim,  sheikh,  461. 

Idol,  1 16,  280,  281,  341,  359,  379,  420,  423, 
426,  427,  454,  484,  486,  -54,  555,  653. 

Idumea,  see  Edom,  Edomites. 

Ijon,  365. 

Ijr  el  lvul’ah,  290. 

Iliad,  300. 

Imam,  67,  505. 

India,  Indian,  28,  277,  370,  538,  573. 

Indian,  American,  98. 

Indian-corn,  224,  235,  253,  259,  261,  289, 
290,  297,  304,  346. 

Ink-horn,  62,  63. 

Inn,  see  Khan. 

Inscriptions,  33,  49,  95-97,  144,  164,  198, 
224,  251-253,  279,  285,  302,  306,  316,  320, 
321,  329,  337,  340,  341,  344,  349,  350,  377, 
389,  399,  417,  433,  437-443,  445,  449.  450, 
452,  454,  457,  460,  463,  468,  470,  471,  475, 

.  476,  478,  480,  482,  484,  490,  494,  496,  498- 
500,  502,  505,  510,  515,  517-521,  524,  527, 
530,  544,  547,  559,  566,  568,  572,  580,  598, 
605,  606,  616,  617,  640. 

Ionic,  204,  251,  336,  416,  437,  5^7,  547,  564, 
570,  597,  636. 

Irbid,  see  Arbela,  and  Beth-arbel. 

Ireland,  Irish,  348. 

Iron-ore,  globular,  168,  201,  202. 

Isaac,  82,  298,  371,  659,  666. 

Isaiah,  139,  262-264,  369,  388,  472. 

Ish-bosheth,  552,  553. 

Ishmael,  Ishmaelites,  157,  370,  434,  435,  536- 
538,  540,  551. 

Islam,  Islamism,  see  Moslem. 

Isma’il  el  Atrash,  sheikh,  504,  530. 

Israel,  children  of,  see  Hebrews,  Jews. 

Israel,  Kingdom  of,  157,  357,  365-369,  398, 
592. 

Issus,  369. 

Italian,  Italy,  9,  48. 

Itinerarium  Antonini,  312. 

Itinerary,  Jerusalem,  22,  31. 

Iturea,  see  Jeidur,  Aklim  el. 

Jabbok,  535,  548,  552,  553,  560,  575-578, 
581,  583-585,  592-594,  602-604,  608-616, 
619,  621,  624. 

Jabesh-gilead,  547. 

Jackal,  108,  271,  309,  449,  636. 

Jacob,  21,  82,  86,  212,  213,  298,  371,  417, 


695 

546,  552-555,  575-577,  579,  58i,  655,  656, 
659,  666,  673. 

Jael,  312. 

Jaffa,  7,  9,  41,  57,  107,  181,  263,  579,  677. 
Jahaz,  662. 

Jair,  489,  591. 

Jami’a  es  Seiyed  Yehya,  380,  381. 

Jan,  el,  388. 

Janissary,  374. 

Japheth,  82,  84. 

Jarmuk,  Nahr  el,  436,  474,  540,  546,  575. 
Jars,  237. 

Jaulan,  Aklim  el,  435,  436,  542,  549,  550. 
Jauzeh,  Nahr  el,  137,  255. 

Jay,  blue,  585. 

Jazer,  594. 

Jeba’ah,  167,  168,  295. 

Jebeiha,  el,  607. 

Jebeil,  137,  146,  222,  242,  243,  246,  248,  250. 
Jebel  el  A’alah,  37,  161,  194,  206. 

Jebel  ’Ajlun,  575,  584,  603. 

Jebel  ’Akkar,  136,  271,  285,  288. 

Jebel  el  Arz,  271. 

Jebel  el  Aswad,  359,  428. 

Jebel  Dahar  el  Kudhib,  136,  294. 

Jebel  ed  Druze,  see  Jebel  Hauran. 

Jebel  ed  Duhy,  see  Hermon,  Little. 

Jebel  Fum  el  Mizab,  136. 

Jebel  Hauran,  439,  441,  442,  464,  472,  474, 
479-481,  493,  494/501,  504,  537,  604. 
Jebel  Jaj,  250,  252. 

Jebel  Jihad,  585. 

Jebel  Kasyun,  356,  359,  386,  397. 

Jebel  Iveniseh,  52,  93,  136,  137,  146,  183, 
194-196,  201. 

Jebel  Mania,  359,  430. 

Jebel  Mukhmal,  271. 

Jebel  el  Muslubiyeh,  645,  652,  654. 

Jebel  Neba,  535,  587,  624,  627,  628,  643, 
650-656,  658,  659,  661,  668,  669,  673, 
674. 

Jebel  en  Nuriyeh,  254. 

Jebel  Osh’a,  579,  582,  583,  585-587. 

Jebel  er  Rihan,  136,  137,  167,  168,  202. 
Jebel  Siaghah,  652-656,  659. 

Jebel  Sunnin,  42,  44,  45,  52,  93,  136-138, 
146,  194,  198,  199,  201-203,  214-217,  227, 
233,  271. 

Jebel  Taum  Niha,  136,  138,  172,  174,  176, 
271. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


696 

Jegar-sahadutha,  553. 

Jeheir,  Nahr  el,  521. 

Jehoahaz,  297. 

Jehoram,  Joram,  366,  592. 

Jehoshaphat,  78,  592. 

Jehu,  367,  368,  592. 

Jeidur,  Aklim  el,  430,  432,  434-436,  454, 
550. 

Jemurrin,  el,  505,  537. 

Jennany,  Nahr  el,  432. 

Jephthah,  579,  627,  662. 

Jerash,  481,  508,  532,  533,  545,  546,  548,  549, 

552,  553.  555.  556,  558-574,  592>  593,  601, 
604,  607. 

Jeremiah,  369,  403,  404,  486,  506,  529. 
Jericho,  54,  56,  587,  644,  648,  653,  654,  667, 
673,  674,  676. 

Jerju’a,  167,  168. 

Jermuk,  el,  plain  of,  168. 

Jeroboam  I.,  577  ;  II.,  368. 

Jerusalem,  23,  32,  47,  55,  56,  69,  71,  86,  96, 
116,  127,  128,  181,  221,  283,  297,  298,  368, 
369,  380,  3S7,  407,  414,  425,  432,  444,  455, 
535,  572,  579,  592,  606,  618,  621,  665,  668, 
677. 

Jeshimon,  656. 

Jessimine,  371,  390. 

Jesuits,  230. 

Jesus — from  Bethany  to  Jerusalem,  128. 
Jesus — the  birth  of,  11. 

Jesus — at  Cana  of  Galilee,  235,  236. 

Jesus — at  Capernaum,  56,  59. 

Jesus — in  the  Decapolis,  481. 

Jesus — in  Galilee,  114-116,  239,  481. 

Jesus — the  Good  Shepherd,  25,  26. 

Jesus — at  Jacob’s  well,  69. 

Jesus — at  Jericho,  113. 

Jesus — at  Jerusalem,  74,  89. 

Jesus— the  Last  Supper,  75,  79,  84,  235,  236. 
Jesus — on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  57,  58. 

Jesus — the  name  of,  169,  207,  384,  422,  427, 
472,  473,  5i8,  525,  579,  649. 

Jesus — the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  69. 

Jesus — wept,  403,  404. 

Jetur,  434,  435. 

Jewel,  Jewellery,  375-377. 

Jews,  see  Hebrew,  Jews. 

Jezireh,  el,  Sidon,  5. 

Jezreel,  592. 

Jezzar  Pasha,  591. 


Jezzin,  136,  137,  159,  160,  163-166,  170-172, 
295. 

Jiddah,  419,  426. 

Jisr  el  Auwaly,  9. 

Jisr  Benat  Y’akob,  432,  476. 

Jisr  Burghtiz,  173. 

Jisr  el  Hajr,  see  Natural  Bridge. 

Jisr  Jubb  Jenin,  177,  178. 

Jisr  el  Kady,  27,  146,  150,  151,  153,  184,  185, 
187. 

Jisr  Kur’un,  176. 

Jisr  el  Mejamia,  474,  540. 

Jiyeh,  el,  22. 

Joab,  579,  619-621,  638. 

Joash,  368. 

Job,  26,  34,  37,  184,  2S7,  403,  453,  483-485, 
500,  519,  520. 

Jogbehah,  607. 

John  of  Antioch,  340. 

John  the  Baptist,  131,  350,  370,  377,  380, 

382,  435,  539,  579,  648,  649. 

John,  St.,  Church  and  Mosk  of,  Damascus, 

370,  374,  375,  377-386. 

John,  St.,  Hospital  of,  107. 

John,  St.,  Knights  of,  280. 

John’s,  St.,  Bread,  131. 

Jonah,  18,  19,  21,  22. 

Jonathan,  403. 

Joppa,  see  Jaffa. 

Jordan,  10,  11,  21,  24,  26,  28,  138,  142,  169, 
174,  177,  179,  221,  364,  366,  368,  424,  429, 
432,  434,  436,  444,  474,  476,  477,  480,  481, 
486,  487,  510,  524,  526,  527,  533-535,  539, 
540,  546,  547,  551-553,  572,  573,  575-579, 
581-587,  59°,  59L  595,  596-  6o2>  6o7,  634, 
640,  642,  648,  651,  652,  654,  656,  658-660, 
662,  664,  667-669,  671-677. 

Joseph,  82,  84,  178,  458,  540,  577. 

Joseph,  husband  of  Mary,  207. 

Josephus,  47,  56,  198,  239,  263,  283,  287- 

289,  364,  365,  369.  435,  440,  445,  467, 

489,  490,  539,  542,  548,  553,  572,  577, 

595,  596,  622,  639,  646,  648,  649,  663, 

670,  672. 

Joshua,  143,  296,  299,  339,  527,  579,  586, 
673,  675,  676. 

Josiah,  297,  486. 

Jubal,  394. 

Jubb  Jenin,  176,  178,  338. 

Jubilee,  year  of,  56,  57. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Judah,  127,  157,  243,  297,  298,  365,  368,  380, 
592,  653. 

Judas,  house  of,  409,  410,  413. 

Judea,  127,  350,  369,  435,  596,  668. 
Judeideh,  el,  160. 

Juhhal,  el,  20S. 

Julia,  Augusta  Felix,  340,  671. 

Julia  Domna,  321,  340. 

Julianus,  Archbishop,  519. 

Julias,  671. 

Julius,  510. 

Julius  Julianus,  517. 

Jumblat,  Beit,  160-163,  171,  192,  193,  209. 
Jumblat,  Beshir,  sheikh,  160-162,  181,  209, 
477- 

Jumblat,  Sa’id,  12,  161,  162,  171. 

Jun  ’Akkar,  138. 

June  Dahar,  13,  14,  18. 

Juneh,  Bay  of,  139,  151,  222. 

Juneh,  near  Damascus,  407,  432,  433. 
Juniper,  263,  282,  296. 

Jupiter,  329-335.  340,  34U  567-569. 

Jurd,  Aklim  el,  186,  209. 

Justinian,  47,  229,  520. 

Ka’a,  el,  310. 

Kadesh,  534. 

Kadisha,  Nahr  el,  137,  230,  257-261,  265, 
272-277. 

Kady,  el,  judge,  68,  69,  147,  287. 

Kady,  Beit  el,  147,  150. 

Kady,  Nahr  el,  150,  183. 

Kadytis,  274. 

Kaif,  9,  52,  396. 

Kalabat,  el,  40-43,  no. 

Kamanjeh,  el,  393. 

Kamid  el  Lauz,  178. 

Kamu’a  el  Hurrnul,  271,  287,  305-309,  31 1, 
315,  338. 

Kanatir  Far’aun,  543,  544. 

Kanobin,  Deir,  137,  230,  258,  259. 

Ivanun,  el,  392,  393. 

Karam,  Yusuf,  274. 

Karnak,  299. 

Kaukab,  el,  407. 

Kedes,  Kedesh,  of  Naphtali,  167. 

Kedes,  lake  of,  298,  299,  301,  302,  309. 
Kefareiya,  el,  179. 

Keffiyeh,  84,  665. 

Kefr  el  ’Awamid,  351. 


697 

Kefr  Huneh,  168,  169,  172,  173. 

Kefr  Metta,  146,  147. 

Kefr  Nebrakh,  184,  185. 

Kefr  Selwan,  194,  201. 

Kefr  Shima,  132. 

Kefrenjy,  581. 

Keifun,  187. 

Kelb,  Nahr  el,  45,  92,  94-105,  126,  137,  218, 
221,  225,  226,  229,  234. 

Kenath,  see  Kunawat,  el. 

Keniseh,  el,  298. 

Kentucky,  caves  of,  104. 

Kerak,  643. 

Kerak  Nuh,  201,  204,  339,  343. 

Keriathaim,  529. 

Kerioth,  see  Kureiyeh,  el. 

Ivesrawan,  Aklim  el,  45,  140,  203,  218,  228- 
233. 

Ketesh,  299,  301,  309. 

Kettle-drum,  392,  393. 

Kesweh,  el,  429-432. 

Khadija,  420,  526. 

Khalid,  351,  370,  526. 

Khalif,  see  Caliph. 

Khan,  el,  n,  12,  19,  27,  31,  33,  40,  51,  71, 
97,  106,  125,  126,  146,  195,  196,  285,  358, 
371,  373,  374,  396,  428,  429,  432,  463,  610, 
630,  631. 

Khan  Antun  Beg,  106. 

Khan  As’ad  Pasha,  371,  373,  374- 
Khan  el  Hasmtyeh,  125,  126. 

Khan  Khulda,  27,  31-33. 

Khan  Murad,  195,  196. 

Khan  esh  Shiah,  51. 

Kharnub,  el,  45,  130,  131,  245. 

Khazin,  Beit  el,  230. 

Kheta,  299,  300. 

Khirbet  ’Allan,  585. 

Khirbet  Barzeleh,  660. 

Khirbet  el  Basha,  602. 

Khirbet  es  Safut,  602. 

Khirbet  Sar,  594,  595,  669. 

Khirbet  Sihan,  585. 

Khirbet  Suleikhat,  553. 

Khirbet  Thaluth,  582. 

Khirbet  ez  Zi,  585,  587. 

Khtibab,  el,  453-457,  468. 

Khiidar  Beg,  285-287. 

Khudr,  el,  see  George,  St. 

Khulkhiileh,  el,  439. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


698 

Ivhulwat,  Khulweh,  143,  145,  205,  208. 
Khuraibeh,  el,  344. 

Kibleh,  south,  prayer  niche,  69,  382,  505. 
Kibliyeh,  Baharet  el,  414,  415. 

Killis,  el,  161. 

Kir,  55,  369. 

Kiratah,  el,  470. 

Kirjathaim,  672. 

Knights  Hospitallers,  312. 

Koran,  el,  66,  68,  206,  276,  372,  378,  382, 
401,  405,  420-422,  424,  427,  505,  518. 
Kouyunjik,  96. 

Kronos,  46. 

Kubb  Elias,  198,  199. 

Ivubbet  Duris,  343. 

Kubbet  el  Khusneh,  384. 

Kubbet  en  Naufarah,  384. 

Kubbet  en  Nusr,  356-359,  428. 

Kubbet  es  Sa’ah,  384. 

Kufeir  Abu  Bedd,  650. 

Ivufr,  el,  502. 

Kul’at  Ba’albek,  341. 

Kul’at  el  Fukra,  222-225. 

Kul’at  el  Husn,  21,  288,  298. 

Kul’at  Jendal,  431. 

Kul’at  el  Mudik,  305. 

Kul’at  el  Museilihah,  255,  256. 

Kul’at  Niha,  164. 

Kul’at  er  Rubad,  552,  578-582. 

Kul’at  esh  Shukif,  167,  476,  580. 

Kul’at  ez  Zerka,  548,  584,  602-604,  624. 
Kulei’at,  el,  226. 

Kuleib  Hauran,  441,  501-503,  604. 

Kunawat,  el,  441,  464,  466,  469,  477,  480- 
491,  494,  502,  508,  546. 

Kunawat,  Nahr,  474,  482,  490. 

Kuneitirah,  el,  432. 

Kurah,  Aklim  el,  140,  257. 

Kurd,  248,  249,  432,  436. 

Kureish,  419,  476. 

Kureiyeh,  el,  503,  511,  515,  523,  529,  530. 
Kurnayil,  el,  193,  194,  201. 

Kurun  Hattin,  280.  548,  586. 

Kusr  el  ’Abd,  597. 

Kusr  'Antar,  431. 

Kusr  Melek  el  Asfar,  520. 

Kusr  Nejdeh,  582. 

Laban,  213,  417,  552-554,  575,  576. 
Lachrymatories,  404. 


Ladder  of  Tyre,  see  Ras  en  Nakurah. 

Lake,  173,  177,  298,  301,  302,  309,  311,  313- 
315,  346,  347,  358,  359,  386,  395,  399,  414, 

415,  4i7. 

Lamech,  394. 

Lamp,  472,  473. 

Lane,  E.  W.,  24. 

Lantern,  74. 

Laodicea  ad  Libanum,  301. 

Latin,  52,  95,  97,  237,  321,  349,  410,  412,  510, 
517,  518,  521. 

Lava,  359,  436,  445,  446,  450,  456-458,  460, 
464-466,  468,  470,  483,  502,  527,  533. 

Layard,  A.  H.,  96,  263. 

Lazarists,  230. 

Lebanon,  9,  11,  18,  19,  24,  26,  27,  33,  42,  44, 
45,  49,  5L  52,  74,  94,  96,  98,  103,  105,  107, 
hi,  122,  123,  125,  126,  129,  130,  132,  133, 
135-276,  282,  284,  285,  290-297,  303-306, 
309,  313,  314,  318,  337-340,  343,  344,  356, 
442,  458,  459,  469,  476,  477,  479,  493,  496, 
527.  552. 

Leben,  curdled  milk,  12,  75,  227,  253,  286, 
312. 

Leben,  Nahr  el,  226-229,  233. 

Leboda,  433. 

Lebweh,  el,  304,  309-313,  338. 

Lee,  H.,  M.P.,  107. 

Legion,  Legions,  449,  450. 

Lejah,  el,  433,  435,  437,  439-446,  449~453. 
455-472,  476,  489,  537,  54L  542,  591- 

Lema,  Beit  el,  194,  231. 

Lemon,  8,  45,  133,  236,  276,  277,  371,  575. 

Leontes,  see  Litany,  Nahr  el. 

Leontius,  519. 

Leper,  Leprosy,  366,  398,  407,  429,  473,  519. 

Letter-writer,  61-63. 

Lettuce,  9. 

Leven,  220. 

Levite,  Levitical,  436,  552,  554,  591,  662, 

674. 

Lex  talionis,  see  under  Manners  and  Cus¬ 
toms,  Covenants  and  Feuds. 

Licorice,  415. 

Lignaloes,  656,  673. 

Lime,  Lime-kiln,  28,  32. 

Linen,  83. 

Lion,  281,  300,  527,  544,  597,  598,  606, 
631. 

Lisan,  el,  586. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Litany,  Nahr  el,  138,  167,  169,  173-178,  198, 
216,  336,  338,  346. 

Livia,  671. 

Livias,  671. 

Liwa,  el,  439,  440. 

Lizards,  627. 

Locust-tree,  13 1. 

London,  125. 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,  356. 

Lot,  534,  579,  620,  640,  664. 

Louis,  St.,  Castle  of,  6. 

Loytved,  J.,  96. 

Lucius  Annius,  572. 

Lufh  el  Lejah,  439,  458,  459,  464. 

Lupins,  601. 

Lusias,  M.  O.,  482. 

Luz,  178. 

Lybo,  312. 

Lycus,  see  Kelb,  Nahr  el. 

Lynch,  W.  F.,  Lieutenant  U.S.N.,  159. 
Lynx,  632. 

Lyons,  124. 

Lysanias,  350. 

Ma’an,  Beit,  209. 

Ma’arret  en  N’aman,  161. 

Ma’asir,  el,  176,  181. 

M’abed,  el,  280,  281. 

Maccabees,  the,  278,  435,  542,  595,  662,  663. 
Maccabees,  I.,  278,  2S5,  524,  543,  639. 
Maccabees,  II.,  542. 

Maccabeus,  John,  639. 

Maccabeus,  Jonathan,  639. 

Maccabeus,  Judas,  524,  527,  542,  579. 
Maccabeus,  Simon,  639. 

Macedonia,  Macedonian,  369,  535. 

Machaerus,  648,  649. 

Machpelah,  298. 

Macrobius,  251,  252. 

Madeba,  628,  636-639,  641,  644,  652. 

Madinat  el  ’Arus,  384-386. 

Madinat  el  Ghurbiyeh,  384. 

Madinat  ’Isa,  384. 

Maghazil,  el,  281. 

Maghzel,  el,  315. 

Magoras,  93  ;  see  also  Beirut,  Nahr. 
Mahanaim,  546,  552-554,  572,  576. 

Mahmel,  el,  425. 

Mahmud  Beg,  111. 

Mahmud,  Druse  guide,  466,  528. 


699 

Mahneh,  el,  see  Mahanaim. 

Maimonides,  57. 

Main,  628,  636,  643-645,  650,  652,  660. 

Maize,  see  Indian-corn. 

Maked,  524. 

Malala,  340. 

Malta,  477. 

Mameluke,  386. 

Manasseh,  364,  434,  444,  535,  552,  586,  591, 
607,  653,  664,  675. 

Manger,  239,  598. 

Manna,  179,  180. 

Manners  and  Customs  : 

Amusements  and  Occupations,  6,  7,  9, 
27,  28,  36,  38,  39,  54-57,  60-64,  67,  68, 
71-74,  113,  115,  116,  122,  124-126,  132, 
135,  147,  153.  167,  168,  171-173,  196,  200, 
208,  217-221,  230,  235,  238,  247,  250,  277, 
278,  292,  312,  372-379.  387-389.  391-394. 
396,  399.  412-414,  455,  458,  465,  466,  491, 
503,  517,  526,  536,  55U  552,  59°,  645,  668. 

Compliments  and  Hospitality,  63,  74,  75, 
78-81,  160,  200,  208,  248,  286,  287,  312, 
399,  440,  480,  493,  494,  497,  504,  577,  660, 
671. 

Cooking  and  Eating,  9,  22,  29,  30,  38, 
55,  64,  74-79,  87,  113.  I3U  175,  248,  286, 
287,  372,  375,  387,  39L  396,  399.  404, 
424. 

Covenants  and  Feuds,  30,  155,  157,  161, 
163,  164,  175,  191-193,  209-212,  366,  468, 

47U  494,  553,  554,  629,  630. 

Funerals  and  Mourning,  106,  127-129, 
208,  243,  366,  368,  401-405,  456. 

Garments  and  Sleeping,  19,  20,  54,  55, 
62-64,  66,  71,  72,  81-89, 125,  129, 175,  196, 
214,  215,  238,  248,  354,  366,  370,  371,  373, 
375,  379,  39U  403,  405,  425,  426,  456,  458, 
503.  536,  540,  552,  59°,  620,  623,  642,  644, 
648,  665,  666. 

Elarvest  and  Threshing,  196,  227,  235, 

459,  533,  545,  594,  600,  644,  663. 

Irrigation  and  Drawing  Water,  22,  71, 
133,  149,  153,  168,  171,  174,  183,  198,  199,  < 
226,  227,  234,  235,  259,  288,  304,  310,  311,  t 
313,  336,  347,  352,  354,  395,  396,  428,  440, 
452,  473,  637,  669,  672. 

Marriage  and  Rejoicing,  12,  13,  90,  118, 
127,  128,  192,  193,  208,  212-214,  217,  230, 
387,  391-394,  427,  526,  554,  639- 


700 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Men  and  Women,  8,  9,  11,  19,  20,  22,  23, 
38,  62,  70,  71,  76,  83-90,  124,  127,  135,  192, 
193,  196,  200,  208,  219,  220,  237,  238,  252, 
253,  286,  312,  345,  373,  376,  387-389-  399. 
401,  412,  425,  426,  456,  472,  545,  550,  603, 
623,  645,  666,  66S. 

Pilgrimages  and  Votive  Offerings,  19-21, 
23,  48,  67,  90,  107,  117-120,  168-170,  179, 
190,  245,  258,  259,  266,  275,  300,  340,  341, 
350,  35U  399.  401,  412,  423-426,  428,  430, 
454,  498,  522,  548,  585,  586,  600,  635,  668. 

Ploughing  and  Sowing,  29,  36,  160,  227, 
234,  455,  466,  507,  585,  601,  623,  624,  660, 
668. 

Servants  and  Slaves,  15-17,  19,  71,  74- 
76,  78.  S8-90,  153,  157,  191,  286,  312,  366, 
391,  427,  449,  482,  534,  536,  576. 

Shepherds  and  Watchmen,  12,  25,  26, 
30,  38,  113,  135,  237,  240,  250,  256,  291, 
312,  432,  465-467,  519,  526,  555,  576,  584, 
592,  595,  604,  623,  668,  673. 

Shops  and  Streets,  40,  44,  60,  69-74, 
131,  132,  143,  150,  153,  171,  208,  247,  260, 
276,  371-379,  387-389,  409-414,  425,  438, 
517,  590,  593. 

Worship  and  Superstition,  17-22,  57, 
64-69,  86,  87,  107,  117-120,  133,  168-171, 
189,  190,  203-209,  222,  229-231,  235-237, 
243,  245,  252,  258,  262,  263,  269,  339-341, 
359,  364,  367,  375,  381,  382,  384,  388,  410, 
411,  420-427,  457,  462,  463,  474,  526,  545, 
548,  554,  586,  601,  641,  653,  660. 

Mar  Antanus  el  Kurkufeh,  132,  135. 

Mar  Elyas,  462. 

Mar  Jirjis  el  Humeira,  21,  288,  289. 

Mar  Jirjis  esh  Shir,  189. 

Mar  Maron,  304,  305. 

Mar  Mitr,  92,  94,  106. 

Marathus,  282. 

Marble,  Micaceous,  463,  517. 

Marcion,  Marcionites,  433,  434. 

Mardaites,  229,  230. 

Maro,  Maron,  John,  229,  245,  304,  305. 

Maron,  Mar  Yohanna,  245. 

Maronites,  20,  22,  51,  105,  140,  143-145,  150, 
155,  171,  175,  I91,  *94,  201,  203,  229-231, 
237,  245,  258,  269,  274,  277,  305,  345,  412. 

Marseilles,  283. 

Marsh,  94,  346,  347,  358,  386,  395,  399,  415, 
429,  670. 


Martyr,  129,  259,  351,  519. 

Mary,  sister  of  Lazarus,  402. 

Mason’s  Marks,  523,  527,  544. 

Massacres,  49,  68,  96,  140,  145,  147,  150,  153- 
157,  159,  162,  171,  192,  210,  298,  351,  407, 
409,  411,  412,  421,  477,  572,  639. 

Massada,  586. 

Mats,  60,  71,  75,  85,  122,  286. 

Mattocks,  28. 

Maundrell,  258. 

Maut,  Nahr  el,  93. 

Maxwell,  W.  J.,  C.E.,  99-102. 

Mebruk,  el,  505. 

Mecca,  65,  67,  69,  117,  119,  358,  400,  401, 
412,  419,  425,  426,  430,  454,  498,  505,  518, 
522,  526,  536,  548,  603,  630,  635. 

Medeba,  see  Madeba. 

Medes,  369. 

Medina,  el,  420,  421,  505,  517. 
Mediterranean,  5-7,  9,  11,  13,  24-27,  33,  41, 

42,  44-49,  53,  92-95,  97,  105-m,  114,  ii5, 
123,  126,  130,  132,  133,  135-138,  142,  145- 
147,  149,  152,  157,  164,  166,  172,  173,  177, 
181,  184,  187,  190,  195,  202,  209,  216,  226, 
233,  238,  239,  243-246,  249,  250,  253-257, 
263,  272-280,  282,  284,  285,  290,  291,  296, 
298,  304,  309,  338,  346-348,  356,  432,  436, 
502,  579,  584,  646,  651,  653,  663. 

Medlej,  Bedawin  tribe,  469. 

Megeidel,  el,  501. 

Megiddo,  297. 

Meidan,  el,  394,  400,  405,  424-426. 

Mejdel  ’Anjar,  125,  197. 

Mekseh,  el,  199. 

Melchizedek,  534. 

Meliha,  el,  415. 

Melihat  Hazkin,  457. 

Memphis,  363. 

Menhirs,  640,  641. 

Mensef  Abu  Zeid,  651,  671. 

Menzil,  Menzul,  see  Khan. 

Merj,  el,  Damascus,  197,  394,  398-401,  428. 
Merj  ’Ahin,  292,  294. 

Merj  Bisry,  164. 

Merjany,  el,  436,  437. 

Merom,  see  Huleh,  el. 

Merrill,  Selah,  Dr.,  506,  512,  523,  527,  543- 

549-  552,  553,  572,  577,  579-581,  586,  587, 
592-594,  599,  602,  606,  616,  617,  624,  634, 
643,  650,  651,  667,  669-672. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


701 


Mesha,  643. 

Meshghurah,  el,  138,  172,  174. 

Meshnakah,  el,  250,  251. 

Mesopotamia,  213,  417,  535,  554. 

Metawileh,  Mutawaly,  140,  144,  168,  170, 
204,  210,  244,  294,  295,  320,  343,  412. 
Metn,  Aklim  el,  45,  194,  203,  218. 

Mezarib,  el,  430,  546,  548. 

M’hadhar,  670. 

Mice,  627. 

Michael,  510. 

Midian,  Midianites,  489,  550,  642,  656. 
Mile-stone,  Roman,  95. 

Mill,  Miller,  54,  94,  96,  105,  147-150,  163, 
171,  183,  218,  219,  221,  245,  284,  301,  302, 
3ii,  336,  352,  498,  501,  556,  573,  601,  613, 
666,  667,  669,  670. 

Millstones,  218,  219,  455,  606,  641,  650,  671. 
Milton,  8,  243. 

Mina,  el,  Tripoli,  275,  277. 

Minat  el  Husn,  107,  in. 

Minerva,  500. 

Minnith,  628. 

Minstrel,  394. 

Minyeh,  el,  628. 

Mishor,  586. 

Mission,  Missionaries,  117,  145,  151,  200, 

277,  377,  479- 
Mizpah,  553,  576,  577. 

Moab,  Moabites,  503,  511,  515,  523,  529,  535, 
537,. 550,  573,  586,  628,  635,  636,  638-641, 
643-645,  651,  654-656,  658-664,  666-668, 

673-675- 

Moabite  Stone,  606,  643. 

Mograbian,  545. 

Moiet  ’Amman,  619. 

Monastery,  see  Convent. 

Mongols,  477. 

Monks,  179,  189,  190,  213,  229-231,  235,  254, 
259,  269,  274,  276,  283,  288,  293,  304,  305, 
310,  380,  406,  407,  410,  457,  458,  462,  518, 
526,  580. 

Monothelitic,  229. 

Monument,  sepulchral,  224,  225,  280-282. 
Moore,  Sir  John,  15. 

Moraines,  150,  265. 

Mosaic,  390. 

Moses,  2i,  55,  82,  85,  86,  89,  135,  138,  207, 
211-213,  296,  297,  299,  301,  345,  375,  422, 
436,  444,  460,  461,  490,  526,  534,  535,  541, 


578,  587,  602,  619,  624,  636,  638,  639,  644, 
650,  656,  658-660,  664,  666,  667,  672-675. 
Mosk,  61,  64,  65,  67,  69,  92,  128,  277,  280, 
337,  357,  358,  374,  377-386,  389,  396,  401, 
409,  415,  417,  419,  423,  429,  449,  452,  463, 
471,  500,  505,  506,  517,  518,  520-522,  528, 
544,  55i,  580.  610,  617-619. 

Moslems,  13,  19,  48,  51,  55,  63-69,  71,  72, 
84-87,  90,  92,  106,  no,  118-120,  140,  155, 
157,  168,  170,  175,  178,  201,  204,  206-209, 
275-277,  284,  320,  333,  337,  341,  343,  346, 

350,  35U  356-359,  370,  371,  374,  375,  377, 
380-382,  384,  387-389,  391,  401,  407,  412, 

413,  4I9-43U  454,  459,  463,  475,  494,  496, 
505,  506,  513,  514,  517,  518,  521,  522,  524, 

526,  530,  535-537,  539-54U  552,  558,  559, 
573,  582,  583,  585,  586,  590,  600,  601,  603, 
617,  619,  622,  635,  639,  644. 
Mother-of-pearl,  390. 

Mu’allakah,  ed  Damur,  27,  31. 

Mu’allakah,  el,  Zahleh,  201. 

Mu’amaltein,  el,  139,  15 1,  251. 

Muezzen,  el,  64,  68,  384. 

Mugharat  ’Afka,  242. 

Mugharat  el  ’Akurah,  247. 

Mugharat  Niha,  164,  165. 

Mugharat  er  Rahib,  138,  293,  304,  305,  310, 
31U  313- 

Mugheiteh,  el,  125,  195. 

Muhammed,  the  Prophet,  56,  157,  207,  209, 
356-358,  371,  387,  388,  401,  405,  419-422, 
427,  428,  476,  477,  505,  5i8,  526,  536. 
Muhammed  ’Aly,  48,  140,  161,  192,  193,  477. 
Muhammed  Ibn  Isma’il,  207. 

Muir,  William,  421,  426,  427,  505. 

Mujeimir,  el,  505. 

Mukam,  el,  18,  19,  21,  22,  168-170,  204,  343, 
350,  356-359,  364,  382,  457,  463,  559,  582, 
585,  586,  600,  601,  660. 

Mukam  es  Seiyed  Yehya,  382,  383. 
Mukhadat  el  Ghoramyeh,  676. 

Mukhadat  en  Nusramyeh,  583-585. 
Mukhtarah,  el,  137,  158-162,  167,  171,  176, 
181,  209,  477. 

Mulberry,  27,  36,  41,  45,  46,  51,  93,  94,  106, 
in,  113,  115,  116,  126,  132,  133,  150,  153, 
156,  159,  171,  174,  175,  183,  189,  235,  245, 
247,  259,  260,  274,  284,  319,  327,  335. 
Mules,  Muleteers,  9,  71,  122,  124,  133,  142, 
173,  182,  185,  188,  196,  200,  214-218,  238, 


702 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


248,  261,  271,  294,  345,  346,  367,  371,  374, 
395,  424.  425,  443,  449,  451,  549,  556,  574, 
582,  583,  600,  628,  648. 

Mummy,  116. 

Museum,  British,  263. 

Mushatta,  Khan,  628,  630-635,  637. 
Mushra’a  Kana’an,  577. 

Music,  Musicians,  see  under  Manners  and 
Customs,  Marriage  and  Rejoicing. 

Musk,  414. 

Musmeih,  el,  433,  437,  443,  449-454,  4&S,  480. 
Mustard,  114. 

Muwafukah,  el,  149. 

Muwahhedin,  el,  205. 

Muzar,  see  Mukam. 

Myrrh,  540. 

Myrtle,  8,  164,  168,  281,  396,  401. 

Naaman,  the  Syrian,  366,  367,  379,  386,  398, 
407,  429. 

Nabathean,  468,  510,  538,  547,  573,  639. 
Nablus,  see  Shechem. 

Nahleh,  en,  316. 

Nahor,  417. 

Nahra,  en,  246. 

Na’imeh,  Ghufr  en,  Khan,  31. 

Nakad,  Beit  Abu,  155,  209. 

Nakad,  Sheikh  Hammud  Abu,  145. 
Naphtali,  364,  586,  653. 

Napoleon  I.,  256. 

Napoleon  III.,  96. 

Nargileh,  water-pipe,  60,  79,  80,  126,  387, 
396>  399- 

Nathan  the  prophet,  262. 

Natural  Bridge,  137,  215,  221,  225-229,  233, 
234,  242,  247,  313. 

Na’urah,  en,  water-wheel,  8,  9. 

Nazareth,  166,  167,  579,  586. 

Neapolis,  478. 

Neb ’a  ’An  jar,  198. 

Neb’a  el  ’Asal,  226-228,  234,  239. 

Neb’a  el  Leben,  137,  215,  226,  227,  229,  234. 
Neb’a  Lebweh,  313. 

Neb’a  Sir,  284. 

Neb’a  Sunnin,  189,  199,  201-203,  214,  215. 
Nebaioth,  538. 

Nebat,  577. 

Nebo,  city,  652. 

Nebo,  mountain,  see  Jebel  Neba. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  297,  369. 


Neby,  see  Mukam. 

Neby  ’Abd  Allah,  660. 

Neby  Habil,  350. 

Neby  Osh’a,  585,  586. 

Neby  Safy,  21,  168,  169. 

Neby  Samwil,  586. 

Neby  Sha’ib,  600,  601. 

Neby  Shit,  204,  343. 

Neby  Sijud,  168. 

Neby  Yunas,  18,  19,  21. 

Necropolis,  300. 

Negab,  653. 

Nehemiah,  64. 

Nejran,  en,  471,  474,  475. 

Nemesis,  192. 

Nephish,  434. 

Nero,  445. 

Neve,  454. 

New  York,  125. 

Niche,  prayer,  see  Ivibleh. 

Nicolaus,  General,  24. 

Nicolaus,  Historian,  364,  365. 

Niebuhr,  Carsten,  229. 

Niha,  near  Bsherreh,  256. 

Niha,  near  Jezzin,  163,  176. 

Niha,  near  Zahleh,  203. 

Nile,  41,  123,  363,  440. 

Nimr,  en,  ’Adwan,  sheikh,  605. 

Nimreh,  en,  439. 

Nimrin,  see  Tell  Nimrin. 

Nimshi,  367,  592. 

Nineveh,  263,  363. 

Noah,  201,  204,  207,  282,  298,  339,  343,  350, 
364,  422,  445,  477. 

Nobah,  488,  489. 

Nodab,  434. 

Northey,  A.  E.,  Rev.,  596,  597,  600,  614. 
Notitise,  501. 

Nova  Trajana  Bostra,  524. 

Nowa,  454,  546. 

Nukairat,  393. 

Niikhl,  en,  in  the  desert,  454,  630. 

Nhkhl,  en,  island  near  Tripoli,  275. 

Nukkar  es  S’adiat,  24. 

Nukrah,  en,  Hauran,  459. 

Nur  ed  Din,  476. 

Nusairiyeh,  en,  21,  207,  271,  285,  297. 

Nusr  ed  Din,  emir,  145. 

Nuwaimeh,  en,  667,  668,  671-673,  676. 
Nymphseum,  483,  521. 


703 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Oak,  45,  52,  53, 133,  153,  159,  163,  168,  170, 
171,  179,  187,  190,  195,  216,  245,  250,  260, 
282,  284,  285,  293,  295,  350,  441,  471,  481- 
484,  494,  497,  502,  546,  553-556,  559.  574, 
575,  578,  579,  582,  585,  594,  596,  604. 

Oats,  wild,  583. 

Obaesatus,  490. 

Observatory,  Lee,  107. 

Occident,  Occidental,  81,  163,  396,  507,  556, 
574- 

Odenatlius,  498. 

Odeon,  Odium,  614. 

Og,  444,  459-461,  526,  527,  535,  541,  544, 
584,  586,  608,  620. 

Oil,  see  Olive,  Olives. 

Oil-press,  34,  472. 

Oleander,  105,  164,  168,  560,  571,  584,  596, 
600,  658,  670. 

Olive,  Olives,  12,  22,  33-40,  45,  48,  51,  107, 
116,  126,  131-134,  142,  153,  159,  160,  179, 
235,  257,  277,  286,  381,  395,  428,  472,  473, 
556,  559,  574,  575,  582,  583,  59°,  640,  670. 

Olives,  Mount  of,  128,  579. 

Omar,  Khalif,  517,  518. 

On,  339. 

Onomasticon,  541,  542,  663. 

Oranges,  8,  45,  133,  149,  245,  276,  277,  357, 
371,  395. 

Orient,  Oriental,  49,  60,  64,  67,  72,  74,  75,  81, 
83,  85-89,  163,  206,  207,  212,  213,  356,  363, 
370-374,  383,  384,  39L  392,  396,  400,  405, 
409,  412,  414,  472,  476,  494,  508,  519,  538, 

55U  574,  577- 

Origen,  444,  525. 

Orontes,  67,  138,  229,  271,  293,  298,  299,  301- 

305,  309-311,  313,  338. 

Orthosia,  138,  285. 

Osher,  670. 

Othman,  422,  505. 

Otto  of  Roses,  414. 

Ottoman  Bank,  106. 

Oven,  see  Tannur. 

Ox,  see  Cattle. 

Padan-aram,  299,  554. 

Paine,  J.  A.,  Professor,  96. 

Palace,  47,  48,  55,  128,  130,  145,  153,  155“ 
158,  160-162,  181,  183,  186,  189,  191,  262, 
264,  278,  285-287,  371,  450,  520,  528,  529, 
596-598,  632-634. 

C  C  2 


Palsetyrus,  279. 

Palatine  Hill,  340. 

Palestine,  29,  54,  143,  151,  153,  167,  172,  239, 

298,  358,  367,  387,  445,  579,  586,  634,  676. 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  English,  334, 
582,  617. 

Palestine  Exploration  Society,  American,  96, 
486,  506,  520. 

Palm,  45,  51,  126-129,  275,  401,  421,  433, 
497,  527,  597,  647,  653,  672,  676. 

Palma,  A.  Cornelius,  524. 

Palmyra,  17,  297,  298,  332,  355,  359,  498, 

573,  574- 

Palmyrene,  498. 

Pantheon,  329. 

Panther,  151,  169,  282,  330,  631,  632. 
Papyrus,  300. 

Paradise,  156,  295,  354,  356-358,  423,  428, 
526. 

Paradisus,  274. 

Paran,  301. 

Parker,  Edward  Moon,  Esq.,  100. 

Parmineo,  369. 

Parthian,  340,  517. 

Partridges,  293,  305,  466,  467,  585,  604,  632. 
Pasha,  145,  161,  191,  192,  248,  312,  358,  371- 

374,  417,  425,  442-444,  521,  591- 
Passover,  236. 

Patriarch,  137,  229,  230,  258,  411. 

Patriarch,  Patriarchal,  ancient,  294,  298,  301, 
343,  363,  623. 

Paul  the  apostle,  21,  34,  71,  369,  406,  407, 
409-41 1,  413,  432,  433,  444,  539.. 

Peach,  133,  259,  395. 

Peacocks,  632. 

Pear,  259,  276,  357,  395,  575. 

Pearl,  376. 

Pekah,  368. 

Pella,  546,  559. 

Peniel,  554,  577- 
Pennsylvania,  472. 

Pentaur,  300. 

Penuel,  577. 

Peor,  655,  656. 

Peroea,  546,  572. 

Persia,  Persian,  57,  64,  204-206,  275,  276, 
309,  369,  535,  538,  634. 

Persian  Gulf,  49,  277,  524,  538,  550. 

Peter  the  apostle,  57,  166. 

Petra,  538,  573,  574,  595- 


704 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Petroleum,  107,  472. 

Peutinger  Tabic,  489,  541,  607. 

Pheena,  Phseno,  449,  450,  452. 

Pharaoh,  11,  96,  299,  300,  339,  544. 
Pharaoh-nechoh,  297. 

Pharisees,  68. 

Pharpar,  see  'Awaj,  Nahr  el. 

Philadelphia,  see  ’Amman. 

Philip  the  Arabian,  Emperor,  476,  524, 

525. 

Philip,  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  435,  440,  445, 
649. 

Philippopolis,  476. 

Philistines,  486,  579. 

Phillips,  Corporal,  595. 

Phoenicia,  Phoenicians,  6,  9,  46,  51,  96,  127, 
143,  144,  146,  164,  205,  243-245,  274,  275, 
278,  282,  298,  310,  339,  340,  486,  542. 
Pigeon,  108,  109,  229,  433,  585,  632. 

Pilgrims,  Mount,  275. 

Pine,  42,  45,  48,  52,  105,  111-113,  125,  132, 
133,  139,  146,  182,  183,  185,  194,  195,  226, 
250,  263,  274,  284,  292,  555,  559,  585. 

Pipe,  musical  instrument,  394. 

Pipe,  see  Tobacco. 

Pirates,  48. 

Pisgah,  578,  652-655,  658-660. 

Pit,  250,  264. 

Pitch,  256,  264,  292. 

Pius,  ^Elius  Antoninus,  340. 

Plague,  93. 

Plane,  245,  352,  372,  396. 

Pliny,  198,  288,  289,  489. 

Plum,  259,  276,  357,  395,  575. 

Polybius,  26,  619. 

Polycarp,  434. 

Polyglot,  Paris,  274. 

Pomegranate,  235,  295,  357,  386,  395. 
Pompeii,  470. 

Pompey,  369,  579. 

Pools,  9,  133,  145,  272,  292,  294,  313,  337, 
387,  430,  433,  456,  467,  496,  549. 

Poplar,  159,  160,  173,  175,  177,  178,  182, 199, 
259,  260,  284,  295,  319,  335,  346,  352,  353, 

357.  358,  39°.  398,  415.  429- 
Population,  49,  139,  140,  153,  154,  159,  171, 
175.  19°.  199.  201,  230,  277-279,  412,  413, 
480,  491,  667,  674. 

Porphyreon,  22. 

Porter,  J.  L.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  409,  412,  438, 


441,  466,  475,  486,  491,  515,  527,  530,  553, 
572,  586. 

Potato,  259,  261,  277. 

Poterium  spinosum,  see  Thorns. 

Potiphar,  84. 

Potter,  Pottery,  19,  107,  51 1. 

Press,  see  Oil,  Wine-press. 

Prickly-pear,  111,  670. 

Princesses,  see  Sit,  Sittat. 

Prodigal  Son,  13 1. 

Promised  Land,  297,  298,  31 1,  339,  371,  578, 
650-653,  659,  660,  672,  675,  677. 
Protestant,  129,  132,  178,  184,  199,  259,  412, 
552,  580,  590. 

Proverbs,  Arabic,  30,  67,  642. 

Prussia,  Prussian,  443. 

Psaltery,  394. 

Ptolemies,  Ptolemy,  24,  198,  435,  489,  535, 
597.  622. 

Quails,  636. 

Quarantine,  48,  93. 

Quarries,  45,  ill,  280,  282,  328,  341,  342, 
344,  350,  455,  606. 

Quince,  259,  575. 

RA’ad,  Beit,  287. 

Rabbah,  Rabbath,  Rabbath-ammon,  see  'Am¬ 
man. 

Rabbits,  275. 

Rachel,  88,  90,  554. 

Rahab,  54,  673. 

Railroad,  49,  277. 

Rain,  11,  12,  128,  133,  136,  177,  184,  186, 
227,  238,  244,  257,  313,  440,  470,  497,  502, 
503,  533.  643. 

Raisins,  see  Vine,  Vineyards. 

Ramadan,  424. 

Rameses  II.,  96,  299,  300. 

Ramoth-gilead,  572,  591-593. 

Ranunculus,  546. 

Raphael,  510. 

Raphana,  546. 

Raphanea,  287,  288. 

Ras  el  'Ain,  Ba’albek,  198,  319,  336,  337. 

Ras  Ba’albek,  310. 

Ras  Beirut,  41,  44,  106,  108,  no. 

Ras  en  Nakurah,  108,  no,  146. 

Ras  esh  Shukah,  47,  108.  137,  254,  255. 
Rasheiya,  Rasheiyet  el  Wady,  157,  177,  476. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


705 


Raven,  238,  246,  261. 

Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse,  275,  283. 

Rebekah,  S2,  298. 

Red  Sea,  419,  426,  538,  573,  674,  676. 

Reed,  Reed-pen,  27,  62,  63,  105,  347,  372, 
415,  473,  647,  670. 

Refuge,  city  of,  211,  436,  591,  593. 

Rehob,  296,  301. 

Reimun,  er,  582. 

Reindeer,  98. 

Reland,  Hadrian,  526. 

Remaliah,  368. 

Remtheh,  er,  545,  548,  549,  551. 

Renan,  E.,  M.,  251-253,  281. 

Rephaims,  534,  542,  664. 

Resas,  er,  501. 

Reservoir,  92,  94,  106,  439,  440,  467,  498, 
503,  509,  513,  522,  523,  529.  530,  543,  599, 
600,  606,  619,  637,  661. 

Resin,  257,  292. 

Reslan,  Beit  er,  209. 

Reuben,  82,  88,  434,  535,  594,  601,  607,  636, 
638,  643,  644,  662,  669,  672. 

Rezin,  369. 

Rezon,  365. 

Riblah,  Ribleh,  138,  297,  298,  302,  309,  311. 

Rice,  75,  129,  286. 

Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  89. 

Rihan,  er,  168,  173. 

Rimmon,  379,  386. 

Road,  carriage,  43,  71,  120,  122,  123,  125, 
126,  151,  186,  193,  195-197,  355,  356,  398, 
399- 

Road,  Roman,  94-97,  43°,  454,  481,  489>  497, 
502,  505,  524,  533,  547- 

Robbers,  22,  23,  54,  67,  133,  214,  215,  244, 
257,  292,  304,  310,  344,  351,  365,  431,  436, 
439,  445,  458,  466-468,  507,  556,  559,  595, 
600,  601. 

Roberts,  David,  R.  A.,  330. 

Robertson,  James,  Professor,  101,  104. 

Robinson,  Edward,  D.D.,  9,  96,  224,  225, 
259,  265,  297,  301,  304,  310,  338,  409,  580. 

Robinson’s  Arch,  II. 

Rome,  Roman,  9-1 1,  21,  26,  27,  46,  47,  51, 
56,  94-97,  127,  144, 151,  204,  221,  245,  251, 
253,  278,  279,  301,  309,  320,  329,  340,  34L 
346,  350,  369,  372,  377,  3So,  387,  388,  405, 
407,  435,  436,  440,  449,  457,  460,  461,  470, 
475,  476,  478,  480-482,  485,  486,  489,  490, 


496-498,  500-502,  505,  513,  520,  521,  524, 

525,  535,  538,  539,  543,  544,  547,  548,  572- 
574,  581,  584,  594,  605,  607,  608,  612,  620, 
622,  637,  639,  661. 

Romanus,  526. 

Rooks,  see  Crows. 

Roses,  276,  346,  371,  390,  395,  414. 

Rousha,  er,  108-110. 

Royal  Asiatic  Society,  442. 

Rualla,  er,  Bedawin,  629,  635. 

Ruins,  6,  22,  32,  47,  51-53,  92,  137,  164,  176, 
197,  198,  200,  203,  222-225,  241-243,  250, 
251,  256,  257,  263,  272,  275,  278,  281,  283- 
285,  288,  298,  301,  302,  310,  312,  314-337, 
339-34L  343,  350,  352,  354,  363,  379,  409, 
415,  416,  431,  433,  436-442,  445,  446,  449, 
450,  452,  454,  457,  458,  461-464,  468-471, 
475,  477,  478,  481-488,  490,  495-522,  527- 
529,  537,  544,  547,  551-553,  556,  559~574, 
577.  580,  582,  584,  585,  591,  594-6oo,  602, 
604-620,  622-624,  627,  628,  630-638,  643, 
644,  650,  652,  656,  661-665,  669,  670,  672. 

Rukhleh,  331. 

Rumkin,  er,  275. 

Russia,  Russian,  374. 

Rustum,  Pasha,  103,  122,  126,  151. 

Ruwad,  er,  146,  274,  277-280,  285. 

Ruweiset  el  Hamrah,  186. 

Sabbatical  River,  198,  287-289. 

Sabeans,  57. 

Sabirany,  Nahr  es,  430. 

Sacrifice,  20,  21,  333,  367,  423,  586,  655,  656. 

Saddle,  Saddler,  372,  550,  623. 

Sadus,  478. 

Safah,  es,  443. 

Safed,  167,  586. 

Safita,  es,  285. 

Sahil,  es,  124-127. 

Sahil  Judeideh,  197. 

Sahl  Neba,  651. 

Sahra,  es,  near  Beirut,  42. 

Sahra,  es,  near  Damascus,  197,  355,  430. 

Sahrazar  and  Sahriyar,  371. 

Sa’id  el  Muhdi,  207. 

Saj,  es,  oven,  220,  221. 

Saladin,  Salah  ed  Dm,  89,  280,  386,  476,  5S0. 

Salcah,  Salchah,  see  Sulkhad. 

Salem,  535. 

Salib,  Nahr  es,  226,  234. 


yo6 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Salihiyeh,  es,  359,  3S6,  395-397- 
Salt,  es,  424,  429.  552.  572,  579-581,  583-587, 
589-593,  600,  601,  607,  615,  668,  669,  672. 
Saltpetre,  439,  452,  469. 

Samaria,  46,  116,  365-367,  369,  579,  581. 
Samaritan,  598. 

Samuel,  19,  55,  90,  394. 

Sanballat,  64. 

Sand-sea,  40-42,  110. 

Sandal,  82,  84. 

Saodus,  490. 

Saracen,  Saracenic,  48,  97,  144,  229,  246,  256, 
275,  278,  283,  284,  309,  312,  321,  335,  341, 
381,  383,  406,  409,  464,  513,  514,  522,  551, 
580,  590,  661. 

Sarah,  298. 

Sarcophagus,  32,  33,  49,  132,  281,  320,  343, 
350,  544,  559.  614,  640,  671. 

Sarepta,  137. 

S  as  a,  es,  429,  430,  432. 

Sassanian  dynasty,  634. 

Satan,  243,  434. 

Saul,  55,  394,  403. 

Schools,  47,  106,  107,  117,  123,  145,  175,  178, 
'  199,  200,  230,  264,  277,  411,  456,  473,  479, 

49U  494,  59°- 
Scotch,  264. 

Sculpture,  281,  306-309,  320,  325,  330.  332, 
333,  486,  519,  520,  527,  559,  567,  571,  580, 
605,  606,  631-633,  635. 

Scythes,  28. 

Scythopolis,  see  Beisan. 

Seal,  Seal-ring,  64. 

Seals,  108. 

Sebaste,  see  Samaria. 

Seetzen,  U.  J.,  663. 

Seil,  see  Cloud-burst. 

Seil  Jerash,  560,  561,  571,  584. 

Seir,  Duke,  648. 

Seir,  Land,  Mountain,  534,  576,  656. 

Selaema,  478. 

Seleucia,  304. 

Seleucidse,  278,  435,  535. 

Selim  I.,  Sultan,  97,  401. 

Sellah,  538. 

Seminary,  see  Schools. 

Senir,  434. 

Sennacherib,  96,  262,  369. 

Serai,  es,  Kunawat,  483-485. 

Sergius,  519. 


Seth,  204,  339,  343,  350. 

Severus,  Septimus,  340. 

Shaarah,  451-453. 

Shahr,  Barz,  634. 

Sha’ishet  el  Kady,  275. 

Shale,  201. 

Shaphat,  368. 

Shaveh  Kiriathaim,  534. 

Shaving  the  head,  21,  71-73,  81,  84,  85,  620. 

Sheba,  453. 

Shechem,  212,  534,  554,  576,  579,  581,  591,  593. 

Shechem,  son  of  Hamor,  212. 

Shediak,  As’ad  esh,  129,  259. 

Shediak,  Tannus  esh,  476. 

Shediak,  Yusuf  esh,  129. 

Sheep,  11,  25,  26,  82,  238,  249,  305,  465-467. 
576,  622,  643,  645,  669. 

Shefa  Neba,  651. 

Shehab,  Beit,  129,  140,  156,  157,  172,  187, 
23L  475-477- 

Shehab,  Emir  Beshir,  27,  129,  139,  140,  156, 
157,  161,  211,  256,  477. 

Sheikh,  12,  74,  87,  88,  143,  153,  155,  159-162, 
186,  187,  189,  191-193,  196,  204,  206,  209, 
230,  231,  248,  256,  295,  312,  357,  388,  401, 
433,  442,  454,  455,  461,  467,  469,  471,  474, 
494,  495,  499,  5oi,  502,  504,  505,  520,  530, 
540,  541,  544,  548-550,  558,  559,  584,  593, 
604-606,  629,  630,  635,  636,  641,  643,  645, 
647,  650,  651,  665,  666,  670,  672. 

Shem,  82,  84,  207,  364. 

Shemlan,  122,  123,  133-135,  144,  I47,  156, 
166,  176,  185,  187,  190. 

Shemustar,  esh,  218. 

Sher’aya,  es,  452. 

Sherbet,  126,  388. 

Sheth,  656. 

Shiloh,  19,  90. 

Ships,  see  Boats. 

Shittah,  672. 

Shittim,  see  Abel-shittim. 

Shoe,  see  under  Manners  and  Customs,  Gar¬ 
ments  and  Sleeping. 

Shoemakers,  379.  * 

Shtora,  125,  197. 

Shuf,  Aklim  esh,  159,  175,  209,  477. 

Shiihba,  esh,  440,  475-477. 

Shuka,  esh,  441. 

Shukrah,  esh,  457. 

Shur,  536. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


707 


Shurkiyeh,  Bahret  esh,  399. 

Shuweifat,  esh,  33,  35,  39,  42,  126,  132. 

Si’a,  490. 

Sidon,  5-9,  12,  13,  32,  44,  no,  hi,  117,  136, 
137,  139,  140,  144,  146,  151,  167,  172,  174, 
179,  181,  216,  263.  274,  477,  481. 

Sihon,  535,  584-586,  635,  636,  638,  639,  643, 
661,  662. 

Silk,  Silk-worms,  27,  46,  48,  83,  84,  122,  124, 
125,  171,  186,  193,  230,  277,  390,  412,  425. 
Simekaniyeh,  es,  159. 

Simeon,  88,  554. 

Simon  the  tanner,  57. 

Sinai,  Mount,  179,  367,  630,  674. 

Sindian,  es,  575. 

Singing,  392,  393. 

Sinope,  433. 

Sionita,  Gabriel,  274. 

Sir,  es,  136,  138,  271,  277,  284-287,  289-291. 
Sirocco,  217,  519,  521. 

Sisters  of  Charity,  123. 

Sit,  Sittat,  19,  191-193,  474. 

Smith,  Eli,  D.D.,  459,  469,  575. 

Snails,  627. 

Snakes,  627. 

Soada,  501. 

Soap,  48,  132,  277. 

Sodom,  534. 

Sodom,  apple  of,  see  Osher, 

Solomon,  69,  72,  116,  127, 128,  139,  181,  250, 
262,  263,  266,  299,  365,  387,  414,  444,  486, 

553,  573,  579,  59L  592>  621,  661. 

Sop,  the,  75. 

Sozomen,  243. 

Spain,  Spaniards,  28,  32. 

Sparrow,  59,  229. 

Spies,  54,  296,  297,  299,  301,  534,  673. 
Sponges,  277. 

Springs,  warm,  645,  647,  648,  650,  669,  670. 
Squirrels,  113,  163,  290,  293. 

Stables,  17,  19,  597,  598. 

Stalactites,  Stalagmites,  99-104, 148,  247,  658. 
Stanhope,  Lady  Hester,  13-18. 

Stanley,  A.  P.,  Dean,  128,  136,  267,  358. 
Statue.  316,  320,  323,  325,  333,  336,  341,  484, 
490,  494-496,  565,  569,  606. 

Stephanus,  46. 

Stools,  60,  75-78. 

Stork,  604,  623,  627. 

Storm,  6,  9,  n,  12,  22,  107-110,  294,  296. 


Story-teller,  393. 

Strabo,  26,  46,  278. 

Straw,  see  Chaff. 

Succoth,  581. 

Sudud,  es,  296,  297. 

Suez,  Gulf  of,  538. 

Suez  Canal,  426. 

Suf,  545,  549,  555,  556,  558,  559,  574,  582. 

Sugar,  Sugar-cane,  27,  28. 

Sughbin,  es,  178. 

Suk  el  Ghurb,  122,  147,  187,  189. 

Suk  Wady  Barada,  348-352,  354. 

Suleim,  es,  440,  474,  475,  477-481. 

Suleiman  Pasha,  48. 

Sulima,  es,  194. 

Sulkhad,  441,  455,  460,  490,  501-503,  506, 
507,  515,  523,  524,  526-529,  604. 

Sulphur,  194,  195,  201,  645,  647,  648,  670. 

Sultan,  48,  no,  140,  156,  161,  164,  191,  386, 
401,  425,  477,  540. 

Sunamein,  es,  430,  454. 

Sunmn,  see  Jebel  Sunnin. 

Surghaya,  346. 

Suweideh,  es,  440,  497-501,  504,  515. 

.Swallow,  108,  507. 

Sweetmeats,  131. 

Swine,  see  Boar. 

Sycamine,  114-116. 

Sycamore,  40,  45,  113-117,  160,  241,  245, 
282,  352,  396. 

Syenite,  242,  284,  323,  343. 

Synagogue,  277,  387,  411. 

Syria,  Syrian,  29,  42,  43,  45,  48,  49,  54,  59, 
83,  95,  115,  123,  125-127,  131,  140,  156, 
161,  166,  172,  183.  192-194,  199,  205,  208, 
222,  229,  236,  239,  243,  249,  251,  256,  271, 
274-277,  287,  288,  299,  301,  304,  319,  329, 
338,  340,  348,  357,  358,  360,  363-370,  379, 
386,  391,  398,  399,  409,  412,  419,  420,  429, 
435,  441,  445,  455,  477,  480,  481,  486,  504, 
505,  5ii,  5i3,  516,  524,  526,  535,  538,  539, 
55i,  575.  592,  622,  627,  638,  640. 

Syria  Dea,  487. 

Syriac,  229,  230. 

Syrian  Protestant  College,  101,  107. 

Syrup,  131.  237. 

Ta’arah,  et,  470. 

Tabor,  216,  579,  586. 

Tabret,  394. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


708 

Tabrimon,  365. 

Tadmor,  see  Palmyra. 

Taiyibeh,  et,  539. 

Talmud,  511,  592. 

Tamar,  127. 

Tamarisk,  179,  647. 

Tambourine,  118,  391,  393. 

Tammuz,  243,  245,  251. 

Tamyrus,  see  Damur,  Nahr  ed. 
Tanner,  Tannery,  107. 

Tannuch,  Beit,  209. 

Tannur,  et,  219,  220. 

Tannurin  el  Foka,  137,  252,  253. 
Tannurin  et  Tahta,  252-254,  256. 
Tantura,  et,  285. 

Tar,  256,  264,  292. 

Tarabulus  esh  Sham,  see  Tripoli. 
Taro-plant,  149. 

Tarsus,  410. 

Tartar,  341. 

Tartus,  279,  280,  2S5. 

Tattooing,  23,  24. 

Taurah,  Nahr  et,  395,  398. 

Taurus,  24. 

Tax,  Taxation,  173,  443,  455. 

Tekitty,  et,  582. 

Tekiyeh,  et,  400,  401. 

Tell  el  ’Amarah,  446. 

Tell  ’Arka,  282-284,  288. 

Tell  ’Ashtarah,  524,  534,  542,  543,  546. 
Tell  Deir  ’Alla,  581. 

Tell  Ektanu,  669-671. 

Tell  el  Hammam,  667,  669-672. 

Tell  Hesban,  661. 

Tell  Husn,  551. 

Tell  Jaudat,  670. 

Tell  Kefrein,  669,  671-675. 

Tell  Kerak,  541,  543. 

Tell  el  Khalediyeh,  441. 

Tell  Kusweh,  453,  455. 

Tell  Neby  Mindau,  301. 

Tell  Nimrin,  586,  662,  668,  669,  672. 
Tell  er  Rameh,  669-671. 

Tell  esh  Shaghur,  669. 

Tell  Sumeid,  446. 

Tell  es  Suweimeh,  668,  669,  674. 
Tellul  edh  Dhahab,  577. 

Tellul  es  Sufa,  359. 

Telthatha,  176. 

Tema,  453. 


Temple,  47,  51-53,  128,  137,  164,  171,  176, 
197,  198,  203,  204,  222-225,  241-245,  251, 
280-283,  300,  312-316,  318-337,  350,  351, 
354,  370,  380,  386,  431,  437,  44U  443,  445, 
449,  450-452,  454,  455,  463,  470,  47U  475, 
477-480,  485-488,  490,  494-496,  498-500, 
508,  516-518,  521,  524,  542,  559,  562,  563, 
567-569,  57U  573,  605,  606,  609,  615-617, 
637,  63S,  652,  656,  661. 

Temple,  Jerusalem,  57,  69,  71,  128,  181,  243, 
250,  262-264,  369,  387- 

Tents,  11,  19,  22,  24,  25,  123,  135,  153,  166, 
168,  174,  176,  181-183,  196,  201-203,  214- 
216,  222,  225,  227,  241,  242,  244,  249,  253, 
285,  286,  29I,  293,  294,  312,  316,  347,  360, 

367,  395,  417,  433,  443,  456,  466,  469,  482, 
483,  488,  489,  502,  506,  507,  512,  518,  521, 
522,  536,  538,  540,  545,  550,  556,  578,  584, 
585,  587,  603,  608,  623,  629,  642,  645,  650, 
654,  658,  666,  673,  674,  676. 

Terebinth,  282,  295,  471,  472,  502,  555,  578, 
594,  596,  601,  604,  605. 

Terraces,  44,  46,  47,  51,  132,  136,  142,  144- 
147,  153,  159,  I79,  182,  189,  190,  200,  235, 
242,  247,  258-260,  274,  441,  496,  529,  590, 
654,  667. 

Theatre,  46,  47,  369,  470,  471,  475,  482,  500, 
513,  514,  524,  56o,  563,  574,  608,  613,  614, 
623. 

Thebes,  363. 

Theodosius  the  Great,  258. 

Theoprosopon,  see  Ras  esh  Shukah. 

Thistle,  see  Thorns. 

Thorns,  28-31,  164,  250,  261,  263,  264,  282, 
285,  431,  452,  484,  528. 

Thrush,  585. 

Thugrat  Bab  Mari’a,  176. 

Tiberias,  Lake,  432,  436,  474,  480,  481,  540, 
546,  548,  579,  586,  652. 

Tiberius  Claudius,  198,  224,  445. 

Tibny,  in  the  Hauran,  453,  457. 

Tiglath-pileser,  368. 

Tigris,  535. 

Timbek,  79,  396. 

Titus,  Arch  of,  56. 

Titus,  Emperor,  47,  56,  282,  283,  287. 

Tobacco,  9,  60,  79,  80,  126,  165,  168,  173, 
208,  238,  248,  259,  261,  277,  285,  286,  373, 

375,  387,  392,  399,  424,  472,  49L  584,  637- 

Toi,  339. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


709 


Tombs,  rock-cut,  32,  132,  144,  204,  225,  251, 
281,  311,  316,  344,  350,  551,  595,  606,  614, 
640. 

Tophel,  see  Tufileh,  et. 

Tortosa,  see  Tartus. 

Tower,  222,  224,  252,  275,  279,  298,  302,  320, 
321,  329,  335,  372,  384,  409,  432,  441,  452, 
454,  457,  462,  463,  471,  483,  501,  505,  510, 
513,  515,  521,  529,  544,  548,  553,  560,  576, 

577,  579,  58o,  59U  592>  594,  607,  609,  611, 
616,  622,  630-632,  637. 

Tracon,  Trachonitis,  see  Lejah,  el. 

Tradition,  97,  204,  206,  356-359,  364,  384, 
406,  410,  413,  417,  433,  467,  468,  476,  500, 
505,  5i7-5i9>  526,  586,  591,  658. 

Trajan,  Emperor,  340,  500,  502,  524,  561. 

Tray,  75-78,  80,  286,  372,  373,  651,  671. 

Treasure,  hid,  252,  440,  458,  644. 

Trevoux,  496. 

Trilithon,  328. 

Tripoli,  136-140,  145,  146,  151,  198,  255, 
272-277,  280,  282,  283,  285,  288,  290,  356, 
473- 

Tristram,  H.  B.,  Canon,  98,  265,  395,  552, 
559,  597,  617,  634,  644,  658,  667,  669,  672. 

Troglodytes,  664. 

Troy,  Trojans,  7. 

Tryphon,  46,  285. 

Tuhban,  et,  293. 

Tubukat  Fahil,  see  Pella. 

Tufileh,  et,  523. 

Tul’at  es  Sufa,  659. 

Tulhuk,  Beit,  sheikhs,  143,  189-192,  209, 
469- 

Tunnel,  50,  94,  106,  228,  284,  350,  355,  647. 

Turk,  Turkish,  48,  49,  84,  139,  154,  155,  157, 
161,  162,  165,  184,  191,  192,  194,  208,  209, 
257,  268,  274,  278,  283,  284,  295,  329,  341, 
344,  358,  406,  407,  412,  415,  426,  443,  444, 
477,  493,  504,  513,  540,  549-  590,  59U  664. 

Tyche,  455. 

Tydeus,  290,  291. 

Tyre,  22,  51,  146,  151,  171,  181,  216,  263, 
274,  278,  279,  346,  369,  481,  628. 

Tyre,  see  ’Arak  el  Emir. 

Tyre,  Ladder  of,  108,  no,  146,  579. 

Tyropoeon,  11. 

Um  Hathir,  670. 

Um  el  Jauzeh,  582. 


Um  el  Jemal,  506-512,  515,  523,  529. 

Um  Keis,  see  Gadara. 

Um  el  Khanzir,  555. 

Um  ez  Zeitun,  440. 

Ur,  364,  414. 

Uriah,  55. 

Uriel,  510. 

Urijah,  369,  380. 

Usury,  208. 

Uz,  37,  287,  364,  445,  519,  520. 

Valerian,  340. 

Van  de  Velde,  C.  W.  M.,  Lieutenant,  295, 
302,  303,  356. 

Van  Dyck,  C.  V.  A.,  M.D.,  D.D.,  167 . 
Varro,  445. 

Veil,  see  under  Manners  and  Customs,  Gar¬ 
ments  and  Sleeping. 

Velvet,  83. 

Venus,  137,  241-245,  251,  340,  341. 

Verus,  L.  A.,  349,  450. 

Vespasian,  127,  282,  572,  579. 

Vexillarii,  510. 

Vine,  Vineyards,  36,  46,  54,  57,  58,  116,  132, 
133,  142,  145,  147,  150,  159,  168,  171,  179, 
182,  186,  187,  190,  199,  200,  235-237,  247, 
259,  260,  274,  290,  311,  339,  346-348,  35L 
352,  469,  484,  590,  631,  632. 

Viol,  Violin,  392,  394. 

Virgin  Mary,  the,  230,  41 1. 

Vogue,  de,  Count,  476,  498. 

Volcano,  Volcanic,  136,  160,  169,  173,  234, 
284,  291,  346,  358,  359,  428,  431,  436,  44L 
443,  452,  457,  462,  464,  465,  470,  501-503, 
506,  527,  533,  540. 

Volney,  C.  F.,  229. 

Vultures,  221,  238,  246,  667. 

Waddington,  W.  H.,  441,  457,  460,  461, 
463,  468,  476,  478,  489,  490,  496,  498,  500- 
502,  506,  510,  515,  519,  541,  544- 
Wady  ’Ain  Zahalteh,  183. 

Wady  el  ’Ajam,  Aklim,  428,  429,  431,  435. 
Wady  ’Ajlun,  546,  576,  577,  581,  586. 

Wady  ’Allan,  546,  547. 

Wady  el  ’Ayun,  293,  294. 

Wady  ’Ayun  Musa,  668,  669. 

Wady  Barbar,  430. 

Wady  Biskinta,  218,  221. 

Wady  ed  Deir,  556,  559,  560. 


7io 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Wady  ed  Duweir,  254. 

Wady  Farah,  293. 

Wady  Fari’a,  581. 

Wady  Fedar,  250. 

Wady  Fikeh,  311,  313. 

Wady  el  Fureidis,  182,  183. 

Wady  el  Ghabun,  185,  187. 

Wady  el  Haddadeh,  607,  61 1,  616,  619. 
Wady  el  Harir,  197. 

Wady  Hasrun,  259. 

Wady  Hesban,  655,  665-667,  669. 

Wady  Hummana,  193,  194. 

Wady  el  Jauzeh,  254,  255. 

Wady  Jeidur,  593. 

Wady  Jenneh,  580. 

Wady  Jerifeh,  669. 

Wady  el  Kadisha,  257-261,  265,  272,  273. 
Wady  Kefrein,  669-671. 

Wady  Kunawat,  474,  482,  483,  490. 

Wady  el  Kurn,  197. 

Wady  el  Leben,  227,  228. 

Wady  Lebweh,  293,  31 1. 

Wady  Liwa,  439. 

Wady  Mahneh,  553. 

Wady  el  Mugheiyireli,  246. 

Wady  el  Muneitirah,  246. 

Wady  Nimreh,  439,  475. 

Wady  es  Salib,  224,  226. 

Wady  es  Seir,  594-596,  599,  601. 

Wady  Sha’ib,  600,  601,  669. 

Wady  Shahrur,  131,  190. 

Wady  Shebruh,  234. 

Wady  Shib’a,  431. 

Wady  Siry,  292. 

Wady  es  Sufa,  183,  184. 

Wady  Tannurin,  253-256. 

Wady  et  Teim,  156,  157,  175,  176,  205,  477. 
Wady  Yabis,  547. 

Wady  Zeidy,  505. 

Wady  ez  Zerka,  586  ;  see,  also,  Jabbok. 
Wady  ez  Zerka  Main,  643,  645-647,  650. 
Wahabi,  505. 

Walnut,  159,  160,  163,  166,  167,  171,  173, 
181,  182,  235,  241,  244,  247,  259,  260,  272, 
274,  284,  289,  290,  294,  295,  319,  346,  352, 
353,  357-36o,  395,  415,  575. 

W’ar,  250,  452. 

War,  Civil,  19,  20,  140,  143,  145,  150,  153- 
155,  159,  162,  164,  171,  175,  186,  187,  191- 
194,  201,  206,  209,  216,  244,  343,  345,  477. 


Warren,  C.,  Captain,  R.E.,  582,  595,  601, 
602,  663,  672. 

Washing  the  hands,  78,  79,  286. 
Water-wheel,  see  Na’urah,  en. 

Weir,  105,  226. 

Well,  see  Cisterns. 

West  Indies,  28. 

West,  Western,  see  Occident,  Occidental. 
Wetr,  el,  505. 

Wetzstein,  J.  G.,  Dr.,  443,  544. 

Whale,  21,  22. 

Wheat,  29,  54,  75,  94,  135,  218,  220,  227,  234, 
235,  259-261,  290,  291,  298,  302,  310-312, 
336,  338,  346,  457,  458,  467,  478,  500,  533, 
540,  545,  546,  550,  556,  585,  590,  594,  601, 
606,  623,  628,  629,  636,  639,  641,  642,  644, 
645,  666,  671. 

Wilderness  of  the  Wandering,  29,  179,  220, 
454,  630,  674. 

Wilkinson,  J.  G.,  Sir,  95. 

William  of  Tyre,  500,  573. 

Willow,  346,  352,  358,  396. 

Wilson’s  Arch,  11. 

Wine,  208,  235-237,  388. 

Wine-press,  247. 

Wolf,  97,  169,  215,  216,  271,  282,  457,  651. 
Wool,  Woollen,  83,  84,  590. 

Writing  and  Writing  Materials,  61-64,  88. 
Wuld,  or  Wulid  ’Aly,  436,  549,  550,  642. 

Yabis,  Nahr  el,  44,  45. 

Yahfufeh,  Nahr,  344,  346. 

Yajuz,  603-607. 

Yathreb,  420,  421. 

Yemmuneh,  el,  272,  292,  313-315. 

Yew,  263. 

Yezid,  Nahr  el,  397,  398. 

Yusuf  Pasha,  521. 

Zaccheus,  1 13. 

Zacharias,  435. 

Zaherany,  Nahr  ez,  137,  167,  168. 

Zahleh,  138,  175,  198-201,  204,  318,  338,  343. 
Zebdin,  ez,  415. 

Zebedany,  ez,  197,  347,  348,  352. 

Zebeideh,  Sit,  51. 

Zechariah,  369. 

Zedad,  see  Sudud. 

Zedekiah,  297,  298. 

Zeidy,  Nahr  ez,  537,  539-541,  546. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Zemzem,  well  at  Mecca,  69,  420. 

Zenobia,  355,  498,  539. 

Zenodorus,  445,  496. 

Zerka  Ma’in,  Nahr  ez,  628,  641,  643-647, 
650. 

Zerka,  Nahr  ez,  see  Jabbok. 

Zerubbabel,  262,  266. 

Zibeon,  648. 

Zin,  296. 

Zion,  413. 

Zippor,  655. 


Ziza,  637. 

Zoan,  116. 

Zoar,  653,  662,  669. 
Zobah,  364,  365. 

Zophim,  field  of,  655,  659., 
Zorava,  460. 

Zoroaster,  207. 

Zugbar,  ez,  436. 

Zugharta,  ez,  274. 

Zuk  Musbah,  235. 

Zuzims,  534,  535. 


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Together  with  some  Intimations  Respecting  the  Death  of  Infants  and 
Respecting  Spiritualism.  By  Dr.  Hermann  Cremer,  Professor  of  The¬ 
ology  in  the  University  of  Greifswald.  Translated  from  the  German  by 
the  Rev.  Samuel  T.  Lowrie,  D.D.,  New  Jersey.  With  an  Introduction 
by  the  Rev.  A.  A.  Hodge,  D.D.  i6mo,  Cloth.  ( Just  ready.) 

Dexter ’s  Co  nyrey  ationalism. 

The  Congregationalism  of  the  Last  Three  Hundred  Years,  as  seen  in 
its  Literature  :  with  Special  Reference  to  certain  Recondite,  Neglected, 
or  Disputed  Passages.  With  a  Bibliographical  Appendix.  By  Henry 
Martyn  Dexter.  Large  8vo,  1082  pages,  Cloth,  $ 6  00. 

Douylass  Series  of  Christian  Greek  and  Latin  Writers: 

i2mo,  Cloth,  $1  30  per  volume. 

Latin  Hymns.  With  English  Notes.  By  F.  A.  March,  LL.D. 
Eusebius.  The  First  Book  and  Selections.  By  F.  A.  March,  LL.D. 
Tertullian’s  Select  Works.  Edited  by  F.  A.  March,  LL.D. 
Athenagoras.  Edited  by  F.  A.  March,  LL.D. 

The  Apologies  of  Justin  Martyr.  With  an  Introduction  and 
Notes.  By  B.  L.  Gildersleeve,  Ph.D.  (Gott.),  LL.D. 

Dwiyht’s  Theoloyy . 

Theology  Explained  and  Defended,  in  a  Series  of  Sermons.  By 
Timothy  Dwight,  S.T.D.,  LL.D.  With  a  Memoir  of  the  Author. 
Portrait.  4  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $8  00. 

Gieseler’s  Ecclesiastical  History. 

A  Text -Book  of  Church  History.  By  Dr.  John  C.  L.  Gieseler. 
Translated  by  Samuel  Davidson,  LL.D.,  and  Rev.  John  W.  Hull, 
M.A.  New  Edition.  Edited  by  Rev.  Henry  B.  Smith,  D.D.  8vo, 
Cloth.  Vols.  I.,  II.,  IIP,  and  IV.,  $2  25  each.  Vol.  V.,  $3  00.  Com¬ 
plete  sets,  $14  50;  Half  Calf,  $23  25. 

Greek  1 Yew  Testament  Concordance. 

The  Englishman’s  Greek  Concordance  of  the  New  Testament :  being 
an  Attempt  at  a  Verbal  Connection  between  the  Greek  and  the  English 
Texts ;  including  a  Concordance  to  the  Proper  Names,  with  Indexes, 
Greek -English  and  English- Greek,  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  50;  Sheep,  $3  87: 
Half  Calf,  $5  25. 


4 


Valuable  Religious  and  Theological  Books. 

% 

Hervey’s  Christian  Rhetoric. 

A  System  of  Christian  Rhetoric,  for  the  Use  of  Preachers  and  Other 
Speakers.  By  George  Winfred  Hervey.  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

Hurst9 s  Short  History  of  the  Reformation. 

A  Short  History  of  the  Reformation.  With  Maps  and  Woodcuts.  By 
John  F.  Hurst,  D.D.  161110,  Flexible  Cloth,  40  cents. 

M‘Clintock  &  Strong’s  Cyclopaedia. 

A  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical,  Theological,  and  Ecclesiastical  Literature. 
By  the  late  Rev.  John  M‘Clintock,  D.D.,  and  James  Strong,  S.T.D. 
With  Maps  and  numerous  Illustrations.  Ten  Volumes  and  one  Sup¬ 
plementary  Volume.  8vo.  Price  per  Volume,  Cloth,  $5  00;  Sheep, 
$6  00 ;  Half  Morocco,  $8  00.  ( Sold  by  Subscription  only.) 

Milman’s  History  of  Christianity. 

From  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  the  Abolition  of  Paganism  in  the  Roman 
Empire.  By  Rev.  H.  H.  Milman.  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Mosheim’s  JEcclesiastical  History. 

Ancient  and  Modern  Ecclesiastical  History,  in  which  the  Rise  and 
Variation  of  Church  Power  are  Considered  in  their  Connection  with  the 
State  of  Learning,  Philosophy,  and  Political  History  of  Europe.  Trans¬ 
lated,  with  Notes,  etc.,  by  A.  Maclaine,  D.D.  Continued  to  1826  by 
C.  Coote,  LL.D.  2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $4  00;  Sheep,  $5  00. 

Neal’s  History  of  the  Buritans, 

Or  Protestant  Non-conformists;  from  the  Reformation  in  1518  to  the 
Revolution  in  1688.  By  Daniel  Neal,  M.A.  With  Notes  by  J.  O. 
Choules,  D.D.  2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $4  00;  Sheep,  $5  00. 

Newman’s  66  From  Han  to  Beer slieba 

Or,  The  Land  of  Promise  as  it  Now  Appears.  By  the  Rev.  J.  P.  New¬ 
man,  D.D.  Maps  and  Engravings.  i2ino,  Cloth,  $1  75. 

Nordlioff’s  God  and  the  Future  Life : 

The  Reasonableness  of  Christianity.  Natural  Theology  for  Youth.  By 
Charles  Nordhoff.  i6mo,  Cloth,  $1  00. 

Rrime’s  Tent-Life  in  the  Holy  Land. 

By  William  C.  Prime.  Illustrated.  i2mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Revision  of  the  English  Version  of  the  Neiv  Testament. 

With  an  Introduction  by  the  Rev.  Philip  Schaff,  D.D.,  LL.D.  618 
pages,  Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

Revised  Greek-JEnglish  New  Testament. 

Westcott  &  Hort’s  Text  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  Original  Greek, 
and  the  Revised  English  Version  of  the  New  Testament  printed  on 
opposite  pages.  With  Dr.  Philip  Schaff’s  Introduction  to  Westcott  & 
Hort’s  Greek  New  Testament.  Crown  8vo,  Half  Leather,  $3  50. 


5 


Valuable  Religious  and  Theological  Books. 


Revised  Version  of  the  Holy  Bible . 

In  One  Volume,  Brevier,  4to,  Cloth,  $i  50;  Sheep,  $2  00. 

Revised  Version  of  the  New  Testament . 

Harper’s  American  Editions:  Brevier,  i6mo,  Cloth,  45  cents;  Leather, 
Gilt  Edges,  90  cents;  i2mo,  Cloth,  60  cents.  Pica,  8vo,  Red  Edges, 
$2  00;  Divinity  Circuit,  Full  Morocco,  $9  00. 

Revised  Version  of  the  Old  Testament . 

In  Four  Volumes,  Pica,  8vo,  Cloth,  Red  Edges,  $10  00.  (Uniform  in 
Size  and  Typography  with  Harper’s  American  Pica  Edition  of  the 
“  Revised  Version  of  the  New  Testament.”)  In  Two  Volumes,  Brevier, 
i6mo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

Robertson9 s  Life  and  Works : 

Life,  Letters,  Lectures  on  Corinthians.  Large  i2mo,  Cloth, 
$2  00;  Half  Calf,  $3  75. 

Sermons  Preached  at  Brighton.  Large  i2mo,  Cloth,  $2  00; 
Half  Calf,  $3  75. 

“The  Human  Race,”  and  other  Sermons.  i2mo,  Cloth,  $1  50; 
Half  Calf,  $3  25. 

Sc7iaff9s  Companion  to  the  Greek  Testament  and  the 
English  Version . 

By  Philip  Schaff,  D.D.,  President  of  the  American  Committee  on 
Revision.  With  Fac-simile  Illustrations  of  MSS.  and  Standard  Edi¬ 
tions  of  the  New  Testament.  Post  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  75. 

Schaff 9 s  Creeds  of  Christendom . 

With  a  History  and  Critical  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  Philip  Schaff,  D.D., 
LL.D.  Fourth  Edition.  Three  Volumes.  Vol.  I.  The  History  of  Creeds. 
Vol.  II.  The  Greek  and  Latin  Creeds,  with  Translations.  Vol.  III.  The 
Evangelical  Protestant  Creeds,  with  Translations.  8vo,  Cloth,  $15  00. 


Sermons  by  Bishop  Matthew  Simpson 9 

Of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  Edited,  from  Short-hand  Reports, 
by  George  R.  Crooks,  D.D.  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

Southey 9 s  Life  of  John  Wesley, 

And  Rise  and  Progress  of  Methodism.  By  Robert  Southey.  With 
Notes  by  S.  T.  Coleridge,  and  Remarks  by  Alexander  Knox.  Sec¬ 
ond  American  Edition.  2  vols.,  i2mo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 


Taylor9 s  (W.  M.)  Works. 

Works  by  the  Rev.  William  M.  Taylor,  D.D.,  Pastor  of  the  Broadway 
Tabernacle,  New  York.  i2mo,  Cloth,  $1  50  per  volume. 


David,  King  of  Israel. 
Elijah  the  Prophet. 
Peter  the  Apostle. 


Daniel  the  Beloved. 

Moses  the  Law-Giver. 

Paul  the  Missionary.  Illustrated. 


6 


Valuable  Religious  and  Theological  Books. 


The  Land  and  the  Booh, 

By  William  M.  Thomson,  D.D.  Forty -five  Years  a  Missionary  in 
Syria  and  Palestine.  In  Three  Volumes.  Profusely  Illustrated.  Square 
8vo,  Cloth,  $6  oo;  Sheep,  $7  00;  Half  Morocco,  $ 8  50;  Full  Morocco, 
Gilt  Edges,  $10  00 — per  volume.  ( The  Volumes  sold  separately.) 

Vol.  I.  Southern  Palestine  and  Jerusalem.  With  140  Illus¬ 
trations  and  Maps. 

Vol.  II.  Central  Palestine  and  Phoenicia.  With  130  Illustra¬ 
tions  and  Maps. 

Vol.  III.  Lebanon,  Damascus,  and  Beyond  Jordan.  With  147 
Illustrations  and  Maps. 

Thomson's  Great  Argument. 

The  Great  Argument ;  or,  Jesus  Christ  in  the  Old  Testament.  By  W.  H. 
Thomson,  M.A.,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics, 
Medical  Department  University  of  New  York.  Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Tristram? s  Land  of  Moab  : 

Travels  and  Discoveries  on  the  East  Side  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jor¬ 
dan.  By  H.  B.  Tristram,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  Map  and  Illustra¬ 
tions.  Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

T german's  Oxford  Methodists. 

Memoirs  of  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Clayton,  Ingham,  Gambold,  Hervey,  and 
Boughton,  with  Biographical  Notices  of  others.  By  Rev.  Luke  Tyer- 
man.  With  Portraits.  Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

Tyerniaris  Life  and  Times  of  John  Wesley , 

Founder  of  the  Methodists.  By  Rev.  Luke  Tyerman.  Three  Steel 
Portraits.  3  vols.,  Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $7  50. 

Van-Lennep^s  Bible  Lands : 

Their  Modern  Customs  and  Manners  Illustrative  of  Scripture.  By 
Rev.  Henry  J.  Van-Lennep,  D.D.  Maps  and  Illustrations.  8vo, 
Cloth,  $5  00 ;  Sheep,  $6  00 ;  Half  Calf,  $8  00. 

Westcott  &  HorPs  G  re  eh  JTew  Testament. 

The  New  Testament  in  the  Original  Greek.  The  Text  Revised  by 
Brooke  Foss  Westcott,  D.D.,  and  F.  J.  A.  Hort,  D.D.  American 
Edition.  With  an  Introduction  by  Philip  Schaff,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  American  Bible  Revision  Committee.  Vol.  I.  Crown  8vo, 
Cloth,  $2  00.  Vol.  II.  Containing  Introduction  and  Appendix  by  the 
Editors.  Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Willson'* s  Mosaics  of  Bible  History. 

The  Bible  Record,  with  numerous  Poetic  and  Prose  Selections  from 
Standard  Literature.  By  Marcius  Willson  and  Robert  Pierpont 
Willson.  2  vols.,  121110,  Cloth,  $3  00. 


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DS107  .T47  v.3 
The  Land  and  the  Book; 

II m7l1<ll|t  hj1  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 


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